The Eleven Set

0_11
The Eleven Set

Contents
1 1 1
1.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 As a number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 As a digit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4.1 Table of basic calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 In technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6.1 In astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.7 In philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.8 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 In comics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.10 In sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.11 In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 2 (number) 7
2.1 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 List of basic calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Evolution of the glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 In technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 In religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5.1 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 Numerological significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.7 In sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.8 In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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3 3 (number) 12
3.1.1 Flat top 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 In numeral systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.1 In protoscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.2 In astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.3 In pseudoscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 In philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 In religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5.1 In Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5.2 In Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.3 In Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.4 In Shinto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.5 In Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.6 In Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.7 In Zoroastrianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.8 In Norse mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5.9 In other religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5.10 In esoteric tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5.11 As a lucky or unlucky number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 In sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4 4 (number) 19
4.1 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 List of basic calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 In religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 In politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.6 In computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7.1 In astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7.2 In biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7.3 In chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.7.4 In physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.8 In logic and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.9 In technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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4.10 In transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.11 In sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.12 In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.13 In music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.14 Groups of four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5 5 (number) 29
5.1 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.2 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.3.3 Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4 Religion and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4.1 Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4.2 Discordianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4.3 Islamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4.4 Jewish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.5 Sikh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.4.6 Other religions and cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5 Art, entertainment, and media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5.1 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5.2 Fictional entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5.3 Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.5.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.5.5 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.5.6 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.6 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.7 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.8 Miscellaneous fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6 6 (number) 37
6.1 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Greek and Latin word parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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6.2.1 Hexa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.2 The prefix sex- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 Evolution of the glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4 In music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4.1 In artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4.2 In instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4.3 In music theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.4.4 In works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.5 In religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.6 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.6.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.6.2 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.6.3 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.6.4 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.6.5 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.7 In sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.8 In technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.9 In calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.10 In the arts and entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.11 In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7 7 (number) 45
7.1 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.1 Numeral systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.1.2 Basic calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3 Automotive and transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.4 Classical world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.4.1 Classical antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.5 Commerce and business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.6 Food and beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.7 Media and entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.7.1 Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.7.2 Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.7.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.7.4 Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.7.5 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.7.6 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.8 Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.9 Religion and mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
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7.9.1 Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7.9.2 New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.9.3 Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.9.4 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.9.5 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.9.6 Astrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.9.7 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.10 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.10.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.10.2 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.10.3 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.10.4 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.10.5 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.11 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.12 Temporal, seasonal and holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.14 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8 8 (number) 59
8.1 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.2 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.3 Glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4.1 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.4.2 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.4.3 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.4.4 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.4.5 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.5 In technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.5.1 In measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6 In culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6.1 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6.2 In religion, folk belief and divination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
8.6.3 In music and dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.6.4 In film and television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.6.5 In sports and other games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.6.6 In foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.6.7 In literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
vi CONTENTS
8.6.8 In slang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
8.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9 9 (number) 67
9.1 Alphabets and codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2 Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.3 Culture and mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.3.1 Indian culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.3.2 Chinese culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.3.3 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.3.4 European culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.3.5 Greek mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.4 Evolution of the glyph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.5 Idioms and popular phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.6 Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.7 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.8 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.8.2 Numeral systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.8.3 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.9 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.10 Places and thoroughfares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.11 Religion and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.12 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.12.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.12.2 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.12.3 Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.13 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.13.1 Auto racing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.13.2 Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.13.3 Billiards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.13.4 Rugby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.13.5 Soccer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.13.6 All sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.14 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.15 Other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.16 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.17 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.18 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
CONTENTS vii
10 10 (number) 75
10.1 Common usage and derived terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.2 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.3 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.3.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.4 In religion and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.5 In money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.6 In music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.7 In sports and games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.8 In technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.9 In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11 11 (number) 80
11.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.2 In languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.2.1 Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.3 In mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
11.4 In numeral systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
11.5 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
11.5.1 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
11.6 In religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.6.1 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.6.2 Thelema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.6.3 Babylonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.7 In music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.8 In sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.9 In the military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.10In computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.11In Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.12In other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.13See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
11.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
12 0 86
12.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
viii CONTENTS
12.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.2.1 Ancient Near East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.2.2 Pre-Columbian Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.2.3 Classical antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
12.2.4 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
12.2.5 India and Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
12.2.6 Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
12.3 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12.3.1 Elementary algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12.3.2 Other branches of mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12.3.3 Related mathematical terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12.4 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12.5 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12.6 Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.7 Computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.8 Other fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.9 Symbols and representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.10Year label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
12.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
12.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
12.13Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
12.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13 Aliquot sum 95
13.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
13.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
14 Perfect number 96
14.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
14.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
14.3 Even perfect numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
14.4 Odd perfect numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
14.5 Minor results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
14.6 Related concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
14.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
15 Digital root 101

15.1 Significance and formula of the digital root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
CONTENTS ix
15.2 Abstract multiplication of digital roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

15.3 Formal definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.3.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.3.2 Proof that a constant value exists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.4 Congruence formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.5 Some properties of digital roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
15.6 In other bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
15.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15.10Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
15.10.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
15.10.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
15.10.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 1
“One”and “No. 1”redirect here. For other uses, see 1.3 As a digit
One (disambiguation).
1 (one, also called unit, unity, and (multiplicative)

identity), is a number, a numeral, and the name of the
glyph representing that number. It represents a single en-
tity, the unit of counting or measurement. For example,
a line segment of unit length is a line segment of length 1.
The glyph used today in the Western world to represent
the number 1, a vertical line, often with a serif at the
top and sometimes a short horizontal line at the bottom,
1.1 Etymology traces its roots back to the Indians, who wrote 1 as a hor-
izontal line, much like the Chinese character 一. The
Gupta wrote it as a curved line, and the Nagari sometimes
The word one can be used as a noun, an adjective and a
added a small circle on the left (rotated a quarter turn to
pronoun.* [1]
the right, this 9-look-alike became the present day nu-
It comes from the English word an,* [1] which comes meral 1 in the Gujarati and Punjabi scripts). The Nepali
from the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz.* [1] The Proto- also rotated it to the right but kept the circle small.* [3]
Germanic root *ainaz comes from the Proto-Indo- This eventually became the top serif in the modern nu-
European root *oi-no-.* [1] meral, but the occasional short horizontal line at the bot-
Compare the Proto-Germanic root *ainaz to Old Frisian tom probably originates from similarity with the Roman
an, Gothic ains, Danish een, Dutch een, German eins numeral I. In some countries, the little serif at the top is
and Old Norse einn. sometimes extended into a long upstroke, sometimes as
long as the vertical line, which can lead to confusion with
Compare the Proto-Indo-European root *oi-no- (which the glyph for seven in other countries. Where the 1 is
means one, single* [1]) to Greek oinos (which means written with a long upstroke, the number 7 has a horizon-
“ace”on dice* [1]), Latin unus (one* [1]), Old Persian tal stroke through the vertical line.
aivam, Old Church Slavonic -inu and ino-, Lithuanian
vienas, Old Irish oin and Breton un (one* [1]). While the shape of the 1 character has an ascender in
most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures,
the character usually is of x-height, as, for example, in
1.2 As a number .
Many older typewriters do not have a separate symbol for
One, sometimes referred to as unity,* [2] is the first non- 1 and use the lowercase letter l instead. It is possible to
zero natural number. It is thus the integer before two and find cases when the uppercase J is used, while it may be
after zero, and the first positive odd number. for decorative purposes.
Any number multiplied by one is that number, as one is
the identity for multiplication. As a result, 1 is its own
factorial, its own square, its own cube, and so on. One 1.4 Mathematics
is also the result of the empty product, as any number
multiplied by one is itself. It is also the only natural num- Mathematically, 1 is:
ber that is neither composite nor prime with respect to
division, but instead considered a unit. • in arithmetic (algebra) and calculus, the natural
1
2 CHAPTER 1. 1
addition and 0 are also present. When such a ring has

characteristic n not equal to 0, the element called 1 has
the property that n1 = 1n = 0 (where this 0 is the additive
identity of the ring). Important examples are finite fields.
1 is the first figurate number of every kind, such as
triangular number, pentagonal number and centered
hexagonal number, to name just a few.
In many mathematical and engineering equations, nu-
meric values are typically normalized to fall within the
unit interval from 0 to 1, where 1 usually represents the
maximum possible value in the range of parameters.
Because of the multiplicative identity, if f(x) is a
multiplicative function, then f(1) must equal 1.
It is also the first and second number in the Fibonacci se-
quence (0 is the zeroth) and is the first number in many
other mathematical sequences. As a matter of conven-
tion, Sloane's early Handbook of Integer Sequences added
The 24-hour tower clock in Venice, using J as a symbol for 1.
an initial 1 to any sequence that did not already have it
and considered these initial 1s in its lexicographic order-
number that follows 0 and precedes 2 and the multi- ing. Sloane's later Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences and
plicative identity element of the integers, real num- its Web counterpart, the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer
bers and complex numbers; Sequences, ignore initial 1s in their lexicographic ordering
of sequences, because such initial 1s often correspond to
• more generally, in algebra, the multiplicative iden- trivial cases.
tity (also called unity), usually of a group or a ring.
1 is neither a prime number nor a composite number,
but a unit, like −1 and, in the Gaussian integers, i and
1 cannot be used as the base of a positional numeral sys-
−i. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic guarantees
tem, as the only digit that would be permitted in such a
unique factorization over the integers only up to units.
system would be 0. (Sometimes tallying is referred to
(For example, 4 = 22 , but if units are included, is also
as “base 1”, since only one mark —the tally itself —is
equal to, say, (−1)6 × 123 × 22 , among infinitely many
needed, but this is not a positional notation.)
similar “factorizations”.)
Since the base 1 exponential function (1* x) always equals
The definition of a field requires that 1 must not be equal
1, its inverse does not exist (which would be called the
to 0. Thus, there are no fields of characteristic 1. Nev-
logarithm base 1 if it did exist).
ertheless, abstract algebra can consider the field with one
There are two ways to write the real number 1 as a element, which is not a singleton and is not a set at all.
recurring decimal: as 1.000..., and as 0.999.... There is
1 is the only positive integer divisible by exactly one pos-
only one way to represent the real number 1 as a Dedekind
itive integer (whereas prime numbers are divisible by ex-
cut:
actly two positive integers, composite numbers are divis-
ible by more than two positive integers, and zero is divis-
ible by all positive integers). 1 was formerly considered
({x|x < 1} , {x|x ≥ 1})
prime by some mathematicians, using the definition that
Formalizations of the natural numbers have their own a prime is divisible only by 1 and itself. However, this
representations of 1: complicates the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, so
modern definitions exclude units.
• in the Peano axioms, 1 is the successor of 0; 1 is one of three possible values of the Möbius function:
it takes the value 1 for square-free integers with an even
• in Principia Mathematica, 1 is defined as the set of
number of distinct prime factors.
all singletons (sets with one element);
1 is the only odd number in the range of Euler's totient
• in the Von Neumann cardinal assignment of natural function φ(x), in the cases x = 1 and x = 2.
numbers, 1 is defined as the set {0}.
1 is the only 1-perfect number (see multiply perfect num-
In a multiplicative group or monoid, the identity element ber).
is sometimes denoted 1, but e (from the German Einheit, By definition, 1 is the magnitude, absolute value, or norm
“unity”) is also traditional. However, 1 is especially com- of a unit complex number, unit vector, and a unit matrix
mon for the multiplicative identity of a ring, i.e., when an
1.6. IN SCIENCE 3
(more usually called an identity matrix). Note that the • In many physical devices, 1 represents the value
term unit matrix is sometimes used to mean something for “on”, which means that electricity is flow-
quite different. ing.* [5]* [6]
By definition, 1 is the probability of an event that is almost • The numerical value of true in many programming
certain to occur. languages.
1 is the most common leading digit in many sets of data,
a consequence of Benford's law.
The ancient Egyptians represented all fractions (with the 1.6 In science
exception of 2/3) in terms of sums of fractions with
numerator 1 and distinct denominators. For example, 2/5 • 1 is the atomic number of hydrogen, and the atomic
= 1/3 + 1/15. Such representations are popularly known mass of its most common isotope.
as Egyptian Fractions or Unit Fractions.
• 1 is the ASCII code of "Start of Header".
The generating function that has all coefficients 1 is given
by • 1 is the electric charge of positrons and protons.
• Group 1 of the periodic table consists of the alkali

1/1 − x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + … metals.
• Period 1 of the periodic table consists of just two

This power series converges and has finite value if and
elements, hydrogen and helium.
only if, |x| < 1.
1.6.1 In astronomy
1.4.1 Table of basic calculations
• 1 is the Saros number of the solar eclipse series
1.5 In technology which began on June 4, 2872 BC and ended on
July 11, 1592 BC. The duration of Saros series
1 was 1280.14 years, and it contained 72 solar
eclipses.* [7]
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which

began on March 14, 2570 BC and ended on
April 30, 1272 BC. The duration of Saros series
1 was 1298.17 years, and it contained 73 lunar
eclipses.* [7]
• The dwarf planet Ceres has the minor planet desig-

nation 1 Ceres because it was the first asteroid to be
discovered.
• M1 is the Messier designation of the Crab Nebula.
• NGC 1 is the New General Catalogue designation of

a distant galaxy.
• The Roman numeral I stands for supergiant in the

Yerkes spectral classification scheme.
1 as a resin identification code, used in recycling • The Roman numeral I often stands for the first-
discovered satellite of a planet or minor planet (such
as Neptune I, a.k.a. Triton). For some earlier dis-
• The resin identification code used in recycling to coveries, the Roman numerals originally reflected
identify polyethylene terephthalate.* [4] increasing distance from the primary instead.
• the ITU country code for the North American Num-

bering Plan area, which includes the United States,
Canada, and parts of the Caribbean
1.7 In philosophy
• A binary code is a sequence of 1 and 0 that is used In the philosophy of Plotinus and a number of other
in computers for representing any kind of data. neoplatonists, The One is the ultimate reality and source
4 CHAPTER 1. 1
of all existence. Philo of Alexandria (20 BC – AD 50) • 1 point is awarded for a successful free throw.
regarded the number one as God's number, and the basis • In the 3×3 variant of the game, shots made
for all numbers (“De Allegoriis Legum,”ii.12 [i.66]). from inside the “three-point”arc are also
worth 1 point. (Shots from outside the arc are
worth 2 points.)
1.8 In literature • The number 1 is used to designate the point
guard position.
• Number One is a character in the book series Lorien
Legacies by Pittacus Lore. • In association football (soccer) the number 1 is often
given to the goalkeeper
• Number 1 is also a character in the series“Artemis
Fowl”by Eoin Colfer. • In Gaelic football, hurling and camogie, a “point”
, with a scoring value of 1, is awarded when the at-
• In a 1968 song by Three Dog's Night, the number tacking team legally sends the ball over the oppo-
one is identified as “the loneliest number”. nent's crossbar (above the goal).
• In gridiron football codes, one point is awarded un-

1.9 In comics der the following circumstances:
• In almost all leagues, for a successful place

• A character in the Italian comic book Alan Ford (au- kick after a touchdown. In American football,
thors Max Bunker and Magnus), very old disabled the score is formally known as a “try”, al-
man, the supreme leader of the group TNT. though the terms“extra point”,“conversion”
,“PAT”(for“point after touchdown”), and
“point after”are far more commonly used. In
1.10 In sports Canadian football, the score is formally and
popularly called a “convert”. Conversions
• 1 is the lowest number permitted for use by play- can also be scored by the now rare drop kick;
ers of the National Hockey League (NHL), as the in standard American and Canadian football,
league has banned 00 and 0. (The highest number such a conversion is worth 1 point, while most
permitted is 98.) forms of indoor football, including the Arena
Football League, award 2 points for a drop-
• Many sports use 1 as their standard scoring incre- kicked conversion.
ment—examples include goals in a large number of
• In college football, if a point after “try”is
sports, runs in baseball and cricket, and points in vol-
blocked, if the blocked ball stayed in the field
leyball. Examples where 1 is a non-standard incre-
of play a defender may pick up and run the ball
ment, or used for one of several possible classes of
to his end zone at the other end of the field for
scores, are listed below by sport.
a one-point safety.
• In Australian rules football, 1 point is awarded to the • In six-man football, one point is awarded for
attacking team for a behind, scored when: a successful conversion from scrimmage af-
ter a touchdown. Note that in standard 11-
• The ball is kicked by the attacking team and man (American) or 12-man (Canadian) foot-
passes between a goal post (taller post) and the ball, place kicks are worth 1 point and con-
nearest behind post (shorter post) on the de- versions from scrimmage worth 2; this is re-
fensive side of the field without touching the versed in six-man because the reduced num-
behind post. ber of players makes kicked conversions much
• The ball passes between the defending team's more difficult.
goal posts, but either (1) was not kicked by the
• In Canadian football only, a single or“rouge”
attacking team or (2) hit a goal post.
is awarded when the ball is legally kicked into
• The defending team deliberately forces the the opponent's end zone (except for a success-
ball between any two of its own posts. This ful field goal), and the receiving team does not
particular score is officially called a “rushed return, or kick, the ball out of its end zone. (In
behind”. American football, the same play would result
in a touchback and no points.)
• In baseball scoring, the number 1 is assigned to the
pitcher. • Some forms of indoor football in the U.S.
award a “single”, similar to the Canadian
• In basketball: score, on kickoffs only.
1.10. IN SPORTS 5
• In rugby league: • The Seattle SuperSonics, for Gus

Williams. The team has since relocated
• A drop goal is worth 1 point. to become the Oklahoma City Thunder,
• In most competitions (though not the Euro- but the Thunder have yet to issue any
pean Super League, which uses static squad number retired by the franchise in
numbering), the starting fullback wears jersey Seattle.
number 1. • The Utah Jazz, for Frank Layden, who
• In rugby union: served the team first as head coach and
then as president.
• The starting loosehead prop wears the jersey
number 1. • In the NFL:
• In the early years of the sport (prior to 1890), • The New York Giants, for Hall of Famer
conversions, penalties, drop goals, and goals Ray Flaherty.
from mark were all worth 1 point. At that time, • The Tennessee Titans, for Hall of Famer
a try was worth no points, only giving the at- Warren Moon, who played for the team in
tacking team the right to attempt a conversion. its past incarnation as the Houston Oilers.
In 1890–91, tries were rewarded with 1 point,
while all other scores were increased in value. • In the NHL:
After that time, all scores have been worth at • The Chicago Blackhawks, for Hall of
least 2 points (the goal from mark was abol- Famer Glenn Hall.
ished in 1977).
• The Detroit Red Wings, for Hall of
• The jersey number 1 has been retired by several Famer Terry Sawchuk.
North American sports teams in honor of past play- • The Montreal Canadiens, for Hall of
ing greats or other key figures (or, in one case, a Famer Jacques Plante.
team's fans):
• The New York Rangers, for Hall of
• In Major League Baseball: Famer Eddie Giacomin.
• The Boston Red Sox, for Hall of Famer • The Minnesota Wild, for their fans.
Bobby Doerr. • The Philadelphia Flyers, for Hall of
• The Cincinnati Reds, for manager Fred Famer Bernie Parent.
Hutchinson.
• The Toronto Maple Leafs have a pol-
• The Los Angeles Dodgers, for Hall of icy of not retiring numbers unless the
Famer Pee Wee Reese. player honoured either died or suffered a
• The New York Yankees, for Billy Mar- career-ending incident while a member of
tin, who both played for and managed the the team. Other players whose numbers
team. would otherwise be retired instead have
• The Philadelphia Phillies, for Hall of their numbers enshrined by the team as
Famer Richie Ashburn. “Honoured Numbers”, which remain in
• The Pittsburgh Pirates, for manager Billy circulation for future players. The num-
Meyer. ber 1 is currently honoured for Hall of
• The St. Louis Cardinals, for Hall of Famers Johnny Bower and Turk Broda.
Famer Ozzie Smith. • In F1:
• In the NBA:
• The previous year's world champion is al-
• The Boston Celtics, for founding owner lowed to use the number 1. Also, it is one
Walter Brown, a member of the Hall of of two numbers from 1–99 that F1 drivers
Fame as a contributor. cannot use, the other being 17, which
• The Milwaukee Bucks, for Hall of Fame has been retired after Jules Bianchi's ac-
player Oscar Robertson. cident.
• The Portland Trail Blazers, for found-
ing owner Larry Weinberg. Unlike most • In NASCAR
numbers so honored, this number re- • The number of a car in the Sprint Cup Se-
mains in circulation for players. ries originally owned by Dale Earnhardt
• The Sacramento Kings, for Hall of Fame Inc. (1989–2007) and since 2008 by Chip
player Nate Archibald, honoring the Ganassi Racing (when DEI merged into
number's retirement when the team was Ganassi Racing). The car, a Chevrolet, is
known as the Kansas City Kings. currently driven by Jamie McMurray.
6 CHAPTER 1. 1
1.11 In other fields

• 1 is the value of an ace in many playing card games,
such as cribbage.
• List of highways numbered 1
• List of public transport routes numbered 1
• 1 is often used to denote the Gregorian calendar
month of January.
• 1 CE, the first year of the Common Era
• 01, the former dialing code for Greater London
• PRS One, a German paraglider design
1.12 See also

• −1
• +1 (disambiguation)
• One (word)
• Root of unity
1.13 References
[1] “Online Etymology Dictionary”. etymonline.com. Dou-
glas Harper.
[2] Skoog, Douglas. Principles of Instrumental Analysis.

Brooks/Cole, 2007, p. 758.
[3] Ifrah, Georges; et al. (1998). The Universal History of

Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Com-
puter. Translated by Bellos, David. yes. London: The
Harvill Press. p. 392, Fig. 24.61.
[4] “Plastic Packaging Resins”(PDF). American Chemistry

Council.
[5] Woodford, Chris (2006), Digital Technology, Evans

Brothers, p. 9, ISBN 978-0-237-52725-9
[6] Godbole, Achyut S. (1 September 2002), Data Comms

& Networks, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, p. 34, ISBN
978-1-259-08223-8
[7] “Saros Series 1”. Saros Series Catalog of Solar Eclipses.

NASA. Retrieved September 29, 2016.
1.14 External links

• The Number 1
• The Positive Integer 1
• Prime curiosities: 1
Chapter 2
2 (number)
“II”,“Two”, and“Number 2”redirect here. For other all other primes, because 2 and 5 are factors of ten, the
uses, see II (disambiguation), Two (disambiguation), and decimal base.
Number 2 (disambiguation). Two is the base of the simplest numeral system in which
natural numbers can be written concisely, being the
2 (Two; * i/ˈtuː/) is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is length of the number a logarithm of the value of the num-
the natural number following 1 and preceding 3. ber (whereas in base 1 the length of the number is the
value of the number itself); the binary system is used in
computers.
For any number x:
2.1 In mathematics
x + x = 2 ·x addition to multiplication
The number two has many properties in mathematics.* [1]
An integer is called even if it is divisible by 2. For integers x ·x = x2 multiplication to exponentiation
written in a numeral system based on an even number, x* x = x↑↑2 exponentiation to tetration
such as decimal and hexadecimal, divisibility by 2 is easily
tested by merely looking at the last digit. If it is even, then In general:
the whole number is even. In particular, when written in
the decimal system, all multiples of 2 will end in 0, 2, hyper(x,n,x) = hyper(x,(n + 1),2)
4, 6, or 8. In numeral systems based on an odd number,
divisibility by 2 can be tested by having a digital root that
Two also has the unique property that 2 + 2 = 2 ·2 = 22
is even.
= 2↑↑2 = 2↑↑↑2, and so on, no matter how high the level
Two is the smallest and the first prime number, and the of the hyperoperation is.
only even prime number* [2] (for this reason it is some-
Two is the only number x such that the sum of the recip-
times called“the oddest prime”).* [3] The next prime is
rocals of the powers of x equals itself. In symbols
three. Two and three are the only two consecutive prime
numbers. 2 is the first Sophie Germain prime, the first
factorial prime, the first Lucas prime, the first Ramanujan ∑ ∞
prime,* [4] and the first Smarandache-Wellin prime. It 1 1 1 1 1
k
=1+ + + + + · · · = 2.
is an Eisenstein prime with no imaginary part and real k=0 2 2 4 8 16
part of the form 3n − 1. It is also a Stern prime,* [5] a
Pell number,* [6] the first Fibonacci prime, and a Markov This comes from the fact that:
number —appearing in infinitely many solutions to the
Markov Diophantine equation involving odd-indexed Pell ∞
∑ 1 1
numbers. =1+ for all n ∈ R > 1.
nk n−1
It is the third Fibonacci number, and the second and k=0
fourth Perrin numbers.* [7] Powers of two are central to the concept of Mersenne
Despite being prime, two is also a superior highly com- primes, and important to computer science. Two is the
posite number, because it is a natural number which has first Mersenne prime exponent.
more divisors than any other number scaled relative to Taking the square root of a number is such a common
the number itself.* [8] The next superior highly compos- mathematical operation, that the spot on the root sign
ite number is six. where the exponent would normally be written for cubic
Vulgar fractions with only 2 or 5 in the denominator do roots and other such roots, is left blank for square roots,
not yield infinite decimal expansions, as is the case with as it is considered tacit.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. 2 (NUMBER)
The square root of 2 was the first known irrational num-

ber.
The smallest field has two elements.
In the set-theoretical construction of the natural numbers,
2 is identified with the set {{∅},∅}. This latter set is im-
portant in category theory: it is a subobject classifier in
the category of sets. and made its bottom end curve towards the center of the
Two is a primorial, as well as its own factorial. Two of- bottom line. Apparently for speed, the Nagari started
ten occurs in numerical sequences, such as the Fibonacci making the top line more like a curve and connecting to
number sequence, but not quite as often as one does. Two the bottom line. The Ghubar Arabs made the bottom line
is also a Motzkin number,* [9] a Bell number,* [10] an all- completely vertical, and now the glyph looks like a dot-
Harshad number, a meandric number, a semi-meandric less closing question mark. Restoring the bottom line to
number, and an open meandric number. its original horizontal position, but keeping the top line
as a curve that connects to the bottom line leads to our
Two is the number of n queens problem solutions for n modern glyph.* [11]
= 4. With one exception, all known solutions to Znám's
problem start with 2. In fonts with text figures, 2 usually is of x-height, for ex-
Two also has the unique property such that

ample, .
∑
n−1
2k = 2n − 1 2.3 In science
k=0
and also • The number of polynucleotide strands in a DNA

double helix.
∑
n−1 ∑
a−1 • The first magic number.
2k = 2n − 2k − 1
k=a k=0 • The atomic number of helium.
for a not equal to zero • The atomic mass of deuterium, an isotope of

The number of domino tilings of a 2×2 checkerboard is hydrogen.
2.
• The ASCII code of "Start of Text".
In n-dimensional space for any n, any two distinct points
determine a line. • Group 2 in the Periodic table of the elements con-
sists of the alkaline earth metals whose usual valence
For any polyhedron homeomorphic to a sphere, the Euler is +2.
characteristic is χ = V − E + F = 2, where V is the number
of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number • Period 2 in the Periodic table consists of the eight
of faces. elements lithium through neon.
As of June 2015, there are only two known Wieferich
primes in base 2.
2.3.1 Astronomy
With the exception of the sequence 3, 5, 7, the maximum
number of consecutive odd numbers that are prime is two. • 2 Pallas, a large asteroid in the main belt and the
second asteroid ever to be discovered.
2.1.1 List of basic calculations • Messier object M2, a magnitude 6.5 globular cluster
in the constellation Aquarius.
2.2 Evolution of the glyph • The New General Catalogue object NGC 2, a
magnitude 14.2 spiral galaxy in the constellation
The glyph used in the modern Western world to represent Pegasus.
the number 2 traces its roots back to the Brahmin Indi-
ans, who wrote “2”as two horizontal lines. The mod- • The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which
ern Chinese and Japanese languages still use this method. began on May 4, 2861 BC and ended on June 21,
The Gupta rotated the two lines 45 degrees, making them 1563 BC. The duration of Saros series 2 was 1298.1
diagonal, and sometimes also made the top line shorter years, and it contained 73 solar eclipses.
2.6. NUMEROLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE 9
2 as a resin identification code, used in recycling.
2.5.1 Judaism
The number 2 is important in Judaism, with one of the

earliest references being that God ordered Noah to put
two of every unclean animal (Gen. 7:2) in his ark (see
Noah's Ark). Later on, the Ten Commandments were
given in the form of two tablets. The number also has
ceremonial importance, such as the two candles that are
traditionally kindled to usher in the Shabbat, recalling
the two different ways Shabbat is referred to in the two
times the Ten Commandments are recorded in the Torah.
These two expressions are known in Hebrew as ‫שמור וזכור‬
“guard”
( and“remember”), as in“Guard the Shabbat day
to sanctify it”(Deut. 5:12) and “Remember the Shab-
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which bat day to sanctify it”(Ex. 20:8). Two challahs (lechem
began on February 21, 2541 BC and ended on April mishneh) are placed on the table for each Shabbat meal
22, 1225 BC. The duration of Saros series 2 was and a blessing made over them, to commemorate the dou-
1316.2 years, and it contained 74 lunar eclipses. ble portion of manna which fell in the desert every Friday
to cover that day's meals and the Shabbat meals.
• The Roman numeral II stands for bright giant in the
In Jewish law, the testimony of two witnesses are required
to verify and validate events, such as marriage, divorce,
• The Roman numeral II (usually) stands for the and a crime that warrants capital punishment.
second-discovered satellite of a planet or minor “Second-Day Yom Tov”(Yom Tov Sheini Shebegaliyot) is
planet (e.g. Pluto II or (87) Sylvia II Remus). a rabbinical enactment that mandates a two-day celebra-
• A binary star is a stellar system consisting of two tion for each of the one-day Jewish festivals (i.e., the first
stars orbiting around their center of mass. and seventh day of Passover, the day of Shavuot, the first
day of Sukkot, and the day of Shemini Atzeret) outside
the Land of Israel.
2.4 In technology
• The resin identification code used in recycling to 2.6 Numerological significance
identify high-density polyethylene.
The most common philosophical dichotomy is perhaps
the one of good and evil, but there are many others. See
2.5 In religion dualism for an overview. In Hegelian dialectic, the pro-
cess of synthesis creates two perspectives from one.
• In Association football, the scoring of two goals by

one individual in a single match is referred to as a
brace.
• The successor of a brace is the "hat-trick",
three goals scored by one player.
Basketball:
• In standard basketball, the value of any made shot

taken from inside the three-point arc in normal play
is 2 points.
The twos of all four suits in playing cards • In the half-court 3x3 variant, made shots taken from
outside the “three-point”arc are worth 2 points.
The ancient Sanskrit language of India, does not only Rugby union:
have a singular and plural form for nouns, as do many
other languages, but instead has, a singular (1) form, a • In both rugby union and its sevens variant:
dual (2) form, and a plural (everything above 2) form, for
all nouns, due to the significance of 2. It is viewed as • Conversion kicks following a try are worth 2
important because of the anatomical significance of 2 (2 points.
hands, 2 nostrils, 2 eyes, 2 legs, etc.) • The starting hooker wears number 2.
Two (二, èr) is a good number in Chinese culture. There • In sevens, a yellow card results in the offender being
is a Chinese saying, “good things come in pairs”. It is required to leave the field for 2 minutes of play.
common to use double symbols in product brandnames,
e.g. double happiness, double coin, double elephants etc. Ice hockey:
Cantonese people like the number two because it sounds
the same as the word “easy”(易) in Cantonese. • In Ice hockey, a minor penalty is two minutes in
In Finland, two candles are lit on Independence Day. length.
Putting them on the windowsill invokes the symbolical
meaning of division, and thus independence.
In pre-1972 Indonesian and Malay orthography, 2 was
shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: orang
“person”, orang-orang or orang2 “people”. Groups of two:
In Astrology, Taurus is the second sign of the Zodiac.
• Lists of pairs
• list of twins
2.7 In sports • The name of several fictional characters: Number
Two.
Baseball:
• 2 CE, the second year of the Common Era.
• In baseball scorekeeping, 2 is the position of the • The designation of the Trans-Canada Highway in
catcher. most of the province of New Brunswick.
• Interstate 2, the lowest-numbered highway in the
• Former New York Yankees player Derek Jeter wore
U.S. Interstate Highway System, which runs through
the number 2
the lower Rio Grande Valley in South Texas.
Football: • #2 Pencils mean that the pencil point will make a

mark darker than a #3 pencil, but a lighter mark than
a #1 pencil.
• In American football, a safety has a two-point value.
Also, a two-point conversion is a point after touch- • U.S. Route 2, two separated highways in the north-
down (PAT) attempt where the ball crosses the goal ern tier of the United States, the western seg-
line via run or pass. (In six-man football, how- ment connecting Everett, Washington to St. Ignace,
ever, the traditional PAT kick is worth two points, Michigan and the eastern route connecting Rouses
whereas a PAT via pass or run is only one point.) Point, New York to Houlton, Maine.
2.11. EXTERNAL LINKS 11
• The lowest channel of television in the United States, [11] Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: From
Canada, Argentina and Mexico on which television Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer transl. David
signals are broadcast. Bellos et al. London: The Harvill Press (1998): 393, Fig.
24.62
• Brace is also used in hunting to refer to a pair. For
[12] For a typical example, see the University of Oklahoma
example, “He shot a brace of pheasants”.
grading regulations.
•“Two turtle doves”is the gift on the second day of
Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christ-
mas" 2.11 External links
In North American educational systems, the number 2.00 • The Number 2
denotes a grade-point average of“C”, which in some col-
leges and universities is the minimum required for good
academic standing at the undergraduate level.* [12] • Prime curiosities: 2
2.9 See also

• Square (algebra) – (2 superscript)
2.10 References
[1] Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interest-
ing Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987): 41–44
[2] Bryan Bunch, The Kingdom of Infinite Number. New

York: W. H. Freeman & Company (2000): 31
[3] John Horton Conway & Richard K. Guy, The Book of

Numbers. New York: Springer (1996): 25. ISBN 0-
387-97993-X.“Two is celebrated as the only even prime,
which in some sense makes it the oddest prime of all.”
[4] “Sloane's A104272 : Ramanujan primes”. The On-

Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Founda-
tion. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
[5] “Sloane's A042978 : Stern primes”. The On-Line En-

cyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Re-
trieved 2016-06-01.
[6] “Sloane's A000129 : Pell numbers”. The On-Line En-

trieved 2016-06-01.
[7] “Sloane's A001608 : Perrin sequence”. The On-Line En-

trieved 2016-06-01.
[8]“Sloane's A002201 : Superior highly composite numbers”

. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
Foundation. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
[9] “Sloane's A001006 : Motzkin numbers”. The On-

[10] “Sloane's A000110 : Bell or exponential numbers”. The

On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foun-
dation. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
Chapter 3
3 (number)
This article is about the number. For the year, see AD 3. 3.1.1 Flat top 3
For other uses, see 3 (disambiguation).
A common variant of the digit 3 has a flat top, similar
to the character Ʒ (ezh). This form is sometimes used
3 (three; /ˈθriː/) is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is
to prevent people from fraudulently changing a 3 into an
the natural number following 2 and preceding 4.
8. It is usually found on UPC-A barcodes and standard
52-card decks.
3.1 Evolution of the glyph 3.2 In mathematics

3 is:
• a rough approximation of π (3.1415...) and a very

rough approximation of e (2.71828..) when doing
quick estimates.
• the first odd prime number,* [2] and the second

smallest prime.
Three is the largest number still written with as many lines • the first Fermat prime (2* 2* n + 1).
as the number represents. (The Ancient Romans usually
wrote 4 as IIII, but this was almost entirely replaced by • the first Mersenne prime (2* n − 1).
the subtractive notation IV in the Middle Ages.) To this
day 3 is written as three lines in Roman and Chinese nu- • the only number that is both a Fermat prime and a
merals. This was the way the Brahmin Indians wrote it, Mersenne prime.
and the Gupta made the three lines more curved. The Na-
• the first lucky prime.
gari started rotating the lines clockwise and ending each
line with a slight downward stroke on the right. Eventu- • the first super-prime.
ally they made these strokes connect with the lines be-
low, and evolved it to a character that looks very much • the first unique prime due to the properties of its
like a modern 3 with an extra stroke at the bottom as ३. reciprocal.
It was the Western Ghubar Arabs who finally eliminated
the extra stroke and created our modern 3. (The “ex- • the second Sophie Germain prime.
tra”stroke, however, was very important to the Eastern
• the second Mersenne prime exponent.
Arabs, and they made it much larger, while rotating the
strokes above to lie along a horizontal axis, and to this day • the second factorial prime (2! + 1).
Eastern Arabs write a 3 that looks like a mirrored 7 with
ridges on its top line): ٣* [1] • the second Lucas prime.
While the shape of the 3 character has an ascender in • the second Stern prime.* [3]
most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the
character usually has a descender, as, for example, in • the second triangular number and it is the only prime
triangular number.
. In some French text-figure typefaces, though,
it has an ascender instead of a descender. • the third Heegner number.* [4]
12
3.3. IN SCIENCE 13
• both the zeroth and third Perrin numbers in the Per- the sum of all the terms below it, and the only num-
rin sequence.* [5] ber whose sum with those below equals the product
of them and itself.* [6]
• the fourth Fibonacci number.
• Three was the first number, according to the
• the fourth open meandric number. Pythagoreans, and the first male number.
• the aliquot sum of 4. • Three was the first number, according to Proclus,
i.e. n2 is greater than 2n.
• the smallest number of sides that a simple (non-self-
intersecting) polygon can have. • The trisection of the angle was one of the three fa-
mous problems of antiquity.
• the only prime which is one less than a perfect
square. Any other number which is n2 − 1 for some • Gauss proved that every integer is the sum of at most
integer n is not prime, since it is (n − 1)(n + 1). This 3 triangular numbers.
is true for 3 as well (with n = 2), but in this case the
smaller factor is 1. If n is greater than 2, both n − 1 • Gauss proved that for any prime number p (with the
and n + 1 are greater than 1 so their product is not sole exception of 3) the product of its primitive roots
prime. is ≡ 1 (mod p).
• the number of non-collinear points needed to deter- • Any number not in the form of 4* n(8m + 7) is the
mine a plane and a circle. sum of 3 squares.
• Each real number belongs to only 1 of the following
Also: 3 categories: positive, negative, and zero.
• Vulgar fractions with 3 in the denominator have

a single digit repeating sequences in their decimal
3.2.1 In numeral systems
expansions: 0.000..., 0.333..., 0.666... (See also
There is some evidence to suggest that early man may
0.999..., which = 1.)
have used counting systems which consisted of “One,
• A natural number is divisible by three if the sum of Two, Three”and thereafter“Many”to describe counting
its digits in base 10 is divisible by 3. For example, limits. Early peoples had a word to describe the quanti-
the number 21 is divisible by three (3 times 7) and ties of one, two, and three but any quantity beyond was
the sum of its digits is 2 + 1 = 3. Because of this, the simply denoted as“Many”. This is most likely based on
reverse of any number that is divisible by three (or the prevalence of this phenomena among people in such
indeed, any permutation of its digits) is also divisi- disparate regions as the deep Amazon and Borneo jun-
ble by three. For instance, 1368 and its reverse 8631 gles, where western civilization's explorers have histori-
are both divisible by three (and so are 1386, 3168, cal records of their first encounters with these indigenous
*
3186, 3618, etc.). See also Divisibility rule. This people. [7]
works in base 10 and in any positional numeral sys-
tem whose base divided by three leaves a remainder
of one (bases 4, 7, 10, etc.).
3.2.2 List of basic calculations
• Three of the five regular polyhedra have triangu- 3.3 In science

lar faces – the tetrahedron, the octahedron, and
the icosahedron. Also, three of the five regular
• The Roman numeral III stands for giant star in the
polyhedra have vertices where three faces meet –
the tetrahedron, the hexahedron (cube), and the
dodecahedron. Furthermore, only three different • Three is the atomic number of lithium.
types of polygons comprise the faces of the five
regular polyhedra – the triangle, the quadrilateral, • Three is the ASCII code of "End of Text".
and the pentagon.
• Three is the number of dimensions that humans can
• There are only three distinct 4×4 panmagic squares. perceive. Humans perceive the universe to have
three spatial dimensions, but some theories, such as
• Only three tetrahedral numbers are also perfect string theory, suggest there are more.
squares.
• The triangle, a polygon with three edges and three
• According to Pythagoras and the Pythagorean vertices, is the most stable physical shape. For this
school, the number 3, which they called triad, is the reason it is widely utilized in construction, engineer-
noblest of all digits, as it is the only number to equal ing and design.* [8]
• The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is • the Hindu Trimurti
based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells
in the retina to light of different wavelengths. Hu- • the Hindu Tridevi
mans being trichromatic, the retina contains three • the Three Jewels of Buddhism
types of color receptor cells, or cones.
• the Three Pure Ones of Taoism
3.3.1 In protoscience • the Christian Holy Trinity
• In European alchemy, the three primes (Latin: tria • the Triple Goddess of Wicca
prima) were salt ( ), sulfur ( ) and mercury

( ).* [9]* [10]
• The three doshas (weaknesses) and their antidotes

are the basis of Ayurvedic medicine in India.
3.3.2 In astronomy
• The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which
began on April 24, 2814 BC and ended on June
1, 1534 BC. The duration of Saros series 3 was
1280.14 years, and it contained 72 solar eclipses.

began on December 30, 2567 BC and ended on
March 21, 1214 BC. The duration of Saros se-
ries 3 was 1352.26 years, and it contained 76 lunar
eclipses. The Shield of the Trinity is a diagram of the Christian doctrine
of the Trinity
3.3.3 In pseudoscience
• Three is the symbolic representation for Mu (lost 3.5.1 In Christianity
continent), Augustus Le Plongeon's and James
Churchward's lost continent.* [11] • The threefold office of Christ is a Christian doctrine
that Christ performs the functions of prophet, priest,
and king.
3.4 In philosophy • The ministry of Jesus lasted approximately three
years (27-30 AD).
Main article: Trichotomy (philosophy)
• During the Agony in the Garden, Christ asked three
times for the chalice to be taken from his lips.
• Philosophers such as Aquinas, Kant, Hegel, and • Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his
C. S. Peirce have made threefold divisions, or death (Sunday April 9, 30 AD).
trichotomies, which have been important in their
work. • The devil tempted Jesus three times.
• Hegel's dialectic of Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis • Saint Peter thrice denied Jesus and thrice affirmed
creates three-ness from two-ness. his faith in Jesus
• The Magi - Zoroaster priests as-

tronomers/astrologers from Persia - gave Jesus
3.5 In religion three gifts.
See also: Triple deity • There are three Synoptic Gospels and three epistles
of John.
Many world religions contain triple deities or concepts of • Paul the Apostle went blind for three days after his
trinity, including: conversion to Christianity.
3.5. IN RELIGION 15
3.5.2 In Judaism 3.5.4 In Shinto

• Noah had three sons: Ham, Shem and Japheth • The Imperial Regalia of Japan of the sword, mirror,
• The Three Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and jewel.
• The prophet Balaam beat his donkey three times.

• The prophet Jonah spent three days and nights in the 3.5.5 In Taoism
belly of a large fish
• The Three Treasures (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sān-
• Three divisions of the Written Torah: Torah (Five bǎo; Wade–Giles: san-pao), the basic virtues in
Book of Moses), Nevi'im (Prophets), Ketuvim Taoism.
(Writings)* [12]
• Three divisions of the Jewish people: Kohen, Levite,
Yisrael 3.5.6 In Hinduism
• Three daily prayers: Shacharit, Mincha, Maariv
• Three Shabbat meals
• Shabbat ends when three stars are visible in the night
sky* [13]
• Three Pilgrimage Festivals: Passover, Shavuot,
Sukkot
• Three matzos on the Passover Seder table* [14]
• The Three Weeks, a period of mourning bridging
the fast days of Seventeenth of Tammuz and Tisha
B'Av
• Three cardinal sins for which a Jew must die rather
than transgress: idolatry, murder, sexual immoral-
ity* [15]
• Upsherin, a Jewish boy's first haircut at age 3* [16]
• A Beth din is composed of three members
• Potential converts are traditionally turned away three The "Om" symbol, in Devanagari is also written ओ३म् (ō̄m
[õːːm]), where ३ is दीघर् (dirgha, "three times as long”)
times to test their sincerity* [17]
• In the Jewish mystical tradition of the Kabbalah, it
is believed that the soul consists of three parts, with • The Trimurti: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Pre-
the highest being neshamah (“breath”), the middle server, and Shiva the Destroyer.
being ruach (“wind”or “spirit”) and the lowest
being nefesh (“repose”).* [18] Sometimes the two
• The three Gunas underlie action, in the Vedic system
elements of Chayah “ ( life”or“animal”) and Yechi-
of knowledge.
dah (“unit”) are additionally mentioned.
• In the Kabbalah, the Tree of Life (Hebrew: Etz • The Three Yogas in the context of monotheistic Hin-
ha-Chayim, ‫ )עץ החיים‬refers to a latter 3-pillar di- duism are three religious paths for the human spirit
agrammatic representation of its central mystical to achieve union (yoga) with Ishvara, Supreme Be-
symbol, known as the 10 Sephirot. ing, i.e. God. They are Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga
and Jnana Yoga.
3.5.3 In Buddhism
3.5.7 In Zoroastrianism
• The Triple Bodhi (ways to understand the end of
birth) are Budhu, Pasebudhu, and Mahaarahath.
• The three virtues of Humata, Hukhta and Huvarshta
• The Three Jewels, the three things that Buddhists (Good Thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds) are
take refuge in. a basic tenet in Zoroastrianism.
3.5.8 In Norse mythology three people in it; it is professed that the person in the
middle will die first.
Three is a very significant number in Norse mythology,
There is another superstition that it is unlucky to take a
along with its powers 9 and 27.
third light, that is, to be the third person to light a cigarette
from the same match or lighter. This superstition is some-
• Prior to Ragnarök, there will be three hard winters times asserted to have originated among soldiers in the
without an intervening summer, the Fimbulwinter. trenches of the First World War when a sniper might see
• Odin endured three hardships upon the World Tree the first light, take aim on the second and fire on the third.
in his quest for the runes: he hanged himself, The phrase "Third time's the charm" refers to the super-
wounded himself with a spear, and suffered from stition that after two failures in any endeavor, a third at-
hunger and thirst. tempt is more likely to succeed. This is also sometimes
seen in reverse, as in “third man [to do something, pre-
• Bor had three sons, Odin, Vili, and Vé. sumably forbidden] gets caught”.
Luck, especially bad luck, is often said to “come in
3.5.9 In other religions threes”.* [19]
• The Wiccan Rule of Three.

• The Triple Goddess: Maiden, Mother, Crone; the 3.6 In sports
three fates.
• In association football in almost all leagues, and in
• The sons of Cronus: Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades.
the group phases of most international competitions,
three competition points are awarded for a win.
3.5.10 In esoteric tradition
• In Gaelic football, hurling and camogie, a “goal”,
• The Theosophical Society has three conditions of with a scoring value of three, is awarded when the
membership. attacking team legally sends the ball into the oppo-
nent's goal.
• Gurdjieff's Three Centers and the Law of Three.
• In baseball, three is the number of strikes before the
• Liber AL vel Legis, the central scripture of the re- batter is out and the number of outs per side per in-
ligion of Thelema, consists of three chapters, cor- ning; in scorekeeping,“3”denotes the first baseman.
responding to three divine narrators respectively:
Nuit, Hadit and Ra-Hoor-Khuit. • In basketball:
• The Triple Greatness of Hermes Trismegistus is an • A shot made from behind the three-point arc is
important theme in Hermeticism. worth three points (except in the 3x3 variant,
in which it is worth two points).
3.5.11 As a lucky or unlucky number • A potential “three-point play”exists when a
player is fouled while successfully completing
Three (三, formal writing: 叁, pinyin sān, Cantonese: a two-point field goal, thus being awarded one
saam1 ) is considered a good number in Chinese culture additional free throw attempt.
because it sounds like the word“alive”(生 pinyin shēng, • On offense, the "three-second rule" states that
Cantonese: saang1 ), compared to four (四, pinyin: sì, an offensive player cannot remain in the op-
Cantonese: sei1 ), which sounds like the word “death” ponent's free-throw lane for more than three
(死 pinyin sǐ, Cantonese: sei2 ). seconds while his team is in possession of the
Counting to three is common in situations where a group ball and the clock is running.
of people wish to perform an action in synchrony: Now, • In the NBA only, the defensive three-second
on the count of three, everybody pull! Assuming the violation, also known as “illegal defense”,
counter is proceeding at a uniform rate, the first two states that a defensive player cannot remain in
counts are necessary to establish the rate, and the count of his own free-throw lane for more than three
“three”is predicted based on the timing of the“one”and seconds unless he is actively guarding an of-
“two”before it. Three is likely used instead of some other fensive player.
number because it requires the minimal amount counts
while setting a rate. • The “3 position”is the small forward.
In East and Southeast Asia, there is a widespread super- • In gridiron football, a field goal is a scoring play in
stition that considers it inauspicious to take a photo with which a kicker kicks the football from behind the
3.8. REFERENCES 17
line of scrimmage through the goalposts on the op- [2] Bryan Bunch, The Kingdom of Infinite Number. New
ponent's side of the field. This play, if successful, is York: W. H. Freeman & Company (2000): 39
worth three points.
[3] “Sloane's A042978 : Stern primes”. The On-Line En-
• A hat trick in sports is associated with succeeding at cyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Re-
anything three times in three consecutive attempts, trieved 2016-06-01.
as well as when any player in ice hockey or soccer
[4] “Sloane's A003173 : Heegner numbers”. The On-
scores three goals in one game (whether or not in
succession). In cricket, if a bowler takes three wick-
ets in a row it is called a hat trick.
[5] “Sloane's A001608 : Perrin sequence”. The On-Line En-
• A "threepeat" is a term for winning three consecu- cyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Re-
tive championships. trieved 2016-06-01.
• A triathlon consists of three events: swimming, bi- [6] Priya Hemenway (2005), Divine Proportion: Phi In Art,
cycling, and running. Nature, and Science, Sterling Publishing Company Inc.,
pp. 53–54, ISBN 1-4027-3522-7
• A pin (professional wrestling) in professional
wrestling is when one's shoulders are held the oppo- [7] Big Numbers. ISBN 1840464313.
nent's shoulders against the mat for a count of three.
[8] "Most stable shape- triange". Maths in the city. Retrieved
• In the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, 3 is the num- February 23, 2015.
ber of a car owned by Richard Childress Racing.
It was originally driven by team founder and owner [9] Eric John Holmyard. Alchemy. 1995. p.153
Richard Childress, but became most famous as the
car driven by seven-time Cup Series champion Dale [10] Walter J. Friedlander. The golden wand of medicine: a
Earnhardt, first in 1981 and then from 1984 until history of the caduceus symbol in medicine. 1992. p.76-
his death at the 2001 Daytona 500. Childress did 77
not use the number again in the Cup Series until
[11] Churchward, James (1931).“The Lost Continent of Mu -
2014; since then, his oldest grandson Austin Dillon Symbols, Vignettes, Tableaux and Diagrams”. Biblioteca
has driven the #3 car. Pleyades. Retrieved 2016-03-15.
• In Formula One, 3 is used by Australian driver, [12] Marcus, Rabbi Yossi (2015). “Why are many things in
Daniel Ricciardo. Judaism done three times?". Ask Moses. Retrieved 16
March 2015.
• In many sports a competitor or team is said to win
a Triple Crown if they win three particularly presti- [13] “Shabbat”. Judaism 101. 2011. Retrieved 16 March
gious competitions. 2015.
• In association football a team that wins three tro- [14] Kitov, Eliyahu (2015).“The Three Matzot”. Chabad.org.
phies in a season is said to have won a treble. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
• In bowling, three strikes bowled consecutively is [15] Kaplan, Rabbi Aryeh (28 August 2004). “Judaism and
known as a “turkey”. Martyrdom”. Aish.com. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
[16] “The Basics of the Upsherin: A Boy's First Haircut”.

Chabad.org. 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
3.7 See also
[17] “The Conversion Process”. Center for Conversion to
• Cube (algebra) – (3 superscript) Judaism. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
• Third [18] Kaplan, Aryeh. "The Soul". Aish. From The Handbook of
Jewish Thought (Vol. 2, Maznaim Publishing. Reprinted
• Triad with permission.) September 4, 2004. Retrieved Febru-
ary 24, 2015.
[19] See "bad" in the Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,

3.8 References 2006, via Encyclopedia.com.
[1] Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: From

Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer transl. David • Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and In-
Bellos et al. London: The Harvill Press (1998): 393, Fig. teresting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987):
24.63 46–48
3.9 External links

• Tricyclopedic Book of Threes by Michael Eck
• Threes in Human Anatomy by Dr. John A. McNulty

• Grime, James. “3 is everywhere”. Numberphile.
Brady Haran.
• The Number 3
Chapter 4
4 (number)
“Four”redirects here. For other uses, see 4 (disam- sometimes also called a tetragon. A circle divided by 4
biguation). makes right angles and four quadrants. Because of it,
four (4) is the base number of plane (mathematics). Four
4 (four; /ˈfɔər/) is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the cardinal directions, four seasons, duodecimal system, and
natural number following 3 and preceding 5. Four is the vigesimal system are based on four.
only cardinal numeral in the English language that has the A solid figure with four faces as well as four vertices is
same number of letters as its number value. a tetrahedron, and 4 is the smallest possible number of
faces (as well as vertices) of a polyhedron. The regular
tetrahedron is the simplest Platonic solid. A tetrahedron,
which can also be called a 3-simplex, has four triangular
4.1 In mathematics faces and four vertices. It is the only self-dual regular
polyhedron.
Four is the smallest composite number, its proper divisors Four-dimensional space is the highest-dimensional space
being 1 and 2. Four is also a highly composite number. featuring more than three convex regular figures:
The next highly composite number is 6.
Four is the second square number, the second centered • Two-dimensional: infinitely many convex regular
triangular number. polygons.
4 is the smallest squared prime (p2 ) and the only even • Three-dimensional: five convex regular polyhedra
number in this form. It has an aliquot sum of 3 which is (the five Platonic Solids).
itself prime. The aliquot sequence of 4 has 4 members
(4, 3, 1, 0) and is accordingly the first member of the 3- • Four-dimensional: six convex regular polychora.
aliquot tree. • Five-dimensional and every higher-dimensional:
A number is a multiple of 4 if its last two digits are a mul- three regular convex polytopes (regular simplexes,
tiple of 4. For example, 1092 is a multiple of 4 because hypercubes, cross-polytopes).
92 = 4 × 23.
Four-dimensional differential manifolds have some
Only one number has an aliquot sum of 4 and that is unique properties. There is only one differential struc-
squared prime 9. ture on ℝ* n except when n = 4, in which case there are
Four is the smallest composite number that is equal to the uncountably many.
sum of its prime factors. (As a consequence of this, it is The smallest non-cyclic group has four elements; it is the
the smallest Smith number).* [1] However, it is the only Klein four-group. Four is also the order of the smallest
composite number n for which (n − 1)! ≡ 0 (mod n) is non-trivial groups that are not simple.
false.
Four is the only natural integer n for which the (non triv-
It is also a Motzkin number.* [2]
ial) alternating group An is not simple.
In bases 6 and 12, 4 is a 1-automorphic number. Four is the maximum number of dimensions of a
In addition, 2 + 2 = 2 × 2 = 22 = 4. Continuing the pat- real associative division algebra (the quaternions), by a
tern in Knuth's up-arrow notation, 2 ↑↑ 2 = 2 ↑↑↑ 2 = 4, theorem of Ferdinand Georg Frobenius.
and so on, for any number of up arrows. (That is, 2 [n] The four-color theorem states that a planar graph (or,
2 = 4 for every positive integer n, where a [n] b is the equivalently, a flat map of two-dimensional regions such
hyperoperation.) as countries) can be colored using four colors, so that
A four-sided plane figure is a quadrilateral (quadran- adjacent vertices (or regions) are always different col-
gle) which include kites, rhombi, rectangles and squares, ors.* [3] Three colors are not, in general, sufficient to
19
guarantee this. The largest planar complete graph has

four vertices.
Lagrange's four-square theorem states that every positive
integer can be written as the sum of at most four square
numbers. Three are not always sufficient; 7 for instance
cannot be written as the sum of three squares.
Four is the first positive non-Fibonacci number.
Each natural number divisible by 4 is a difference of
squares of two natural numbers, i.e. 4x = y2 − z2 .
Four is an all-Harshad number and a semi-meandric num-
ber.
Four is the highest degree general polynomial equation
for which there is a solution in radicals.
4.2 List of basic calculations
4.3 Origins
Representing 1, 2 and 3 in as many lines as the number

represented worked well. The Brahmin Indians simplified
4 by joining its four lines into a cross that looks like the
modern plus sign. The Shunga would add a horizontal
line on top of the numeral, and the Kshatrapa and Pallava
evolved the numeral to a point where speed of writing 4.4 In religion
was a secondary concern. The Arabs' 4 still had the early
concept of the cross, but for the sake of efficiency, was Buddhism
made in one stroke by connecting the “western”end to
the “northern”end; the “eastern”end was finished off • Four Noble Truths
with a curve. The Europeans dropped the finishing curve
and gradually made the numeral less cursive, ending up • Dukkha – The Noble Truth of Suffering
with a glyph very close to the original Brahmin cross.* [4] • Samudaya – The Noble Truth of the Cause of
While the shape of the 4 character has an ascender in Suffering
most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the • Nirodha – The Noble Truth of the Cessation
character usually has a descender, as, for example, in of Suffering
. • Magga – The Noble Truth of the Path leading
to the Cessation of Suffering
On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and
digital watches, as well as certain optical character recog- • Four sights – observations which affected Prince
nition fonts, 4 is seen with an open top. Siddhartha deeply and made him realize the suffer-
Television stations that operate on channel 4 have occa- ings of all beings, and compelled him to begin his
sionally made use of another variation of the “open 4” spiritual journey—an old man, a sick man, a dead
, with the open portion being on the side, rather than the man, and an ascetic
top. This version resembles the Canadian Aboriginal syl- • Four Great Elements – earth, water, fire, and wind
labics letter . The magnetic ink character recognition
“CMC-7”font also uses this variety of “4”. • Four Heavenly Kings
4.4. IN RELIGION 21
• Four Foundations of Mindfulness – contemplation • The four primary castes or strata of society:
of the body, contemplation of feelings, contempla- Brahmana (priest/teacher), Kshatriya (war-
tion of mind, contemplation of mental objects rior/politician), Vaishya (landowner/entrepreneur)
and Shudra (servant/manual labourer).
• Four Right Exertions
Islam
• Four Bases of Power
• Four jhānas • Eid al-Adha lasts for four days, from the 10th to the
14th of Dhul Hijja.
• Four arūpajhānas
• There are four Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs:
• Four Divine Abidings – loving-kindness, Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan
compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
• The Four Arch Angels in Islam are: Jibraeel
• Four stages of enlightenment – stream-enterer,
(Gabriel), Mikaeel (Michael), Izraeel (Azrael), and
once-returner, non-returner, and arahant
Israfil (Raphael)
• Four main pilgrimage sites – Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, • There are four Sacred Months in Islam: Muharram,
Sarnath, and Kusinara Rajab, Dhu al-Qi'dah and Dhu al-Hijjah.
Judeo-Christian symbolism • There are four Sunni schools of fiqh: Hanafi, Shafiì,
Maliki and Hanbali.
• The Tetragrammaton is the four-letter name of God. • There are four major sunni Imams: Abū Ḥanīfa,
Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafiì, Malik ibn Anas
• The four Matriarchs (foremothers) of Judaism are and Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
Sarah, Rebekah, Leah, and Rachel.
• There are four books in Islam: Torah, Zaboor, In-
• The Four Species (lulav, hadass, aravah and etrog) jeel, Quran.
are taken as one of the mitzvot on the Jewish holiday
• Waiting for four months is ordained for those who
of Sukkot. (Judaism)
take an oath for abstention from their wives.
• The Four Cups of Wine to drink on the Jewish hol- • The waiting period of the woman whose husband
iday of Passover. (Judaism) dies, is four months and ten days.
• The Four Questions to be asked on the Jewish holi- • When Abraham said:“My Lord, show me how You
day of Passover. (Judaism) give life to the dead,”Allah said: “Why! Do you
have no faith?”Abraham replied: “Yes, but in or-
• The Four Sons to be dealt with on the Jewish holiday der that my heart be at rest.”He said: “Then take
of Passover. (Judaism) four birds, and tame them to yourself, then put a part
of them on every hill, and summon them; they will
• The Four Expressions of Redemption to be said on
come to you flying. [Al-Baqara 2:260]
the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
• The respite of four months was granted to give time
• The four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. to the mushriks in Surah At-Tawba so that they
(Christianity) should consider their position carefully and decide
whether to make preparation for war or to emigrate
• The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse ride in the
from the country or to accept Islam.
Book of Revelation. (Christianity)
• Those who accuse honourable women (of un-
Hinduism chastity) but do not produce four witnesses, flog
them with eighty lashes, and do not admit their tes-
timony ever after. They are indeed transgressors.
• There are 4 Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda
[An-Noor 24:4]
and Atharvaveda.
• In Puruṣārtha, there are four aims of human life: Other

Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Moksha.
• In a more general sense, numerous mythological and
• The four stages of life Brahmacharya (student life), cosmogonical systems consider Four corners of the
Grihastha (household life), Vanaprastha (retired world as essentially corresponding to the four points
life) and Sannyasa (renunciation). of the compass.
• Four is the sacred number of the Zia, an indigenous 4.7.2 In biology

tribe located in the U.S. state of New Mexico.
• Four is the number of nucleobase types in DNA and
• The Chinese, Vietnamese, the Korean and the RNA – adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (uracil
Japanese are superstitious about the number four be- in RNA).
cause it is a homonym for“death”in their languages.
• Many chordates have four feet, legs or leglike ap-
pendages (Tetrapods).
4.5 In politics • The mammalian heart consists of four chambers.
• Four Freedoms • Many mammals (Carnivora, Ungulata) use four fin-

gers for movement.
• The fourth finger of a human hand (on the left hand

4.6 In computing – ring-finger) is moved when the little finger moves.
• All insects with wings except flies have four wings.

• 0x04 is the ASCII code of the character End of
Transmission, which is abbreviated to EOT. • Insects of the superorder Endopterygota, also known
as Holometabola, such as butterflies, ants, bees,
• UTF-32 uses exactly 4 bytes per code point.
beetles, fleas, flies, moths, and wasps, undergo
holometabolism – complete metamorphism in four
stages – from (1) embryo (ovum, egg), to (2) larva
4.7 In science (such as grub, caterpillar), then (3) pupa (such as the
chrysalis), and finally (4) the imago.
• A tetramer is a thing formed out of four sub-units.
• In the common ABO blood group system, there are
4 blood types (A, B, O, AB).
4.7.1 In astronomy • Humans have four canines and four wisdom teeth.
• Four terrestrial (or rocky) planets in the Solar sys- • The cow's stomach is divided in four digestive com-
tem: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. partments: reticulum, rumen, omasum and aboma-
sum.
• Four giant gas/ice planets in the Solar system:
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
4.7.3 In chemistry
• Four of Jupiter's moons (the Galilean moons) are
readily visible from Earth. • Valency of carbon (that is basis of life on the Earth)
• Messier object M4, a magnitude 7.5 globular cluster is four. Also because of its tetrahedral crystal bond
in the constellation Scorpius. structure, diamond (one of the natural allotropes of
carbon) is the hardest known naturally occurring
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 4, a faint material. It is also the valence of silicon, whose
galaxy in the constellation Pisces compounds form the majority of the mass of the
Earth's crust.
• The Roman numeral IV stands for subgiant in the
Yerkes spectral classification scheme. • The atomic number of beryllium
• The Roman numeral IV (usually) stands for the • There are four basic states of matter: solid, liquid,
fourth-discovered satellite of a planet or minor gas, and plasma.
planet (e.g. Jupiter IV)
• The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which 4.7.4 In physics
began on May 6, 2731 BC and ended on June
13, 1451 BC. The duration of Saros series 4 was • Special relativity and general relativity treat nature
1280.14 years, and it contained 72 solar eclipses. as four-dimensional: 3D regular space and one-
dimensional time are treated together and called
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which spacetime. Also, any event E has a light cone com-
began on October 6, 2646 BC and ended on April posed of four zones of possible communication and
2, 1131 BC. The duration of Saros series 4 was cause and effect (outside the light cone is strictly in-
1514.53 years, and it contained 78 lunar eclipses. communicado).
4.8. IN LOGIC AND PHILOSOPHY 23
• An alpha particle (helium nucleus, also called a he- • Immanuel Kant expounded a table of judgments in-
lion) consists of four hadrons. volving four three-way alternatives, in regard to (1)
Quantity, (2) Quality, (3) Relation, (4) Modality,
• There are four fundamental forces and, based thereupon, a table of four categories,
(electromagnetism, gravitation, the weak nuclear named by the terms just listed, and each with three
force, and the strong nuclear force). subcategories.
• In statistical mechanics, the four functions inequal- • Arthur Schopenhauer's doctoral thesis was On the
ity is an inequality for four functions on a finite Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason.
distributive lattice.
• Franz Brentano held that any major philosophical
period has four phases: (1) Creative and rapidly pro-
gressing with scientific interest and results; then de-
4.8 In logic and philosophy clining through the remaining phases, (2) practical,
(3) increasingly skeptical, and (4) literary, mysti-
• The symbolic meanings of the number four are cal, and scientifically worthless – until philosophy
linked to those of the cross and the square. “Al- is renewed through a new period's first phase. (See
most from prehistoric times, the number four was Brentano's essay “The Four Phases of Philosophy
employed to signify what was solid, what could be and Its Current State”1895, tr. by Mezei and Smith
touched and felt. Its relationship to the cross (four 1998.)
points) made it an outstanding symbol of wholeness
• C. S. Peirce, usually a trichotomist, discussed four
and universality, a symbol which drew all to itself”.
methods for overcoming troublesome uncertainties
Where lines of latitude and longitude intersect, they
and achieving secure beliefs: (1) the method of
divide the earth into four proportions. Throughout
tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief), (2)
the world kings and chieftains have been called“lord
the method of authority, (3) the method of con-
of the four suns”..."lord of the four quarters of the
gruity (following a fashionable paradigm), and (4)
earth”...* [5] by which is understood to the extent of
the fallibilistic, self-correcting method of science
their powers both territorially and in terms of total
(see "The Fixation of Belief", 1877); and four bar-
control of their subjects' doings.
riers to inquiry, barriers refused by the fallibilist:
(1) assertion of absolute certainty; (2) maintaining
• The Square of Opposition, in both its Aristotelian
that something is absolutely unknowable; (3) main-
version and its Boolean version, consists of four
taining that something is absolutely inexplicable be-
forms: A (“All S is R"), I (“Some S is R"), E (
cause absolutely basic or ultimate; (4) holding that
“No S is R"), and O (“Some S is not R").
perfect exactitude is possible, especially such as to
• In regard to whether two given propositions can have quite preclude unusual and anomalous phenomena
the same truth value, there are four separate logical (see "F.R.L." [First Rule of Logic], 1899).
possibilities: the propositions are subalterns (possi- • Paul Weiss built a system involving four modes of
bly both are true, and possibly both are false); sub- being: Actualities (substances in the sense of sub-
contraries (it is possible that both are true, but not stantial, spatio-temporally finite beings), Ideality or
that both are false); contraries (it is possible that both Possibility (pure normative form), Existence (the
are false, but not that both are true); or contradicto- dynamic field), and God (unity). (See Weiss's Modes
ries (it is not possible that both are true, and it is not of Being, 1958).
possible that both are false).
• Karl Popper outlined a tetradic schema to describe
• Aristotle held that there are basically four causes in the growth of theories and, via generalization, also
nature: the efficient cause, the matter, the end, and the emergence of new behaviors and living organ-
the form. isms: (1) problem, (2) tentative theory, (3) (at-
tempted) error-elimination (especially by way of
• The Stoics held with four basic categories, all viewed critical discussion), and (4) new problem(s). (See
as bodies (substantial and insubstantial): (1) sub- Popper's Objective Knowledge, 1972, revised 1979.)
stance in the sense of substrate, primary formless
matter; (2) quality, matter's organization to differen- • John Boyd (military strategist) made his key con-
tiate and individualize something, and coming down cept the decision cycle or OODA loop, consisting
to a physical ingredient such as pneuma, breath; (3) of four stages: (1) observation (data intake through
somehow holding (or disposed), as in a posture, state, the senses), (2) orientation (analysis and synthesis of
shape, size, action, and (4) somehow holding (or dis- data), (3) decision, and (4) action. Boyd held that his
posed) toward something, as in relative location, fa- decision cycle has philosophical generality, though
milial relation, and so forth. for strategists the point remains that, through swift
decisions, one can disrupt an opponent's decision cy- • The four color process (CMYK) is used for printing.
cle.
• Wide use of rectangles (with four angles and four
• Richard McKeon outlined four classes (each with sides) because they have effective form and capabil-
four subclasses) of modes of philosophical inquiry: ity for close adjacency to each other (houses, rooms,
(1) Modes of Being (Being); (2) Modes of Thought tables, bricks, sheets of paper, screens, film frames).
(That which is); (3) Modes of Fact (Existence);
• In the Rich Text Format specification, language code
(4) Modes of Simplicity (Experience) – and, cor-
4 is for the Chinese language. Codes for regional
responding to them, four classes (each with four
variants of Chinese are congruent to 4 mod 256.
subclasses) of philosophical semantics: Principles,
Methods, Interpretations, and Selections. (See • Credit card machines have four-twelve function
McKeon's“Philosophic Semantics and Philosophic keys.
Inquiry”in Freedom and History and Other Essays,
1989.) • On most phones, the 4 key is associated with the
letters G, H, and I, but on the BlackBerry cellular
• Jonathan Lowe (E.J. Lowe) argues in The Four- phone, it is the key for D and F.
Category Ontology, 2006, for four categories: kinds
(substantial universals), attributes (relational uni- • On many computer keyboards, the“4”key may also
versals and property-universals), objects (substantial be used to type the dollar sign ($) if the shift key is
particulars), and modes (relational particulars and held down.
property-particulars, also known as "tropes"). (See • It is the number of bits in a nibble, equivalent to half
Lowe's “Recent Advances in Metaphysics,”2001, a byte
Eprint)
• In internet slang, “4”can replace the word “for”
• Four opposed camps of the morality and nature of (as “four”and “for”are pronounced similarly).
evil: moral absolutism, amoralism, moral relativism, For example, typing “4u”instead of “for you”.
and moral universalism.
• In Leetspeak,“4”may be used to replace the letter
“A”.
4.9 In technology • The TCP/IP stack consists of four layers.
4.10 In transport
• The resin identification code used in recycling to

identify low-density polyethylene.
• Most furniture has four legs – tables, chairs, etc. • Many internal combustion engines are called four-
stroke engines because they complete one thermo-
• Four horses (quadriga) is the maximal number of dynamic cycle in four distinct steps: Intake, com-
horses in one row for carriage. pression, power, and exhaust.
4.11. IN SPORTS 25
• Most vehicles, including motor vehicles, and partic- • In baseball scoring, number 4 is assigned to the
ularly cars/automobiles and light commercial vehi- second baseman. Also, four is the most number of
cles have four road wheels. runs that can be scored on any single at bat, whereby
all three baserunners and the batter score (the most
• "Quattro", meaning four in the Italian language, is common being via a grand slam).
used by Audi as a trademark to indicate that four-
wheel drive (4WD) technologies are used on Audi- • In gridiron football codes,
branded cars. The word“Quattro”was initially used
by Audi in 1980 in its original 4WD coupé, the Audi • In American football, the offensive team has
Quattro. Audi also has a privately held subsidiary four downs (plays) to advance the ball 10 yards
company called quattro GmbH. otherwise loss of possession occurs.
• four points are awarded in a handful of leagues
• List of highways numbered 4 for rarely attempted types of field goals; an
example is in six-man football. Because of
the difficulties of getting a successful kick due
4.11 In sports to the few players on the field, a field goal is
worth four points. Also, in Arena Football, a
• In cricket, a four is a specific type of scoring event, successful dropkicked field goal attempt scores
whereby the ball crosses the boundary after touch- four points.
ing the ground at least one time, scoring four runs. • the “four hole”in offense terminology is the
Taking four wickets in four consecutive balls is typ- space between the right guard and the right
ically referred to as a double hat trick (two consec- tackle on the offensive line
utive, overlapping hat tricks).
• the“four back”is an extra running back (out-
• In basketball, the number four is used to designate side the fullback and halfback, often referred
the Power Forward position, often referred to as to as an H-back) in the backfield; e.g. a play
“The four spot”. call for a“44 lead”indicates the H-back will
follow the fullback into the hole between the
• Also in basketball, there is a term called the four
right guard and the right tackle.
point play, when a fouled player attempts a 3-point
field goal and makes it, and makes the resulting free • In rugby union:
throw.
• One of the two starting locks wears the jersey
• The number of quarters in an NBA or NFL game. number 4.
• The basketball term Final Four refers to: • At several points in the history of the sport, 4
points were awarded for the following scores:
• in the United States, the last four teams re-
• A goal from mark from 1891 to 1904 (3
maining in the NCAA playoff tournament,
points after that time; abolished in 1977).
each of which is the winner of its respective
region (for collegiate hockey the term Frozen • A drop goal from 1891 to 1947 (now 3
Four is used). points).
• In Europe, the last four teams remaining in • A try from 1971 to 1991 (now 5 points).
many national and transnational club compe- • In most league competitions, as well as the
titions, most notably the Euroleague. pool phases of the Rugby World Cup and many
other worldwide championships, 4 competi-
• In roller skating, roller skates typically have four tion points are awarded for a win (see rugby
wheels. When the wheels are arranged in a sin- union bonus points system).
gle line, they are called “in-line”skates. When
the wheels are arranged in a four-point configuration • In rugby league:
(two in front, two in back), they are called “quad”
skates. • A try is worth 4 points.
• In most competitions (though not the Euro-
• In rowing, a four refers to a boat for four rowers, pean Super League, which uses static squad
with or without coxswain. In rowing nomenclature numbering), the starting left centre wears jer-
4− represents a coxless four and 4+ represents a sey number 4.
coxed four.
• The jersey number 4 has been retired by several
• There are four bases in the game of baseball: first North American sports teams in honor of past play-
base, second base, third base, and home plate; to ing greats or other key figures:
score a run, an offensive player must complete, in
the sequence shown, a circuit of those four bases. • In Major League Baseball:
• The Baltimore Orioles, for Hall of Fame “Honoured Numbers”, which remain in
manager Earl Weaver. circulation for future players. The num-
• The Boston Red Sox, for Hall of Famer ber 4 is currently honoured for Hall of
Joe Cronin. Famer Red Kelly.
• The Chicago White Sox, for Hall of • In the NFL:
Famer Luke Appling. • The New York Giants, for Hall of Famer
• The Los Angeles Dodgers, for Hall of Tuffy Leemans.
Famer Duke Snider. • The Green Bay Packers, for Hall of
• The Milwaukee Brewers, for Hall of Famer Brett Favre.
Famer Paul Molitor. • The Dallas Cowboys, for Dak Prescott.
• The New York Giants, for Hall of Famer • The Oakland Raiders, for Derek Carr.
Mel Ott; the team has continued to honor
the number in its current home of San • In F1:
Francisco. • Max Chilton uses the number 4 on his car.
• The New York Yankees, for Hall of • In Professional boxing:
Famer Lou Gehrig. Notably, he was
• Bouts featuring novices are usually lim-
the first player in major North American
ited to four rounds each.
sports to be so honored by a U.S.-based
team (he was preceded in this honor by
Ace Bailey, whose #6 was retired by the
Toronto Maple Leafs five years earlier). 4.12 In other fields
• The Pittsburgh Pirates, for Hall of Famer
Ralph Kiner.
• In the NBA:
• The Chicago Bulls, for Jerry Sloan, who
later served as the team's head coach and
went on to a Hall of Fame career in that
role (mainly with the Utah Jazz).
• The Detroit Pistons, for Hall of Fame
player Joe Dumars, who later served as
team president.
• The Milwaukee Bucks, for Sidney Mon-
crief.
• The New York Nets, for Wendell Ladner,
who died in a 1975 plane crash.
• The Sacramento Kings, for Chris Web-
ber.
• The Utah Jazz, for Hall of Fame player
Adrian Dantley.
• In the NHL: International maritime signal flag for 4
• The Boston Bruins, for Hall of Famer
Bobby Orr. See also 4 (disambiguation).
• The Montreal Canadiens, for Hall of
Famer Jean Beliveau. • The phrase "four-letter word" is used to describe
• The New Jersey Devils, for Hall of Famer many swear words in the English language.
Scott Stevens.
• Four is the only number whose name in English has
• The Philadelphia Flyers, for Barry Ash-
the same number of letters as its value.
bee.
• The Toronto Maple Leafs have a pol- • Four (四, formal writing: 肆, pinyin sì) is con-
icy of not retiring numbers unless the sidered an unlucky number in Chinese, Korean,
player honoured either died or suffered a Vietnamese and Japanese cultures because it sounds
career-ending incident while a member of like the word“death”(死, pinyin sǐ). To avoid com-
the team. Other players whose numbers plaints from people with tetraphobia, many num-
would otherwise be retired instead have bered product lines skip the “four": e.g. Nokia
their numbers enshrined by the team as cell phones (there is no series beginning with a 4),
4.13. IN MUSIC 27
Palm PDAs, etc. Some buildings skip floor 4 or re- 4.13 In music
place the number with the letter “F”, particularly
in heavily Asian areas. See tetraphobia and Numbers • In written music, common time is constructed of
in Chinese culture. four beats per measure and a quarter-note receives
• The number of characters in a canonical four- one beat.
character idiom. • In popular or modern music, the most common time
• In the NATO phonetic alphabet, the digit 4 is called signature is also founded on four beats, i.e., 4/4 hav-
“fower”. ing four quarter note beats.
• In Astrology, Cancer is the 4th astrological sign of • The common major scale is built on two sets of four
the Zodiac. notes (e.g., CDEF, GABC), where the first and last
notes create an octave interval (a pair-of-four rela-
tionship).
• The interval of a perfect fourth is a foundational ele-

ment of many genres of music, represented in music
theory as the tonic and subdominant relationship.
Four is also embodied within the circle of fifths (also
known as circle of fourths), which reveals the inter-
val of four in more active harmonic contexts.
• The typical number of movements in a symphony.
• The number of completed, numbered symphonies

by Johannes Brahms.
• The number of strings on a violin, a viola, a cello,

double bass, a cuatro and a ukulele, and the number
of string pairs on a mandolin.
•“Four calling birds”is the gift on the fourth day of

mas".
• Four, British rock band Bloc Party's fourth full-

length album.
• Four, British-Irish boy band One Direction's fourth

full-length album.
• 4, American artist Beyoncé's fourth album.
playing cards for 4

4.14 Groups of four
• In Tarot, The Emperor is the fourth trump or Major
Arcana card. • Four rules: addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division.
• In Nintendo's Mario Kart series, four is the number
of courses that each cup holds. • Greek classical elements (fire, air, water, earth).
• In Tetris, a game named for the Greek word for 4, • Four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, winter.
every shape in the game is formed of 4 blocks each.
• A leap year occurs every four years.
• 4 represents the number of Justices on the Supreme
Court of the United States necessary to grant a writ • Four is the minimal number of contemporary
of certiorari (i.e., agree to hear a case; it is one less continents: Americas, Eurafrasia, Sahul, Antarctica.
than the number necessary to render a majority de-
cision). • Approximately four weeks (4 times 7 days) to a lu-
nar month (synodic month = 29.53 days). Thus the
• Number Four is a character in the book series Lorien number four is universally an integral part of prim-
Legacies itive sacred calendars.
• Four cardinal directions: north, south, east, west. • There are four limbs on the human body.
• Four Temperaments: sanguine, choleric, • Four Houses of Hogwarts in the Harry Potter series:
melancholic, phlegmatic. Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, Slytherin.
• Four Humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile, • Four known continents of the world in the A Song
phlegm. of Ice and Fire series: Westeros, Essos, Sothoryos,
Ulthos.
• Four Great Ancient Capitals of China.
• Four corner method.
• Cardinal principles.
4.15 References
• Four cardinal virtues: justice, prudence, temper- [1] “Sloane's A006753 : Smith numbers”. The On-Line En-
ance, fortitude. cyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Re-
trieved 2016-06-01.
• Four suits of playing cards: hearts, diamonds, clubs,
spades. [2] “Sloane's A001006 : Motzkin numbers”. The On-
• Four nations of the United Kingdom: England, tion. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland.
• Four provinces of Ireland: Munster, Ulster, York: W. H. Freeman & Company (2000): 48
Leinster, Connacht.
• Four Noble Truths in the Buddhist religion. Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer transl. David
Bellos et al. London: The Harvill Press (1998): 394, Fig.
• Four estates: politics, administration, judiciary, 24.64
journalism. Especially in the expression "Fourth Es-
tate", which means journalism. [5] Chevalier, Jean and Gheerbrant, Alain (1994), The Dic-
tionary of Symbols. The quote beginning “Almost from
• Four Corners is the only location in the United States prehistoric times...”is on p. 402.
where four states come together at a single point:
Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. • Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and In-
teresting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987):
• The Fantastic Four: Mr. Fantastic, The Invisible
55–58
Woman, The Human Torch, The Thing.
• The Interesting Four: Seiko, The Human Stapler,
Weather Woman, and Mr. Wonderful. Parody su- 4.16 External links
perhero team featured on NBC’s Saturday Night
Live. • Marijn.Org on Why is everything four?
• The Beatles were also known as the “Fab Four": • A few thoughts on the number four, by Penelope
John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, Paul Merritt at samuel-beckett.net
McCartney.
• The Number 4
• Gang of Four is a British post-punk rock band
formed in the late 1970s. • The Positive Integer 4
• Typically there are four string players in a classical • Prime curiosities: 4
string quartet, usually two violinists, a violist, and a
cellist.
• Four rivers in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2:10–
14): Pishon (perhaps the Jaxartes or Syr Darya),
Gihon (perhaps the Oxus or Amu Darya), Hiddekel
(Tigris), and P'rat (Euphrates).
• There are also four years in a single Olympiad (du-
ration between the Olympic Games). Many major
international sports competitions follow this cycle,
among them the FIFA World Cup and its women's
version, the FIBA World Championships for men
and women, and the Rugby World Cup.
Chapter 5
5 (number)
This article is about the number five. For the year, see Five is the second Sierpinski number of the first kind, and
AD 5. For other uses of 5, see 5 (disambiguation) and can be written as S2=(22 )+1
The Five (disambiguation). While polynomial equations of degree 4 and below can
be solved with radicals, equations of degree 5 and higher
5 (five /ˈfaɪv/) is a number, numeral, and glyph. It is the cannot generally be so solved. This is the Abel–Ruffini
natural number following four and preceding six. theorem. This is related to the fact that the symmetric
group S n is a solvable group for n ≤ 4 and not solvable for
n ≥ 5.
While all graphs with 4 or fewer vertices are planar, there
5.1 In mathematics exists a graph with 5 vertices which is not planar: K 5 , the
complete graph with 5 vertices.
Five is the third prime number. Because it can be written Five is also the number of Platonic solids.* [3]
as 2* 21 + 1, five is classified as a Fermat prime; there-
A polygon with five sides is a pentagon. Figurate num-
fore a regular polygon with 5 sides (a regular pentagon) is
bers representing pentagons (including five) are called
constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge.
pentagonal numbers. Five is also a square pyramidal
5 is the third Sophie Germain prime, the first safe prime,
number.
the third Catalan number, and the third Mersenne prime
exponent. Five is the first Wilson prime and the third Five is the only prime number to end in the digit 5, be-
factorial prime, also an alternating factorial. Five is the cause all other numbers written with a 5 in the ones-place
first good prime.* [1] It is an Eisenstein prime with no under the decimal system are multiples of five. As a con-
imaginary part and real part of the form 3n − 1. It is sequence of this, 5 is in base 10 a 1-automorphic number.
also the only number that is part of more than one pair ofVulgar fractions with 5 or 2 in the denominator do not
twin primes. Five is a congruent number.* [2] yield infinite decimal expansions, unlike expansions with
Five is conjectured to be the only odd untouchable num- all other prime denominators, because they are prime fac-
ber and if this is the case then five will be the only odd tors of ten, the base. When written in the decimal system,
prime number that is not the base of an aliquot tree. all multiples of 5 will end in either 5 or 0.
Five is also the only prime that is the sum of two consec- There are five Exceptional Lie groups.
utive primes, namely 2 and 3.
The number 5 is the fifth Fibonacci number, being 2 plus 5.1.1 List of basic calculations
3. 5 is also a Pell number and a Markov number, appear-
ing in solutions to the Markov Diophantine equation: (1,
2, 5), (1, 5, 13), (2, 5, 29), (5, 13, 194), (5, 29, 433), ... 5.2 Evolution of the glyph
( A030452 lists Markov numbers that appear in solu-
tions where one of the other two terms is 5). Whereas 5 is
unique in the Fibonacci sequence, in the Perrin sequence
5 is both the fifth and sixth Perrin numbers.
5 is the length of the hypotenuse of the smallest integer-
sided right triangle.
In bases 10 and 20, 5 is a 1-automorphic number.
The evolution of the modern Western glyph for the nu-
5 and 6 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under either definition. meral five cannot be traced back to the Indian system as
There are five solutions to Znám's problem of length 6. for the numbers 1 to 4. The Kushana and Gupta empires
29
in what is now India had among themselves several dif- • The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which
ferent glyphs which bear no resemblance to the modern began on April 4, 2720 BC and ended on May 24,
glyph. The Nagari and Punjabi took these glyphs and all 1422 BC. The duration of Saros series 5 was 1298.1
came up with glyphs that are similar to a lowercase “h” years, and it contained 73 solar eclipses.
rotated 180°. The Ghubar Arabs transformed the glyph in
several different ways, producing glyphs that were more • There are five Lagrangian points in a two-body sys-
similar to the numbers 4 or 3 than to the number 5.* [4] tem.
It was from those characters that Europeans finally came
up with the modern 5, though from purely graphical evi-
dence, it would be much easier to conclude that the mod- 5.3.2 Biology
ern symbol came from the Khmer. The Khmer glyph
develops from the Kushana/Ândhra/Gupta numeral, its • Perception is conceived to occur through five senses.
shape looking like the modern version with an extended
swirled 'tail' * [5] • Almost all amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
which have fingers or toes have five of them on each
While the shape of the 5 character has an ascender in extremity.* [6]
most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the
character usually has a descender, as, for example, in
5.3.3 Computing
.
• 5 is the ASCII code of the Enquiry character, which
is abbreviated to ENQ.
5.3 Science
• The atomic number of boron. 5.4 Religion and culture
• The number of appendages on most starfish, which 5.4.1 Christian
exhibit pentamerism.
• The most destructive known hurricanes rate as • There are traditionally Five Wounds of Jesus Christ
Category 5 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind in Christianity: the Scourging at the Pillar, the
scale. Crowning with Thorns, the wounds in Christ's
hands, the wounds in Christ's feet, and the Side
• The most destructive known tornadoes rate an F-5 Wound of Christ.
on the Fujita scale or EF-5 on the Enhanced Fujita
scale.
5.4.2 Discordianism
5.3.1 Astronomy • In Discordianism, 5 is seen as a very important num-
ber. This is demonstrated in the Law of Fives, as
• Messier object M5, a magnitude 7.0 globular cluster well as in the Pentabarf, which contains five rules.
in the constellation Serpens.
• Each page of the Principia Discordia—the primary
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 5, a religious document in Discordianism —is labeled
magnitude 13 spiral galaxy in the constellation with five digits.
Andromeda.
• The Roman numeral V stands for dwarfs (main se-

quence stars) in the Yerkes spectral classification 5.4.3 Islamic
scheme.
• The Five Pillars of Islam
• The Roman numeral V (usually) stands for the fifth-
discovered satellite of a planet or minor planet (e.g. • Muslims pray to Allah five times a day
Jupiter V).
• In Islam, particularly Shia Islam, the Panjetan or
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which the Five Holy Purified Ones are the members of
began on October 8, 2581 BC and ended on March Muhammad's family: Muhammad, Ali, Fatimah,
24, 1084 BC. The duration of Saros series 5 was Hasan, and Husayn and is often symbolically rep-
1496.5 years, and it contained 84 lunar eclipses. resented by an image of the Khamsa.
5.5. ART, ENTERTAINMENT, AND MEDIA 31
5.4.4 Jewish Western, Chinese-Buddhist, and Japanese names for

each weekday.
• The Torah contains five books—Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—which are • Members of The Nation of Gods and Earths, a pri-
collectively called the Five Books of Moses, the Pen- marily African American religious organization, call
tateuch (Greek for “five containers,”referring to themselves the“Five-Percenters”because they be-
the scroll cases in which the books were kept), or lieve that only 5% of mankind is truly enlightened.
Humash (‫חומש‬, Hebrew for “fifth”).
• The book of Psalms is arranged into five books, par-
alleling the Five Books of Moses.
5.5 Art, entertainment, and media
• The Khamsa, an ancient symbol shaped like a hand 5.5.1 Events
with four fingers and one thumb, is used as a protec-
tive amulet by Jews; that same symbol is also very • November 5 is now known as Guy Fawkes Night or
popular in Arabic culture, known to protect from Guy Fawkes Day in the UK.
envy and the evil eye.
5.5.2 Fictional entities

5.4.5 Sikh
• James the Red Engine, a fictional character num-
• The five sacred Sikh symbols prescribed by Guru bered 5.
Gobind Singh are commonly known as panj kakars
or the 'Five Ks' because they start with letter K • Johnny 5 is the lead character in the film Short Cir-
representing kakka (ਕ) in the Punjabi language's cuit (1986)
Gurmukhi script. They are: kesh (unshorn hair),
kangha (the comb), kara (the steel bracelet), kach- • Number Five is a character in Lorien Legacies
hehra (the soldiers shorts), and kirpan (the sword) • Sankara Stones, five magical rocks in Indiana Jones
(in Gurmukhi: ਕੇਸ, ਕੰਘਾ, ਕੜਾ, ਕਛਹਰਾ, ਕਿਰਪਾਨ). and the Temple of Doom that are sought by the
Also, there are five deadly evils: kam (lust), krodh Thuggees for evil purposes
(anger), moh (attachment), lobh (greed), and ankhar
(ego). • The Mach Five (マッハ号 Mahha-gō?), the racing
car Speed Racer (Go Mifune in the Japanese ver-
sion) drives in the anime series of the same name
5.4.6 Other religions and cultures (known as “Mach Go! Go! Go!" in Japan)
• According to ancient Greek philosophers such as • In the works of J.R.R. Tolkien, five wizards
Aristotle, the universe is made up of five classical (Saruman, Gandalf, Radagast, Alatar and Pallando)
elements: water, earth, air, fire, and ether. This are sent to Middle-Earth to aid against the threat of
concept was later adopted by Medieval alchemists the Dark Lord Sauron
and more recently by practitioners of Neo-Pagan re-
ligions such as Wicca. • In the A Song of Ice and Fire series, the War
of the Five Kings is fought between different
• The pentagram, or five-pointed star, bears religious claimants to the Iron Throne of Westeros, as well
significance in various faiths including Baha'i, to the thrones of the individual regions of West-
Christianity, Freemasonry, Satanism, Taoism, eros (Joffrey Baratheon, Stannis Baratheon, Renly
Thelema, and Wicca. Baratheon, Robb Stark and Balon Greyjoy)
• In Cantonese, “five”sounds like the word “not”
(character: 唔). When five appears in front of a 5.5.3 Films
lucky number, e.g. “58”, the result is considered
unlucky. • Towards the end of the film Monty Python and the
• In East Asian tradition, there are five elements: Holy Grail (1975), the character of King Arthur re-
(water, fire, earth, wood, and metal). The Japanese peatedly confuses the number five with the number
names for the days of the week, Tuesday through three.
Saturday, come from these elements via the identi- • Five Go Mad in Dorset (1982) was the first of the
fication of the elements with the five planets visible long-running series of Comic Strip Presents... tele-
with the naked eye. Also, the traditional Japanese vision comedy films
calendar has a five-day weekly cycle that can be
still observed in printed mixed calendars combining • The Fifth Element (1997), a science fiction film
• Fast Five (2011), the fifth installment of the Fast and Other uses
Furious film series.
• A perfect fifth is the most consonant harmony, and
• V for Vendetta (2005), produced by Warner Bros., is the basis for most western tuning systems.
directed by James McTeigue, and adapted from
Alan Moore's graphic novel V for Vendetta promi- • Modern musical notation uses a musical staff made
nently features number 5 and Roman Numeral V; of five horizontal lines.
the story is based on the historical event in which
• In harmonics – the fifth partial (or 4th overtone) of a
a group of men attempted to destroy Parliament on
fundamental has a frequency ratio of 5:1 to the fre-
November 5, 1605
quency of that fundamental. This ratio corresponds
to the interval of 2 octaves plus a pure major third.
Thus, the interval of 5:4 is the interval of the pure
5.5.4 Music third. A major triad chord when played in just in-
tonation (most often the case in a cappella vocal
Groups ensemble singing), will contain such a pure major
third.
• Five (band), a U.K. Boy band
• The number of completed, numbered piano concer-
• The Five (composers), 19th century Russian com- tos of Ludwig van Beethoven, Sergei Prokofiev, and
posers Camille Saint-Saëns.
• 5 Seconds of Summer, pop band that originated in • Using the Latin root, five musicians are called a
Sydney, Australia quintet.
• A scale with five notes per octave is called a

• Five Americans, American rock band active 1965–
pentatonic scale.
1969
• Five is the lowest possible number that can be the
• Five Man Electrical Band, Canadian rock group top number of a time signature with an asymmetric
billed (and active) as the Five Man Electrical Band, meter.
1969 – 1975
• Maroon 5, American pop rock band that originated 5.5.5 Television

in Los Angeles, California
Stations
• MC5, American punk rock band
• Channel 5, a television channel that broadcasts in the
• Pentatonix, a Grammy-winning a cappella group
United Kingdom
originated in Arlington, Texas
• The 5th Dimension, American pop vocal group, ac- Series

tive 1977–present
• Babylon 5, a science fiction television series created,
• The Dave Clark Five, a.k.a. DC5, an English pop produced and largely written by J. Michael Straczyn-
rock group comprising Dave Clark, Lenny David- ski
son, Rick Huxley, Denis Payton, and Mike Smith;
active 1958–1970 • The number 5 features in the television series
Battlestar Galactica in regards to the Final Five
• The Jackson 5, American pop rock group featuring cylons and the Temple of Five
various members of the Jackson family; they were
billed (and active) as The Jackson 5, 1966–1975 • Hi-5 (Australian TV series), a television series from
Australia
• We Five: American folk rock group active 1965–
• Hi-5 (British TV series), a television show from the
1967 and 1968–1977
United Kingdom
• Grand Master Flash and the Furious Five: American • Odyssey 5, a 2002 science fiction television series
rap group, 1970-80's
• The Five: Fox News Channel roundtable current
• Fifth Harmony, Biggest girl group in America. events television show, premiered 2011. So named
2012-present for its panel of five commentators.
5.6. SPORTS 33
• Yes! Pretty Cure 5 is a 2007 anime series which fol- • The Florida Marlins retired the number
lows the adventures of Nozomi and her friends. It is for their first president Carl Barger, who
also followed by the 2008 sequel Yes! Pretty Cure 5 died in December 1992, four months be-
GoGo! fore the team's first game. The num-
ber was chosen because DiMaggio was
Barger's favorite player. When the team
5.5.6 Literature renamed itself the Miami Marlins in ad-
vance of its 2012 move to a new stadium,
• The Famous Five is a series of children's books by it decided to honor Barger with a plaque
British writer Enid Blyton at the new park and placed the number
• The Power of Five is a series of children's books by into circulation.
British writer and screenwriter Anthony Horowitz • In the NBA:
• The Fall of Five is a book written under the collec- • The Phoenix Suns, for Dick Van Arsdale.
tive pseudonym Pittacus Lore in the series Lorien • In the NHL:
Legacies • The Boston Bruins, for Hall of Famer Dit
• The Book of Five Rings is a text on kenjutsu and Clapper.
the martial arts in general, written by the swordsman • The Detroit Red Wings, for Nicklas Lid-
Miyamoto Musashi circa 1645 strom.
• The Montreal Canadiens, for Hall of
• Slaughterhouse-Five is a book by Kurt Vonnegut
Famer Bernie Geoffrion.
about World War II
• The New York Islanders, for Hall of
Famer Denis Potvin.
• The Toronto Maple Leafs, for Bill Bar-
5.6 Sports ilko. The Leafs have a unique policy
of not retiring numbers unless the player
• The Olympic Games have five interlocked rings as honoured either died or suffered a career-
their symbol, representing the number of inhabited ending incident while a member of the
continents represented by the Olympians (Europe, team. Barilko disappeared while on a
Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania, and the Amer- fishing trip in 1951; his presumed death
icas). was confirmed when the wreckage of the
• Five-a-side football is a variation of association foot- plane he was on was discovered in a re-
ball in which each team fields five players. mote section of Ontario in 1962.
• The Washington Capitals, for Hall of
• The jersey number 5 has been retired by several Famer Rod Langway.
North American sports teams in honor of past play-
ing greats or other key figures: • In the NFL:
• The Chicago Bears, for Hall of Famer
• In Major League Baseball: George McAfee.
• The Baltimore Orioles, for Hall of Famer
Brooks Robinson. • In baseball scorekeeping, the number 5 represents
the third baseman's position.
• The Cincinnati Reds have retired the
number twice. The first was in 1940 • In basketball:
for Willard Hershberger, who commit-
ted suicide during the season. The num- • The number 5 is used to represent the position
ber was returned to service in 1942, and of center.
was later retired a second time for Hall of • The number of players of a basketball team on
Famer Johnny Bench. the court at a given time. Thus, the phrase five
• The Cleveland Indians, for Hall of Famer on five is commonly used to describe standard
Lou Boudreau. competitive basketball.
• The Detroit Tigers, for Hall of Famer • The“5-second rule”refers to several related
Hank Greenberg. rules designed to promote continuous play.
• The Houston Astros, for Jeff Bagwell. In all cases, violation of the rule results in a
• The Kansas City Royals, for Hall of turnover.
Famer George Brett. • In all major rulesets, a team has 5 seconds
• The New York Yankees, for Hall of to release the ball toward the court on a
Famer Joe DiMaggio. throw-in.
• In all major rulesets except that of the • The number of points awarded for a try.
NBA, a “closely guarded”player has 5 • The number of the starting lock forward who
seconds to shoot, pass, or penetrate past usually jumps at number 4 in the line-out in
the defender. rugby union.
• In the NBA only, a player cannot drib- • The playing field contains two lines that are
ble with his back or side to the basket for each 5 metres from the try line. These are sig-
more than 5 seconds. nificant because no scrum can be set between
• Under FIBA rules, a player has 5 seconds this line and the try line.
to attempt a free throw. (North American
rulesets allow 10 seconds.)
• In Formula One racing, the number 5 & 6 cars tradi- 5.7 Technology
tionally belonged to the Williams team, until the end
of the 1995 Formula One season. It was most syn-
onymous with Nigel Mansell in the late 1980s and
early 1990s.
• Sebastian Vettel chose this number for his car,
although he first used it in 2015 as he was 2013
world champion.
• In hockey, the area between the goaltender's legs is
known as the five-hole.
• In the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, the #5 car has
been owned by Hendrick Motorsports since 1984.
Drivers who have raced in this car during this period
include:
• Geoff Bodine (1984–1989)
• Ricky Rudd (1990–1993)
• Terry Labonte (1994–2004, including a Cup
Series title in 1996) 5 as a resin identification code, used in recycling.
• Ron Hornaday, Jr. drove #5 in one race in
2000 that Labonte missed due to injury. • 5 is the most common number of gears for automo-
• Todd Bodine, younger brother of Geoff, drove biles with manual transmission.
#5 in another race in 2000 that Labonte missed • In radio communication, the term "Five by five" is
due to injury. used to indicate perfect signal strength and clarity.
• Kyle Busch (2005–2007)
• On almost all devices with a numeric keypad such
• Casey Mears (2008) as telephones, computers, etc., the 5 key has a raised
• Mark Martin (2009–2011) dot or raised bar to make dialing easier. Persons who
• Kasey Kahne (2012–). are blind or have low vision find it useful to be able
to feel the keys of a telephone. All other numbers
• In professional wrestling, if a wrestler grabs the can be found with their relative position around the
ropes when he is in a submission hold, the attack- 5 button (on computer keyboards, the 5 key of the
ing wrestler has up to a 5 count to break the hold numpad has the raised dot or bar, but the 5 key that
until a disqualification is made. This is also the case shifts with % does not).
for choking.
• On most telephones, the 5 key is associated with the
• In rugby league: letters J, K, and L, but on some of the BlackBerry
phones, it is the key for G and H.
• In most competitions, the starting left wing
wears this number. An exception is the Eu- • The Pentium, coined by Intel Corporation, is a fifth-
ropean Super League, which uses static squad generation x86 architecture microprocessor.
numbering. • The resin identification code used in recycling to
• The number of tackles the attacking team has identify polypropylene.
to score a try before the handover.
• A pentamer is an oligomer composed of five sub-
• In rugby union: units.
5.8. MISCELLANEOUS FIELDS 35
5.8 Miscellaneous fields • Quintessence, meaning 'fifth element', refers to the

elusive fifth element that completes the basic four
elements (water, fire, air, and earth)
• The designation of an Interstate Highway (Interstate

5) that runs from San Diego, California to Blaine,
Washington. In addition, all major north-south In-
terstate Highways in the United States end in 5.
• The five basic tastes are sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and
umami.
• In the computer game Riven, 5 is considered a holy

number, and is a recurring theme throughout the
International maritime signal flag for 5 game, appearing in hundreds of places, from the
number of islands in the game, to the number of
bolts on pieces of machinery.
The fives of all four suits in playing cards
• The Garden of Cyrus 1658 by Sir Thomas Browne

St. Petersburg Metro, Line 5 is a Pythagorean Discourse based upon the number
5.
See also: 5 (disambiguation) and Take Five (disambigua-
tion) • The holy number of Discordianism, as dictated by
the Law of Fives.
Five can refer to: • The number of Justices on the Supreme Court of
the United States necessary to render a majority de-
•“Give me five”is a common phrase used preceding cision.
a High five.
• The number of dots in a quincunx.
• An informal term for the British Security Service,
MI5. • The number of permanent members with veto power
on the United Nations Security Council.
• Five babies born at one time are quintuplets. The
most famous set of quintuplets were the Dionne • The number of sides and the number of angles in a
quintuplets born in the 1930s. pentagon.
• In the United States legal system, the Fifth Amend- • The number of points in a pentagram.
ment to the United States Constitution can be re-
ferred to in court as“pleading the fifth”, absolving • The number of Korotkoff sounds when measuring
the defendant from self-incrimination. blood pressure
• Pentameter is verse with five repeating feet per line; • The drink Five Alive is named for its five ingredi-
iambic pentameter was the most popular form in ents. The drink punch derives its name after the
Shakespeare. Sanskrit पञ्च (pañc) for having five ingredients.
• The Keating Five were five United States Senators 5.11 External links
accused of corruption in 1989.
• The Inferior Five: Merryman, Awkwardman, The • The Number 5
Blimp, White Feather, and Dumb Bunny. DC • The Positive Integer 5
Comics parody superhero team.
• No. 5 is the name of the iconic fragrance created by
Coco Chanel.
• The Committee of Five was delegated to draft the
United States Declaration of Independence.
• The 5th U.S. President was James Monroe.
• The five-second rule is a commonly used rule of
thumb for dropped food.
• 5 is a character in the Peanuts comic strip.
• Number Five/#00.05 is a character from the comic
book series The Umbrella Academy
5.9 See also

• Five Families
• Five Nations
5.10 References
[1] “Sloane's A028388 : Good primes”. The On-Line En-
trieved 2016-06-01.
[2] “Sloane's A003273 : Congruent numbers”. The On-
Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer transl. David
24.65
[5] Ifrah, Georges (1998). The universal history of numbers
: from prehistory to the invention of the computer. trans-
lated from the French by David Bellos ... [et al.] London:
Harvill Press. ISBN 978-1-86046-324-2.
[6] Kisia, S. M. (2010), Vertebrates: Structures and Functions,
Biological Systems in Vertebrates, CRC Press, p. 106,
ISBN 9781439840528, The typical limb of tetrapods is
the pentadactyl limb (Gr. penta, five) that has five toes.
Tetrapods evolved from an ancestor that had limbs with
five toes. ... Even though the number of digits in different
vertebrates may vary from five, vertebrates develop from
an embryonic five-digit stage.
• Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and In-

teresting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987):
58–67
Chapter 6
6 (number)
This article is about the mathematical number. For other 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 78, 79, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92,
uses, see 6 (disambiguation). 94, 96, 97, 98. (sequence A228499 in the OEIS)
Six is a unitary perfect number,* [7] a harmonic divisor
6 (six /ˈsɪxs/) is the natural number following 5 and pre- number* [8] and a superior highly composite number, the
ceding 7. last to also be a primorial. The next superior highly com-
6
The SI prefix for 1000 is exa- (E), and for its reciprocal posite number is 12. The next primorial is 30.
atto- (a). 5 and 6 form a Ruth-Aaron pair under either definition.
There are no Graeco-Latin squares with order 6. If n is a
natural number that is not 2 or 6, then there is a Graeco-
6.1 In mathematics Latin square with order n.
The smallest non-abelian group is the symmetric group
6 is the smallest positive integer which is neither a square S 3 which has 3! = 6 elements.
number nor a prime number. Six is the second smallest
S 6 , with 720 elements, is the only finite symmetric group
composite number; its proper divisors are 1, 2 and 3.
which has an outer automorphism. This automorphism
Since six equals the sum of its proper divisors, six is allows us to construct a number of exceptional mathe-
the smallest perfect number, Granville number, and S - matical objects such as the S(5,6,12) Steiner system, the
perfect number.* [1]* [2] projective plane of order 4 and the Hoffman-Singleton
As a perfect number: graph. A closely related result is the following theorem: 6
is the only natural number n for which there is a construc-
tion of n isomorphic objects on an n-set A, invariant un-
• 6 is related to the Mersenne prime 3, since 21 (22 − der all permutations of A, but not naturally in one-to-one
1) = 6. (The next perfect number is 28.) correspondence with the elements of A. This can also be
expressed category theoretically: consider the category
• 6 is the only even perfect number that is not the sum whose objects are the n element sets and whose arrows
of successive odd cubes.* [3] are the bijections between the sets. This category has a
non-trivial functor to itself only for n = 6.
• As a perfect number, 6 is the root of the 6-aliquot
tree, and is itself the aliquot sum of only one num- 6 similar coins can be arranged around a central coin of
ber; the square number, 25. the same radius so that each coin makes contact with
the central one (and touches both its neighbors without
a gap), but seven cannot be so arranged. This makes 6
Six is the only number that is both the sum and the prod-
* the answer to the two-dimensional kissing number prob-
uct of three consecutive positive numbers. [4]
lem. The densest sphere packing of the plane is obtained
Unrelated to 6 being a perfect number, a Golomb ruler by extending this pattern to the hexagonal lattice in which
of length 6 is a “perfect ruler.”* [5] Six is a congruent each circle touches just six others.
number.* [6]
6 is the largest of the four all-Harshad numbers.
Six is the first discrete biprime (2 × 3) and the first mem-
A six-sided polygon is a hexagon, one of the three regu-
ber of the (2 × q) discrete biprime family.
lar polygons capable of tiling the plane. Figurate num-
Six is the smallest natural number that can be written as bers representing hexagons (including six) are called
the sum of two positive rational cubes which are not in- hexagonal numbers. Because 6 is the product of a power
( )3 ( 37 )3
tegers: 6 = 17 21 + 21 . Others up to 100 are: 7, 9, of 2 (namely 21 ) with nothing but distinct Fermat primes
12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, (specifically 3), a regular hexagon is a constructible poly-
42, 43, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56, 58, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68,
37
A cube has 6 faces
gon.
Six is also an octahedral number.* [9] It is a triangular X-ray of a polydactyl human hand with six fingers
number and so is its square (36).
There are six basic trigonometric functions. • A hexahedron is a polyhedron with six faces, with a
cube being a special case
There are six convex regular polytopes in four
dimensions.
• Hexameter is a poetic form consisting of six feet per
Six is the four-bit binary complement of number nine (6 line
= 01102 and 9 = 10012 ).
• A “hex nut”is a nut with six sides, and a hex bolt
The six exponentials theorem guarantees (given the right
has a six-sided head
conditions on the exponents) the transcendence of at least
one of a set of exponentials. • The prefix "hexa-" also occurs in the systematic
All primes above 3 are of the form 6n ± 1 for n ≥ 1. name of many chemical compounds, such as hexane
which has 6 carbon atoms (C
6H
6.1.1 In numeral systems 14).
In bases 10, 15 and 30, 6 is a 1-automorphic number.

6.2.2 The prefix sex-
Sex- is a Latin prefix meaning “six”. Thus:
6.2 Greek and Latin word parts • Senary is the ordinal adjective meaning “sixth”
6.2.1 Hexa • People with sexdactyly have six fingers on each hand
Hexa is classical Greek for “six”. Thus: • The measuring instrument called a sextant got its
name because its shape forms one-sixth of a whole
• "Hexadecimal" combines hexa- with the Latinate circle
decimal to name a number base of 16
• A group of six musicians is called a sextet
• A hexagon is a regular polygon with six sides
• Six babies delivered in one birth are sextuplets
• L’Hexagone is a French nickname for the con-
tinental part of Metropolitan France for its re- • Sexy prime pairs - Prime pairs differing by six are
semblance to a regular hexagon sexy, because sex is the Latin word for six.* [10]
6.4. IN MUSIC 39
6.3 Evolution of the glyph
The evolution of our modern glyph for 6 appears rather

simple when compared with that for the other numer-
als. Our modern 6 can be traced back to the Brahmins
of India, who wrote it in one stroke like a cursive lower-
case e rotated 90 degrees clockwise. Gradually, the up-
per part of the stroke (above the central squiggle) became
more curved, while the lower part of the stroke (below the
central squiggle) became straighter. The Ghubar Arabs
dropped the part of the stroke below the squiggle. From
there, the European evolution to our modern 6 was very
straightforward, aside from a flirtation with a glyph that
looked more like an uppercase G.* [11]
On the seven-segment displays of calculators and
watches, 6 is usually written with six segments. Some
historical calculator models use just five segments for the
6, by omitting the top horizontal bar. This glyph variant
has not caught on; for calculators that can display results
in hexadecimal, a 6 that looks like a 'b' is not practical.
Just as in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text
figures the 6 character usually has an ascender, as, for
A standard guitar has 6 strings
example, in .
This numeral resembles an inverted 9. To disambiguate
the two on objects and documents that can be inverted, • #6 is the pseudonym of American musician Shawn
the 6 has often been underlined, both in handwriting and Crahan, when performing with the band Slipknot
on printed labels.
6.4.2 In instruments
6.4 In music
• A standard guitar has 6 strings
6.4.1 In artists
• Most woodwind instruments have 6 basic holes or
keys (e.g., bassoon, clarinet, pennywhistle, saxo-
• Les Six (“The Six”in English) was a group consist- phone); these holes or keys are usually not given
ing of the French composers Georges Auric, Louis numbers or letters in the fingering charts
Durey, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis
Poulenc and Germaine Tailleferre in the 1920s
• Bands with the number six in their name include Six 6.4.3 In music theory
Organs of Admittance, 6 O'Clock Saints, Electric
Six, Eve 6, Los Xey (sei is Basque for “six”), Out • There are 6 whole tones in an octave.
On Blue Six, Six In Six, Sixpence None the Richer,
Slant 6, Vanity 6, and You Me At Six • There are 6 semitones in a tritone.
6.4.4 In works • The Jewish holiday of Shavuot starts on the sixth day
of the Hebrew month of Sivan
•“Six geese a-laying”were given as a present on
the sixth day in the popular Christmas carol, "The • Seraphs have six wings.
Twelve Days of Christmas.” • In Islam:
• Divided in six arias, Hexachordum Apollinis is gen- • There are Six articles of belief
erally regarded as one of the pinnacles of Johann • Fasting six days of Shawwal, together with the
Pachelbel's oeuvre. month of Ramadan, is equivalent to fasting the
• The theme of the sixth album by Dream Theater, whole year
Six Degrees Of Inner Turbulence, was the number • In Hindu theology, a trasarenu is the combination of
six: the album has six songs, and the sixth song — 6 celestial paramānus (atoms)
that is, the complete second disc —explores the sto-
ries of six individuals suffering from various mental See also 666.
illnesses.
• Aristotle gave six elements of tragedy, the first of
which is Mythos.
6.6 In science
6.6.1 Astronomy
6.5 In religion • Messier object M6, a magnitude 4.5 open clus-
ter in the constellation Scorpius, also known as the
Butterfly Cluster
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 6, a spiral
galaxy in the constellation Andromeda
began on March 16, 2691 BC and ended on May 3,
1393 BC. The duration of Saros series 6 was 1298.1
years, and it contained 73 solar eclipses
began on July 25, 2642 BC and ended on February
1550.6 years, and it contained 87 lunar eclipses
• The Roman numeral VI:
• Stands for subdwarfs in the Yerkes spectral
classification scheme
• (Usually) stands for the sixth-discovered satel-
lite of a planet or minor planet (e.g. Jupiter
VI)
6.6.2 Biology
• There are 6: • The cells of a beehive are 6-sided
• Points on a Star of David • Insects have 6 legs
• Orders of the Mishnah
• Six kingdoms in the taxonomic rank below domain
• Symbolic foods placed on the Passover Seder (biology); Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista,
Plate Archaea/Archaeabacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria.
See Kingdom (biology).
• Yahweh took 6 days to create the world in the Old
Testament Book of Genesis; humankind was cre- • The six elements most common in biomolecules
ated on day 6. In the City of God, Augustine of are called the CHNOPS elements; the letters stand
Hippo suggested (book 11, chapter 30) that God's for the chemical abbreviations of carbon, hydrogen,
creation of the world took six days because 6 is a nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. See
perfect number. CHON.
6.7. IN SPORTS 41
6.6.3 Chemistry
A molecule of benzene has a ring of 6 carbon atoms
• A benzene molecule has a ring of 6 carbon atoms
• 6 is the atomic number of carbon In the Standard Model of particle physics, there are 6 types of
quarks and 6 types of leptons
• The sixfold symmetry of snowflakes arises from the
hexagonal crystal structure of ordinary ice
• A hexamer is an oligomer made of six subunits

6.7 In sports
• 6 entities in a grouping:
• The National Basketball Association and Ma-

jor League Baseball have six divisions (the Na-
tional Hockey League had six divisions until
realigning into four divisions for the 2013-14
season).
• The Original Six teams in the National Hockey
League are Toronto, Chicago, Montreal, New
York, Boston, and Detroit. They are the oldest
remaining teams in the league, though not nec-
essarily the first six; they comprised the entire
league from 1942 to 1967
• Number of players:
The cells of a beehive are 6-sided • Six-man football is a variant of American or
Canadian football, played by smaller schools
with insufficient enrollment to field the tradi-
6.6.4 Medicine tional 11-man (American) or 12-man (Cana-
dian) squad
• There are 6 tastes in traditional Indian Medicine • In football (soccer), the number of substitutes
called Ayurveda: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, combined by both teams, that are allowed in
and astringent. These tastes are used to suggest a the game.
diet based on the symptoms of the body
• In ice hockey, the number of players per team,
• Phase 6 is one of six pandemic influenza phases including the goaltender, that are on the ice at
any one time, excluding penalty situations.
• In volleyball, 6 players from each team on each
6.6.5 Physics side play against each other
• In the Standard Model of particle physics, there are • Scoring and related terminology:
6 types of quarks and 6 types of leptons
• In some sports, 6 goals is known as a double-
• In statistical mechanics, the six-vertex model has 6 hat-trick, but is very hard to accomplish
possible configurations of arrows at each vertex • In American and Canadian football, a
• There are six colors in the RGB color wheel: (pri- touchdown earns 6 points
mary) red, blue, green, (secondary) cyan, magenta, • In Australian Rules football, six points are re-
and yellow. (See Tertiary color) ceived for a goal
• In baseball scorekeeping, the number 6 repre- • The San Diego Padres, for Steve Gar-
sents the shortstop's position. vey
• In cricket (See cricket terminology): • In the NBA:
• a“six”or“sixer”is a shot in which the • The Boston Celtics, for Hall of
ball clears the boundary without bounc- Famer Bill Russell
ing, scoring six runs • The Orlando Magic, for their fans
• there are six balls to an over (the “sixth man”)
• Jersey number 6 and car number 6: • The Philadelphia 76ers, for Hall of
Famer Julius Erving
• In football/soccer: • The Phoenix Suns, for Walter Davis
• Is the number of AC Milan's centre back • The Sacramento Kings, also for their
and captain Franco Baresi; the shirt was fans
retired in 1997
• In the NFL:
• In NASCAR: • The Kansas City Chiefs, for Warren
• The number 6 is currently owned by McVea
Roush Fenway Racing. Since the 2007 • In the NHL:
season, the first year in which Roush Rac-
ing was merged with the Fenway Sports • The Detroit Red Wings, for Larry
Group that owns the Boston Red Sox, the Aurie
Cup Series version of the car has been • The Pittsburgh Penguins, for Ian
driven by David Ragan. From 1988 to Ackerman
2006, Mark Martin drove the #6 in the • The Toronto Maple Leafs, for Hall of
Cup Series for what was then Roush Rac- Famer Ace Bailey. The Leafs have
ing. a unique policy of not retiring num-
• In rugby: bers unless the player honoured ei-
ther died or suffered a career-ending
• In most rugby league competitions (but
incident while a member of the team.
not the European Super League, which
Bailey suffered a fractured skull dur-
uses static squad numbering), the jer-
ing a game in 1933; while he recov-
sey number 6 is worn by the starting
ered and lived for nearly 60 years
five-eighth (Southern Hemisphere term)
after the incident, he never played
or stand-off half (Northern Hemisphere
again. The Leafs would issue the
term).
number to Ron Ellis in 1968 at Bai-
• In rugby union, the starting blindside ley's personal request, and Ellis wore
flanker wears jersey number 6. (Some it until his own retirement in 1981.
teams use“left”and“right”flankers in-
stead of“openside”and“blindside”, with • In Formula One both Rosbergs used this number.
6 being worn by the starting left flanker.) Keke Rosberg used when his world championship
• The jersey number 6 has been retired by sev- in 1982. In 2014, Nico Rosberg uses this number
eral North American sports teams in honor of until present.
past playing greats or other key figures (or, in
two cases, a team's fans):
• In Major League Baseball:
6.8 In technology
• The Atlanta Braves, for manager
Bobby Cox
• On most phones, the 6 key is associated with the
• The Boston Red Sox, for Johnny
letters M, N, and O, but on the BlackBerry it is the
Pesky
key for J and K, and on the BlackBerry 8700 series
• The Detroit Tigers, for Hall of Famer and Curve 8900 with full keyboard, it is the key for
Al Kaline F
• The Minnesota Twins, for Tony
Oliva • The "6-meter band" in amateur radio includes the
• The New York Yankees, for manager frequencies from 50 to 54 MHz
Joe Torre
• The St. Louis Cardinals, for Hall of • 6 is the resin identification code used in recycling to
Famer Stan Musial identify polystyrene
6.11. IN OTHER FIELDS 43
• Six is a character in the television series Blossom

played by Jenna von Oÿ.
• Six is the nickname of Kal Varrik, a central char-

acter in the television series Dark Matter, played by
Roger Cross.
6.9 In calendars
• In the ancient Roman calendar, Sextilis was the sixth
month. After the Julian reform, June became the
sixth month and Sextilis was renamed August
• Sextidi was the sixth day of the decade in the French

Revolutionary calendar
International maritime signal flag for 6

6.10 In the arts and entertainment
• The name of the smallest group of Cub Scouts and
• The Super 6 - 1966 animated cartoon series featuring
Guiding's equivalent Brownies, traditionally consist-
six different super-powered heroes.
ing of six people and is led by a 'sixer'.
• The Bionic Six are the heroes of the eponymous an-
imated series • Six pack is a common form of packaging for six bot-
tles or cans of drink (especially beer), and by exten-
• The number of sides on a cube, hence the highest sion, other assemblages of six items.
number on a standard die
• The fundamental flight instruments lumped together
• The highest number on one end of a standard on a cockpit display are often called the Basic Six or
domino six-pack.
• The Power of Six is a book written by Pittacus Lore, • A coffin is traditionally buried six feet under the
and the second in the Lorien Legacies series. ground; thus, the phrase “six feet under”means
that a person (or thing, or concept) is dead
• Number Six (Tricia Helfer), is a family of fictional
characters from the reimagined science fiction tele- • In Western astrology, Virgo is the 6th astrological
vision series, Battlestar Galactica sign of the Zodiac
• Number 6 is a character in the book series Lorien • The number of dots in a Braille cell.
Legacies
• There are said to be no more than six degrees of
• Number 6 (Teresa Palmer) is a character in the separation between any two people on Earth.
movie I Am Number Four (2011)
• See also Six degrees (disambiguation).
• Number 6, the main protagonist in The Prisoner
played by Patrick McGoohan, portrayed by Jim • Extrasensory perception is sometimes called the
Caviezel in the remake. “sixth sense”
• Six human physical needs: breathe, urination, • The Odd Number 6, JA Todd, Math. Proc. Camb.
defecation, water, food, and sex Phil. Soc. 41 (1945) 66—68
• The Six Dynasties form part of Chinese history • A Property of the Number Six, Chapter 6, P
Cameron, JH v. Lint, Designs, Graphs, Codes and
• 6 is a lucky number in Chinese culture their Links ISBN 0-521-42385-6
• The Birmingham Six were a British miscarriage of • Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and In-
justice, held in prison for 16 years teresting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987):
67 - 69
•“Six”is used as an informal slang term for the British
Secret Intelligence Service, MI6
• Six Flags, an American company running amuse- 6.13 External links

ment parks and theme parks in the US, Canada, and
Mexico • The Number 6
• Sinister Six is a group of super villains who appear in • The Positive Integer 6
American comic books published by Marvel Comics
6.12 References
[1] Higgins, Peter (2008). Number Story: From Counting to
Cryptography. New York: Copernicus. p. 11. ISBN 978-
1-84800-000-1.
[2] “Granville number”. OeisWiki. The Online Encyclopedia

of Integer Sequences. Archived from the original on 29
March 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
[3] David Wells, The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and In-

teresting Numbers. London: Penguin Books (1987): 67
[4] Peter Higgins, Number Story. London: Copernicus Books

(2008): 12

[6] “Sloane's A003273 : Congruent numbers”. The On-

[7] “Sloane's A002827 : Unitary perfect numbers”. The

[8] “Sloane's A001599 : Harmonic or Ore numbers”. The

[9] “Sloane's A005900 : Octahedral numbers”. The On-

[10] Chris K. Caldwell; G. L. Honaker Jr. (2009). Prime Cu-

rios!: The Dictionary of Prime Number Trivia. CreateS-
pace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 11. ISBN 978-
1448651702.

24.66
Chapter 7
7 (number)
“Seven”redirects here. For other uses, see Seven the same six-digit repeating sequence after the dec-
(disambiguation). imal point, but the sequence can start with any of
those six digits.* [7] For example, 1/7 = 0.142857
7 (seven; /ˈsɛvən/) is the natural number following 6 and 142857... and 2/7 = 0.285714 285714....
preceding 8.
In fact, if one sorts the digits in the number
142857 in ascending order, 124578, it is pos-
sible to know from which of the digits the dec-
7.1 Mathematics imal part of the number is going to begin with.
The remainder of dividing any number by 7
• Seven, the fourth prime number, is not only a will give the position in the sequence 124578
Mersenne prime (since 23 − 1 = 7) but also a that the decimal part of the resulting number
double Mersenne prime since the exponent, 3, is will start. For example, 628 ÷ 7 = 89 5/7; here
itself a Mersenne prime. It is also a Newman– 5 is the remainder, and would correspond to
Shanks–Williams prime,* [1] a Woodall prime,* [2] number 7 in the ranking of the ascending se-
a factorial prime,* [3] a lucky prime,* [4] a happy quence. So in this case, 628 ÷ 7 = 89.714285.
number (happy prime),* [5] a safe prime (the only Another example, 5238 ÷ 7 = 748 2/7, hence
Mersenne safe prime), and the fourth Heegner num- the remainder is 2, and this corresponds to
ber.* [6] number 2 in the sequence. In this case, 5238 ÷
7 = 748.285714.
• Seven is the lowest natural number that cannot
be represented as the sum of the squares of • A seven-sided shape is a heptagon. The regular n-
three integers. (See Lagrange's four-square theo- gons for n ≤ 6 can be constructed by compass and
rem#Historical development.) straightedge alone, but the regular heptagon cannot.
• Seven is the aliquot sum of one number, the cubic Figurate numbers representing heptagons (including
number 8 and is the base of the 7-aliquot tree. seven) are called heptagonal numbers. Seven is also
a centered hexagonal number.* [8]
• n = 7 is the first natural number for which the
next statement does not hold: “Two nilpotent • Seven is the first integer reciprocal (multiplicative
endomorphisms from C* n with the same minimal inverse) with infinitely repeating sexagesimal repre-
polynomial and the same rank are similar.” sentation.
• There are seven frieze groups, the groups consist-
• 7 is the only number D for which the equation 2* n
ing of symmetries of the plane whose group of
− D = x2 has more than two solutions for n and x
translations is isomorphic to the group of integers.
natural. In particular, the equation 2* n − 7 = x2 is
known as the Ramanujan–Nagell equation. • There are seven fundamental types of catastrophes.
• 7 is the only dimension, besides the familiar 3, in
which a vector cross product can be defined. • When rolling two standard six-sided dice, seven has
a 6 in 36 (or 1/6) probability of being rolled (1–6, 6–
• 7 is the lowest dimension of a known exotic sphere, 1, 2–5, 5–2, 3–4, or 4–3), the greatest of any num-
although there may exist as yet unknown exotic ber.
smooth structures on the 4-dimensional sphere.
• The Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems
• 999,999 divided by 7 is exactly 142,857. Therefore, in mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathe-
when a vulgar fraction with 7 in the denominator matics Institute in 2000. Currently, six of the prob-
is converted to a decimal expansion, the result has lems remain unsolved.
45
p(S) 1
_ upstroke in the glyph for 1.
0.16 6
0.14 __
5
36
1 2
0.12 1
_
0.10 9
__
1
0.08 12
0.06 __
1
18
0.04
__
1
0.02 36
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
S
Graph of the probability distribution of the sum of 2 six-sided

dice
7.1.1 Numeral systems
In quaternary, 7 is the smallest prime with a composite

sum of digits.
7.1.2 Basic calculations
7.2 Evolution of the glyph
In the beginning, various Hindus wrote 7 more or less in On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and
one stroke as a curve that looks like an uppercase J verti- digital watches, 7 is the number with the most common
cally inverted. The western Ghubar Arabs' main contri- glyph variation (1, 6 and 9 also have variant glyphs). Most
bution was to make the longer line diagonal rather than calculators use three line segments, but on Sharp, Casio,
straight, though they showed some tendencies to making and a few other brands of calculators, 7 is written with
the character more rectilinear. The eastern Arabs de- four line segments because, in Japan, Korea and Taiwan
veloped the character from a 6-look-alike into an upper- 7 is written as ① in the illustration to the right.
case V-look-alike. Both modern Arab forms influenced
the European form, a two-stroke character consisting of While the shape of the 7 character has an ascender in
a horizontal upper line joined at its right to a line go- most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the
ing down to the bottom left corner, a line that is slightly character usually has a descender, as, for example, in
curved in some font variants. As is the case with the
European glyph, the Cham and Khmer glyph for 7 also .
evolved to look like their glyph for 1, though in a differ- Most people in Continental Europe* [10] and increasingly
ent way, so they were also concerned with making their 7 in the UK and Ireland as well as Latin America write 7
more different. For the Khmer this often involved adding with a line in the middle (“7”), sometimes with the top
a horizontal line above the glyph.* [9] This is analogous line crooked. The line through the middle is useful to
to the horizontal stroke through the middle that is some- clearly differentiate the character from the number one,
times used in handwriting in the Western world but which as these can appear similar when written in certain styles
is almost never used in computer fonts. This horizontal of handwriting. This glyph is used in official handwrit-
stroke is, however, important to distinguish the glyph for ing rules for primary school in Russia, Ukraine, Poland,
seven from the glyph for one in writings that use a long other Slavic countries,* [11] as well as in France, Belgium,
7.5. COMMERCE AND BUSINESS 47
• Seven colors in the rainbow

• Seven Seas
• Seven Continents
• Seven against Thebes
• Seven Kings of Rome
• Seven Emperors (and period; Rome, history)
• Julius Caesar, Augustus, Galba, Hadrian,
Nerva, Sallust, Vespasian
• Seven hills of Istanbul
• Seven hills of Rome
• Seven Liberal Arts
• Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove in China
• Seven Sages of Greece
• Saptarishi Seven Sages concept in Ancient India
• Seven Wise Masters, a cycle of medieval stories
• Seven Wonders of the ancient world
• 7 was considered a God number in ancient Egypt.
The Pharaoh usually ordered things in groups of
Finland,* [12] Romania, Germany and Hungary.* [13] multiples of 7. For a time, 7 was not even used in
writings for the people of Egypt.
• 7 pure notes in the diatonic scale
7.3 Automotive and transportation
See also: List of highways numbered 7 7.5 Commerce and business
• 7-Eleven is the trading name of a chain of conve-
• 7 (New York City Subway service), a service of the nience stores based in the U.S.
New York City Subway
• Seven Jeans, also known as Seven '7' for all
• BMW 7 Series, a flagship range of luxury vehicles Mankind, a brand of designer jeans.
from German automobile manufacturer, BMW.
• The Lotus Seven, a sports car produced by Lotus
7.6 Food and beverages
• Each airplane in Boeing's line of passenger jets is
named with a 3-digit number beginning and ending
• 7 Up is the name of a popular soft drink.
in 7.
7.4 Classical world 7.7 Media and entertainment
7.4.1 Classical antiquity 7.7.1 Film

• Seven Arts Productions
• Seven deadly sins
• Seven Classical Planets (“7 Luminaires”) • Seven Arts Pictures
• Seven Heavens • Se7en, also just called Seven is a 1995 movie about
a serial killer basing his murders and victims on the
• Seven days in the week seven deadly sins.
Characters • Seven is the sum of any two opposite sides on a stan-

dard six-sided dice.
• James Bond's secret agent number is 007
• In the game of craps, a dice roll of 7 on the come-
• Star Trek: Voyager features a character named out constitutes a “natural”and the Pass line wins
Seven of Nine. immediately. However, if the shooter (dice thrower)
rolls a 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10 on the come-out roll, that
• The Star Trek: The Original Series episode number becomes his “point”. Now, the shooter
"Assignment: Earth" features a character named must repeat his point before he throws a seven. If
Gary Seven. he repeats his point, the Pass line wins. If he rolls a
seven, not only does the Pass line lose, the shooter
Titles loses control of the dice. This is called a“seven-out”
.
Films
Video games
• Seven Chances (1925) starring Buster Keaton
• The 7th Guest, produced by Trilobyte and released
• The Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Virgin Games in 1993, is an FMV-based puzzle
(1937) horror video game.
• Seven Sinners (1940) directed by Tay Garnett, star- •“The 7”are a group of deadly mercenaries that kid-
ring Marlene Dietrich nap the protagonist's family in the video game Kane
• The musical film Seven Brides for Seven Brothers & Lynch: Dead Men.
(1954) • In the Killer7 game, the number of individual per-
• The Seven Samurai (1954) by Akira Kurosawa star- sonalities serving Harman Smith as part of the group
ring Toshiro Mifune of assassins called the Killer7
• The Marilyn Monroe film The Seven Year Itch • In 999: Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors, one
(1955) which is famous for her white dress billowing of the characters goes by the code name “Seven”.
up from a grate • In the Fallen London story Seeking Mr. Eaten's
• The Swedish film The Seventh Seal (1957) directed Name, the number 7 is a recurring theme.
by Ingmar Bergman
• The American western film The Magnificent Seven 7.7.3 Literature

(1960) starring Yul Brynner
• As You Like It by William Shakespeare's contains
• "7 Faces of Dr. Lao" (1964) starring Tony Randall. Shakespeare's 7 Ages of Man theory.
• "Seven Days in May" (1964( starring Burt Lan- • In Beloved, the novel by Toni Morrison, the number
caster, Kirk Douglas and Fredric March. seven seems to have recurring significance, Beloved
has seven letters, 124 adds up to seven, each chapter
• The Seventh Sign (1988), directed by Carl Schultz begins on a number containing seven, and the second
and starring Jürgen Prochnow and Demi Moore chapter contains seven parts.
• Seven (1995) by David Fincher and starring Brad • The original British version of Anthony Burgess'
Pitt and Morgan Freeman novel A Clockwork Orange is split into three sections
of seven chapters.
• Seven Years in Tibet (1997), directed by Jean-
Jacques Annaud • In the first of the three Deltora Quest series of books
by Emily Rodda, the protagonist must collect the
• Seven Pounds (2008), starring Will Smith
seven gems of the fabled Belt of Deltora: topaz,
ruby, opal, lapis lazuli, emerald, amethyst, and di-
7.7.2 Games amond. Each of the seven gems are guarded by
one of seven guardians located in one of the seven
• Lotto Super 7, a Canadian-lottery game that had its locations around Deltora: The Forests of Silence,
final drawing September 18, 2009. Lake of Tears, City of the Rats, The Shifting Sands,
Dread Mountain, Maze of the Beast, and Valley of
• Sevens, a card game the Lost.
7.7. MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT 49
• In the Dragon Ball series, there are 7 crystalline • In the One Piece series, the Shichibukai (literally,
spheres known as the Dragon balls. Each Dragon “Seven Military Seas”, known in the English ver-
ball has a certain number of stars on it displaying its sions as the“Seven Warlords of the Sea”) are seven
respective number in the set. powerful pirates who work for the government.
• The manga Eureka Seven, based on the anime series • The Saga of Seven Suns, a series of seven novels by
Kevin J. Anderson.
• In Fist of the North Star (Hokuto no Ken), the main
character, Kenshiro, is also known as“the man with • In Neil Gaiman's Sandman series, there are 7 End-
seven wounds”for the seven scars on his body in the less: Destiny, Death, Dream, Destruction, Despair,
shape of the Big Dipper. Desire and Delirium.
• In the Fushigi Yuugi manga series, the four beast • The Secret Seven, name of a children's adventure
gods each have seven warriors, the Genbu Seven, the book by Enid Blyton
Byakko Seven, the Seiryuu Seven, and the Suzaku
• In the Septimus Heap series, Septimus Is the seventh
Seven.
son of a seventh son, 7 is believed to be the most
• In the Harry Potter series of novels by J.K. Rowling, magykal number. There will also be 7 books in the
seven is said to be the most powerfully magical num- series, along with many other things relating to the
ber. There are a number of references to seven in number 7.
Harry Potter: there are a total of seven books in the • Aleksis Kivi's "Seven Brothers", the most famous
series; Ginny Weasley is the seventh child and only book of Finnish literature
daughter of the Weasley family; Harry Potter was
born in July, the seventh month of the year; Wizard- • The Seven Dials Mystery by Agatha Christie
ing students must complete seven years of school at
Hogwarts; There are seven secret passages leading • The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, a book
out of Hogwarts; Seven is also the number on the by Stephen Covey
back of Harry Potter's Quidditch robes (Prisoner of
Azkaban movie). Professor Moody was also hidden • Seven Pillars of Wisdom, a book written by T.E.
in a chest with an underground cubby, which was Lawrence
locked with seven locks Harry Potter and the Gob- • The book Seven Years in Tibet
let of Fire. In Quidditch each team consists of seven
players. Chapter four of Book 7 is titled“The Seven • The novel Seven Days in May, written by Fletcher
Potters”. Lord Voldemort planned on making six Knebel
Horcruxes (objects containing parts of his soul), so
that his soul would exist in seven parts, but made an • In The Silmarillion, also a Tolkien work, there are
extra one, making a total of seven Horcruxes. seven Lords of the Valar, and seven Ladies of the
Valar; Fëanor, a central character, has seven sons:
• In the InuYasha series, the Shichinintai are, as their Maedhros, Maglor, Celegorm, Curufin, Caranthir,
name says, a band of seven mercenaries. Amrod, and Amras.
• The Seven Rings of the Vongola Family in Katekyo • In George R.R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire,
Hitman Reborn: Sky, Storm, Rain, Sun, Thunder, seven gods, the Mother, the Father, the Warrior, the
Mist, and Cloud. Crone, the Smith, the Maiden, and the Stranger, are
worshipped in the land of Westeros, which is made
• In The Lost Years of Merlin series, a book is titled up of seven former kingdoms and often called the
“The Seven Songs of Merlin” Seven Kingdoms. The Seven are the primary deities
of Westeros.
• The character 7 (Nana) and the organization Septi-
mal Moon in Loveless (manga) • In W. E. B. Du Bois's book The Souls of Black Folk,
he refers to “the Negro”as “the seventh son”.
• In the "Nana manga series, there are many recurrent
instances of the number seven (“nana”is Japanese • In The Tales of Alvin Maker, an alternate history fan-
for“seven”), including the name of both main char- tasy series by Orson Scott Card, seventh sons are im-
acters. bued with special powers, referred to as“knacks”,
over the physical world. The powers of a seventh son
• Team 7 consists of the main characters in Naruto: of a seventh son, the birthright of the series' main
Naruto Uzumaki, Sasuke Uchiha, Kakashi Hatake, character, Alvin Smith, are especially pronounced.
and Sakura Haruno. Later in the series, Sai joined Men who wield these powers to create are referred
team 7 after Sasuke left Konohagakure. to as “Makers.”
• In Toaru Majutsu no Index, there are a total of seven • "7" is a song by Prince and The New Power Gener-
Level 5 espers: Accelerator, Kakine Teitoku, Mis- ation, from the 1992 Love Symbol Album.
aka Mikoto, Mugino Shizuri, Shokuhou Misaki, an
unknown esper and Sogiita Gunha. • 7 is a 2003 Enrique Iglesias album.
• In The Two Towers, the second volume of J. R. • 7 (Mick Thompson) is one of the guitarists for pop-
R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, the following ular metal band Slipknot.
poem appears: “Tall ships and tall kings/Three • Sweet 7 is an album by Sugababes
times three/What brought they from the foundered
land/Over the flowing sea?/Seven stars and seven • The number of dastgahs in Persian traditional music
stones/And one white tree.”The“foundered land”
is Númenor, and the “Seven Stars”are unknown, • 'Seventh son of a Seventh son' is the 7th album of
but they may refer to a constellation, the Sickle of the English heavy metal band Iron Maiden, brought
the Valar. The Seven Stones are the palantíri, the out in 1988
seeing-stones. The number seven was also signif- • Sevens is the 7th album by Country singer Garth
icant to Dwarvish culture as portrayed by Tolkien: Brooks, released in 1997, consisting of 14 songs(2
there were seven fathers of the Dwarves (as re- sets of 7).
counted in The Silmarillion) and the Dwarves were
later given seven rings by Sauron (according to The •“Seven”is a song by Megadeth on their 1999 album
Lord of the Rings). Risk
• David Eastis authored two books about the popular • UK-based alt-rock band, Take The Seven (TTVII).
number seven both with the title “7”.
•“The Munificent Seven”is the appended parentheti-
• Jackie Leo wrote “Seven”. cal title for the song“Love Is Stronger Than Justice”
on Sting's 1993 album Ten Summoner's Tales
• We are Seven by William Wordsworth
• Seven is a song on David Bowie's album Hours
• In The Owl Keeper]], the owl keeper (by Christine
Brodien-Jones) is said to be born on the 7th day of
the 7th month at 7 past midnight. 7.7.5 Sports
• Marina or Number Seven is a character in the book • In the NHL, MLB, and NBA, the maximum number
series The Lorien Legacies. of games played in a playoff series.
• The Revenge of Seven by Pittacus Lore • The jersey number 7 has been retired by several
• In Rick Riordan's series The Heroes of Olympus
ing greats or other key figures:
there are seven heroes of the Great Prophecy:
Percy Jackson, Annabeth Chase, Jason Grace, Piper • Major League Baseball
McLean, Leo Valdez, Hazel Levesque, and Frank
• The Houston Astros, for Hall of Famer
Zhang.
Craig Biggio.
• The New York Yankees, for Hall of
7.7.4 Music Famer Mickey Mantle.
• National Football League:
• The number of notes in the traditional Western dia-
• The Chicago Bears, for Hall of Fame
tonic scale (major or minor)
player, coach, and owner George Halas.
• In music, the Roman numeral vii is the leading • The Denver Broncos, for Hall of Famer
tone (vii°) or subtonic (VII) scale degree, chord John Elway.
(leading-tone seventh chord or secondary leading- • The Detroit Lions, for Hall of Famer
tone chord), or diatonic function, when distin- Dutch Clark.
guished V = major and v = minor. • The Los Angeles Rams, for Hall of Famer
• The original diameter in inches of the 45rpm format Bob Waterfield.
gramophone record. • The New York Giants, for Hall of Famer
Mel Hein.
• There are seven musicians in a septet or a septuor. • National Basketball Association
• There are seven basic swaras [saptaswaras] in In- • The Cleveland Cavaliers, for Bingo
dian Carnatic music Smith.
7.7. MEDIA AND ENTERTAINMENT 51
• The New Orleans Hornets, for Hall of • In American and Canadian football, a team scores 7
Famer Pete Maravich. He died in January points by scoring a touchdown and kicking the extra
1988, before the franchise began as the point.
Charlotte Hornets, but his number was re-
tired based on his years in the city with the • In American and Canadian football, the minimum
New Orleans Jazz. number of players who, by rule, must be lined up
at the line of scrimmage on offense (otherwise the
• The Phoenix Suns, for Kevin Johnson.
team commits the foul of illegal formation)
• The Utah Jazz, also for Maravich. He
briefly played with the team while it was
Frisbee and Ultimate Frisbee
in Utah, and played five seasons with the
team in its previous location of New Or-
leans. • In Ultimate Frisbee, the number of players on the
field for each team
• National Hockey League
• The Boston Bruins, for Hall of Famer Phil Handball
Esposito.
• The Buffalo Sabres, for Rick Martin. • In team handball, the number of players on each
• The Dallas Stars, for Neal Broten. team including the goalkeeper
• The Detroit Red Wings, for Hall of
Famer Ted Lindsay. Motor sports
• The Edmonton Oilers, for Hall of Famer
Paul Coffey. • In Formula 1 the #7 is owned by 2007 World Cham-
• The Montreal Canadiens, for Hall of pion Kimi Räikkönen
Famer Howie Morenz.
• The New York Rangers, for Hall of • In motorcycling, the racing number for British
Famer Rod Gilbert. World Champion Barry Sheene
• The Philadelphia Flyers, for Hall of • In NASCAR:
Famer Bill Barber.
• The Washington Capitals, for Yvon • In the Sprint Cup Series, the #7 car is currently
Labre. owned by Robby Gordon Motorsports. Team
owner Robby Gordon, plus other team drivers,
• The Toronto Maple Leafs have a pol-
race a part-time schedule in this car.
icy of not retiring numbers unless the
player honoured either died or suffered a • In the Nationwide Series, the #7 car is cur-
career-ending incident while a member of rently owned by JR Motorsports. Danica
the team. Other players whose numbers Patrick, who began racing in that car late in
would otherwise be retired instead have the 2011 season, took over the full-time ride
their numbers enshrined by the team as in the 2012 season.
“Honoured Numbers”, which remain in
• In the IndyCar Series, the #7 car is currently owned
circulation for future players. The num-
by Andretti Autosport. Patirck drove full-time in
ber 7 is currently honoured for Hall of
this car through the 2011 season before moving to
Famers King Clancy and Tim Horton.
NASCAR.
Baseball
Rugby Rugby league • The jersey number 7 is
worn by the starting scrum-half/halfback
• In high school baseball, a regulation game lasts seven in most competitions (but not in the Eu-
innings. ropean Super League, which uses static
• In baseball, the 7th Inning stretch attributed to the squad numbering).
27th U.S. President, William Howard Taft. • 7, The number of consecutive State
of Origin Series wins (2006-2012) by
• In scoring baseball, seven represents the left fielder's Queensland against New South Wales in
position. Australia. The highest since the incep-
tion of the State of Origin Series concept
Football and soccer which commenced in 1980.
Rugby union • The jersey number 7 is worn
• In association football, the right midfielder tradition- by the starting openside flanker. (Some
ally wears the number 7 teams use “left”and “right”flankers
instead of “openside”and “blindside” Programs

, with 7 being worn by the starting right
flanker.) • 7 Days, a comedy gameshow based on news stories
• A converted try is worth 7 points. This from New Zealand.
number is also significant because the
• The name of a television show 7th Heaven.
standard bonus points system used in
most competitions awards 1 bonus point • The name of a The Adventures of Super Mario Bros.
to a team that loses by 7 points or less. 3 cartoon episode, "7 Continents for 7 Koopas".
• The IRB Sevens World Series, an annual
competition for national teams in rugby • Blake's 7 was a BBC science fiction series that ran
union sevens (see below) from 1978 to 1981
• The Rugby World Cup Sevens, the World
• Eureka Seven, a science fiction and romance anime.
Cup for the union version of Sevens
Cross-code • Rugby sevens, a variant of union • In Red Dwarf II episode "Parallel Universe", Holly
and league that contains only seven play- forgets the number 7 in a countdown for the Holly
ers per side instead of the standard 15 Hop Drive. After Rimmer reminds him, he admits
(union) or 13 (league) he has “a blind spot for sevens”.
Softball • Seven, an episodic character from the sitcom

Married... with Children.
• A regulation game in softball consists of seven in-
• In the Seinfeld episode "The Seven", Seven is the
nings.
name George Costanza desires to give his first-born,
Track and field having allegedly promised this to the widow of base-
ball great Mickey Mantle (whose uniform number
• In cross country running, a team traditionally con- was 7). George is enraged, however, when his fi-
sists of seven athletes ance's cousin and spouse copy the idea and give the
name to their child.
• A heptathlon is a combined event of seven running,
jumping and throwing disciplines for both men's and • Seven Days, a science fiction show about the NSA
women's athletics. using time travel.
Water polo • The name of one of the monsters in the cartoon tele-
vision show Seven Little Monsters.
• Each team is allowed to have a maximum of seven • In Star Trek: Voyager, Seven of Nine (also called
players, one of them a goalkeeper, in the playing Seven for short) is one of the crewmembers
area of the pool at any given time.
• The Ultra Series has two heroes with “Seven”in
their name: Ultra Seven and Ultra Seven-21.
7.7.6 Television
• Ultra Seven, a television series aired in 1967, and
Networks and stations the superhero of the same name. He is the honorary
seventh member of the Ultra Garrison
• The circle 7 logo used by numerous ABC network
O&O stations in the U.S. (In the late 1940s, ABC • In House of Anubis (on Nickelodeon), the“chosen
arranged for its five original, founding O&O TV sta- one”has to be born on 7/7 (July 7) at 7:00am.
tions to broadcast on channel 7.)
• George Carlin in what is perhaps his best-known
• Maximum number of VHF broadcast channels routine,“Seven Words You Can Never Say on Tele-
available in any TV market in the United States of vision”.
America; they are channels 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, and
13 in the Greater New York City and Los Angeles- • Lucky 7: Short-lived ABC TV series (premiered
Long Beach SMSAs. 2013) about seven people who win the lottery.
• ProSieben (sieben being German for seven), a tele- • The last episode of American Horror Story: Coven
vision network in Germany is named The Seven Wonders, after the seven great
powers a witch should perform to become the leader
• Seven Network, a television network in Australia.
or“Supreme”of the generation: Telekinesis, Con-
• Trans7 (formerly TV7 before taken over by Trans cilium, Descensum, Divination, Transmutation, Vi-
Corporation), a television network in Indonesia. talum Vitalis and Pyrokinesis.
7.9. RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY 53
• In the anime series Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters, there

are seven magical ancient Egyptian artefacts, known
as the Millenium Items (Puzzle, Eye, Ring, Key,
Scale, Rod and Necklace), which play a significant
role in the storyline of the show throughout its dura-
tion.
• The number 7 is the racing number of Herbie's girl-

friend, Giselle, in the movie Herbie Goes to Monte
Carlo
7.8 Places
• The traditional count of Basque provinces as ex-
pressed in the slogan Zazpiak Bat, translates as“the
seven [are] one”and refers to the seven Basque tra-
ditional provinces..
• The figurative number of seas
• The Seven Virgins mountain range in Sri Lanka,

which was the scene of an air disaster on Decem-
ber 4, 1974, involving a DC-8 Series 55F passenger
jetliner operated by the charter company Martinair,
which left 191 dead.
• The Sevens (sometimes typeset as “7he Sevens”), Seven Days of Creation - 1765 book
a rugby union stadium in Dubai, UAE and home to
the Dubai Sevens tournament
• In regards to the sin sacrifice, the anointed priest was
to sprinkle the bullock's blood seven times before the
lord (Leviticus 4:6)
7.9 Religion and mythology
• Seven days of the feast of Passover (Exodus 13:3–
7.9.1 Old Testament 10)
• Seven-day week and the pattern concerning distri-
• Seven Hebrew words of Bereishit 1:1 / Genesis 1:1 bution and use of manna (Exodus 16)
(28 letters).
• The Menorah (Hebrew: ‫)מנורה‬, is a seven-branched
candelabrum lit by olive oil in the Tabernacle and
The number seven in the seven days of Creation is
the Temple in Jerusalem (Exodus 25)
typological and the number seven appears commonly
elsewhere in the Bible. These include: • Seven year cycle around the years of Jubilee (Leviti-
cus 25)
• Seven days of Creation (Genesis 1) e.g., God rested • Jericho's walls fall on the seventh day after seven
on and sanctified the seventh day (Sabbath) priests with seven trumpets march around the city
seven times (Joshua 6:8)
• Anyone who dares to kill Cain 'will suffer vengeance
seven times over' (Genesis 4:15) • King David had seven older brothers (1 Samuel 16)
• Lamech in his “Song of the Sword”claims that 'if • The child sneezed seven times after Elisha raised
Cain shall be avenged sevenfold', he himself shall be him from the dead (2 Kings 4:35)
'seventy-sevenfold' (Genesis 4:24)
• Seven things that are detestable to the LORD
• Noah is commanded to bring seven pairs of every (Proverbs 6:16–19)
clean animal onto the ark (Genesis 7:2) • Seven Pillars of the House of Wisdom (Proverbs
9:1)
• Seven years of plenty and seven years of famine in
Pharaoh's dream (Genesis 41) • The woman with seven sons in 2 Maccabees.
7.9.2 New Testament 7.9.3 Hinduism

• Seven loaves multiplied into seven basketfuls of sur- • The Sanskrit word sapta refers to number seven.
plus (Matthew 15:32–37)
• Indian Music has "Saptak Swaras,”seven octats (sa
• Peter asked Jesus if he should forgive those who re ga ma pa dha ni) which are basics of music, using
sinned against him up to 7 times; Jesus responded by which hundreds of Ragas are composed.
saying to forgive them 'seventy times seven times',
• Celestial group of seven stars (7 Classical Planets)
remembering so the curse of Cain and the song of
are named as "Sapta Rishi" based on the seven great
Lamech in Genesis 4.* [14]
saints.
• Seven demons were driven out of Mary Magdelene.
• Seven Promises [Saptapadi], Seven Rounds in
(Luke 8:2).
Hindu Wedding and Seven Reincarnation
• The seven last sayings of Jesus on the cross.
• According to Hinduism, there are seven worlds in
• Seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost the universe, seven seas in the world and seven
and wisdom (Acts 6:3) Rishies (seven gurus) called sapta rishis.
• In the Book of Revelation, seven is a central figure • Seven hills at tirumala also known as Yedu Kon-
of quantities: Seven Spirits of God, Seven Churches dalavadu [in Telugu], ezhu malaiyan [in Tamil]
(to which the book is addressed); means Sevenhills God
• Seven of the following appear in Revelation: • There are 7 Chakras in the basic model used in var-
golden lampstands(1:12), stars(1:16), torches of ious eastern traditions and philosophies.
fire(4:5) Seven Seals(5:1), angels and their trum-
pets(8:2), last plagues(15:1), golden bowls(15:7),
thunders(10:3), horns and eyes(5:6), diadems(12:3) 7.9.4 Islam
and kings(17:10). See Category:Seven in the Book
• The number of ayat in surat al-Fatiha
of Revelation.
• The number of layers of the Earth in Islamic religion
Other sevens in Christian knowledge and practice include: is seven
• The Seven Corporal Acts of Mercy and Seven Spir- • The number of skies in Islamic religion is seven
itual Acts of Mercy of Roman Catholic, Anglican, • The number of circumambulations (Tawaf) that are
and other traditions made around the Kaaba
• The Seven deadly sins: lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, • The number of walks between Al-Safa and Al-
wrath, envy, and pride Marwah mountains —that is travelling back and
• Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit forth—seven times during the ritual pilgrimages of
Hajj and Umrah
• The Seven Joys of the Virgin Mary, of Roman
Catholic, Anglican, and other traditions • The number of heavens in Islamic religion, i.e. levels
in heaven.
• The Seven Sacraments in the Catholic faith (though
some traditions assign a different number) • The number of hells in hell is also seven i.e. levels
in hell.
• The Seven Sorrows of the Virgin Mary, of Roman
Catholic, Anglican, and other traditions • The number of doors to hell is seven (for heaven the
number of doors is eight).
• There are seven suicides mentioned in the Bible (OT
and NT).* [15] • In Verse 12:46 (see Islamic view of Joseph) of
the Quran, Joseph (Yusef) is asked to interpret the
• The seven terraces of Mount Purgatory (one per King's dream where seven fat cows were dreamt to
deadly sin) have been devoured by seven skinny cows and seven
green spikes, and others shrivelled.
• The Seven Virtues: chastity, temperance, charity,
diligence, kindness, patience, and humility • The number of the big sins or vices is seven which
are from a Hadith of the prophet Mohamed :“Avoid
• In the genealogy in the Gospel of Luke, Jesus is 77th
the seven sins polytheism, witchcraft, the killing
in a direct line
of the soul which Allah has forbidden except by
• The number of heads of the three beasts (7 × 10 × right, consuming riba, consuming the wealth of the
7 + 7 × 10 × 10 + 7 × 10 = 1260) of the Book of orphan, to escape from the battles and slandering
Revelation, and the seven seals chaste women”
7.9. RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY 55
• A naming ceremony is held for babies on their sev-

enth day of life
7.9.5 Judaism
The Seven Lucky Gods in Japanese mythology
• Shivà (another pronunciation of the Hebrew word
for 7—(Hebrew: ‫“ ;שבעה‬seven”)), is the number
of days of mourning. Hence, one sits Shiva. As in • In Buddhism, Buddha walked 7 steps at his birth.
Shiva (Judaism)
• In Khasi mythology, the seven divine women who
• The weekly Torah portion is divided into seven were left behind on earth and became the ances-
aliyahs, and seven Jewish men (or boys over the tresses of all humankind.
age of 13 who are considered men; Bar Mitzvah)
are called up for the reading of these aliyahs during • The number of sleeping men in the Christian myth
Shabbat morning services. of the "Seven Sleepers.”
• Seven blessings are recited under the chuppah dur- • The number of sages in Hindu mythology; their
ing a Jewish wedding ceremony. wives are the deities referred to as the“Seven Moth-
ers.”
• A Jewish bride and groom are feted with seven days
of festive meals after their wedding, known as Sheva • In Iran,* [16] German, Spanish, and other cultures
Berachot (“Seven Blessings”). that speak Romance Languages, cats are said to have
7 lives as opposed to English, where cats are said to
• The number of Ushpizzin (also known as the“Seven have 9 lives.
Shepherds”) who visit the sukkah during the holiday
of Sukkot: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, • In Irish mythology, the epic hero Cúchulainn is asso-
Aaron, and David. ciated with the number 7. He has 7 fingers on each
hand, 7 toes on each foot, and 7 pupils in each eye.
• The number of nations God told the Israelites they In the Irish epic Táin Bó Cúailnge, Cúchulainn is 7
would displace when they entered the land of Israel years old when he receives his first weapons and de-
(Deut. 7:1): the Hittite, the Girgashite, the Amorite, feats the armies of the Ulaidh and his son Connla is
the Canaanite, the Perizzite, the Hivite, and the 7 years old when he is slain by Cúchulainn in “The
Jebusite. Death of Aife's Only Son.”
• In Breslov tradition, the seven orifices of the face (2 • In Galician folklore, a seventh son will be a
eyes, 2 nostrils, 2 ears, and the mouth) are called werewolf. In other folklores, after six daughters, the
“The Seven Candles.” seventh child is to be a son and a werewolf. In other
European folklores, the seventh son of a seventh son
• The 7 Sephirot of primary conscious emotion that will be a child with special powers of healing and
are attributes of the creator. clairvoyant seeing, and in other cultures that seventh
son of a seventh son would be a vampire.
7.9.6 Astrology • In Guaraní mythology, the number of prominent
legendary monsters.
• The number of daughters of Atlas in the Pleiades
(also called the "Seven Sisters") • In the eponymous British folk tale, Thomas the
Rhymer went to live in the faerie kingdom for 7
• The number of saints appearing in a constellation years.
called“Saptharishi Mandalam”in Indian astronomy.
• Mahatma Gandhi's list of the destructive Seven
Blunders of the World that cause violence: Wealth
7.9.7 Others without work, pleasure without conscience, knowl-
edge without character, commerce without moral-
Deity, being, or character ity, science without humanity, religion without sac-
rifice and politics without principle.
• The Seven Lucky Gods refer to the seven gods of • The cosmogony of Urantia* [17] gives an explana-
good fortune in Japanese mythology. tion to the sacredness of the number 7 in some re-
ligions, including those based on a triple deity: 7
• The number of archangels according to some sys- indeed is the number of all the possible combina-
tems. tions of three elements taken one by one, two by
two, or by three. It therefore expresses all the as- 7.10 Science

sociative possibilities of the three fundamental as-
pects of the absolute (Christian Trinity, for exam-
ple, or Trimurti in Hinduism) which organizes the
7.10.1 Astronomy
Creation. The seventh of these combinations being
the one that combines the three aspects, 7 therefore • The number of celestial objects in the solar system
also expresses spiritual achievement. visible to the naked eye from Earth – the Sun, the
Moon and the five classical naked eye planets: Mars,
• In other traditions and teachings, seven is seen as the Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn.
perfect number that holds creation and the universe
together.* [18] From the 7 deadly sins to 7 chakras, 7 • Messier object M7, a magnitude 3.5 open cluster in
heavens and 7 planes of creation, this number holds the constellation Scorpius.
great significance.
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 7, a
Place 14th magnitude spiral galaxy in the constellation
Sculptor.
• The number of main islands of mythological
Atlantis. • The number of main stars in the asterism of the Big
Dipper and the constellation of Orion.
• The number of gateways traversed by Inanna during
her descent into the underworld.
• Cibola was one of the legendary Seven Cities of began on April 8, 2590 BC and ended on May
Gold the Spanish thought existed. 16, 1310 BC. The duration of Saros series 2 was
• In the Bahá'í faith, the text The Seven Valleys, by the
Prophet-Founder Bahá'u'lláh, relates the journey of
the soul through the seven“valleys”of Search, Love,
began on July 15, 2595 BC and ended on February
Knowledge, Unity, Contentment, Wonderment, and
finally True Poverty and Absolute Nothingness.
1586.6 years, and it contained 89 lunar eclipses.
Scripture
• The Roman numeral VII stands for white dwarfs in
the Yerkes spectral classification scheme.
• Circle Seven Koran, the holy scripture of the Moor-
ish Science Temple of America
• The Roman numeral VII (usually) stands for the
seventh-discovered satellite of a planet or minor
Thing, concept, or symbol planet (e.g., Jupiter VII).
• The Seven-Branched Sword in Japanese mythology.

• The Theosophical teachings of Alice A. Bailey di- 7.10.2 Biology
vide the human race into seven psychological types
called the Seven Rays, which she calls“the basis of • Almost all mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae
New Age psychology".
• The number of spots on a seven-spot ladybird
• The minor symbol number of yang from the Taoist
yin-yang.
• There are 7 types of virus according to the Baltimore
• The number of palms in an Egyptian Sacred Cubit. classification
• The number of ranks in Mithraism.

• The number seven is of particular significance 7.10.3 Chemistry
within Cherokee cosmology.
• A neutral pH value between acidity and alkalinity
Time
• The atomic number of nitrogen
• In British folklore, every 7 years the Queen of the
Fairies pays a tithe to Hell (or possibly Hel) in the • Heptane is an alkane with 7 carbon atoms in each
tale of Tam Lin. molecule
7.11. SOFTWARE 57
• Isaac Newton identified 7 colors of the rainbow –

red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet
7.10.5 Psychology
• The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
7.11 Software
Heptane is an alkane with 7 carbon atoms per molecule
• 7 is the calling code of Russia. Only the North
American Numbering Plan (+1) and Russia (+7)
have a single-digit code.
• There are seven layers in the OSI model.
• Windows 7, one of the previous releases of Windows

series of operating systems from Microsoft.
• Video game developer Bungie, famed for the Halo

series of games, often references the number seven
in their products.
• The number of periods, or horizontal rows of

elements, in the periodic table 7.12 Temporal, seasonal and holi-
• The number of principal energy levels for electrons days
around the nucleus
• The number of crystal systems: triclinic, mono- • The seven days of the week
clinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexago-
nal, and cubic. • The Kulin people of Australia living near the Dande-
nong Ranges traditionally have seven seasons. Some
• The number of crystal lattice systems: cubic (or iso- of the Native Americans of Montana also have seven
metric), hexagonal, tetragonal, rhombohedral, or- seasons: chinook season, muddy spring, green sum-
thorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic. mer, gold summer (or dry summer),“Indian”Sum-
mer, late fall, and cold winter.
7.10.4 Physics • The Heptarchy, from the (Greek for seven realm), is
the name applied by historians to the period (500–
850 CE) in English history after the Anglo-Saxon
conquest of England, derived from the seven king-
doms of Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex,
Kent, Sussex, and Wessex, which eventually merged
to become the Kingdom of England during the early
10th century.
• September was the seventh month in the ancient

Roman calendar, as its name indicates. After the re-
form that led to the current order, the seventh month
Isaac Newton's 7 colors of the rainbow is July.
• Septidi was the seventh day of the decade in the

• There are 7 SI base units.* [19] These are a coher- French Revolutionary Calendar.
ent set of units defined to measure 7 basic phys-
ical properties: metre, kilogram, second, ampere, • The 7th glyph of the Maya Calendar is Blue Hand, it
kelvin, mole, candela. The 7 SI base units are used represents the days in creation and is associated with
to define all other SI units, which are known as SI creative perfection. This is the glyph of the last day
derived units.* [20] of their calendar that ends on December 21, 2012.
7.13 See also [13] “Example of teaching materials for pre-schoolers”

(French)
• Septenary (numeral system) [14] 21
Then Peter came to Jesus and asked, 'Lord, how many
times shall I forgive my brother when he sins against me?
• Septenary (Theosophy) Up to seven times?' 22 Jesus answered, 'I tell you, not seven
times, but seventy times seven.'
• Seven climes
[15] “Sermon Illustrations”. Bible.org. Retrieved 2012-09-
• Year Seven (School)
07.
• Se7en (disambiguation) [16] "''Encyclopædia Britannica''“Number Symbolism"". Bri-
tannica.com. Retrieved 2012-09-07.
• Luck
[17] Urantia Fondation website
• One-seventh area triangle
[18] Nunitus, Septem (2016). 777: Messages from the Elder
• Diatonic scale Gods (777 Series Book 1). Elder Gods Press. p. 5. ASIN
B01I0EUQGA
[19] “SI brochure, The seven SI base units”. Retrieved 2009-

7.14 Notes 09-11.
[1] “Sloane's A088165 : NSW primes”. The On-Line En- [20] “SI brochure, SI derived units”. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
trieved 2016-06-01.
[2] “Sloane's A050918 : Woodall primes”. The On-Line En-

7.15 References
trieved 2016-06-01. • Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and In-
teresting Numbers London: Penguin Group (1987):
[3] “Sloane's A088054 : Factorial primes”. The On-Line En- 70–71
trieved 2016-06-01.
[4] “Sloane's A031157 : Numbers that are both lucky and 7.16 External links
prime”. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.
OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
• The Significance of The Number Seven by Hillel ben
[5] “Sloane's A035497 : Happy primes”. The On-Line En- David (Greg Killian)
trieved 2016-06-01. • The Number Seven in the Holy Bible by Ed F. Val-
lowe
Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Founda- • The Bible Wheel: The Number Seven and Scripture
• The Number 7
York: W. H. Freeman & Company (2000): 82 • The Positive Integer 7
[8] “Sloane's A003215 : Hex (or centered hexagonal) num- • Prime curiosities: 7
bers”. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.
OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-06-01.

24.67
[10] Eeva Törmänen (September 8, 2011). “Aamulehti:

Opetushallitus harkitsee numero 7 viivan palauttamista”
. Tekniikka & Talous (in Finnish).
[11] “Education writing numerals in grade 1.”(Russian)
[12] Elli Harju (August 6, 2015). ""Nenosen seiska”teki

paluun: Tiesitkö, mistä poikkiviiva on peräisin?". Iltalehti
(in Finnish).
Chapter 8
8 (number)
“8th”, “Eight”, and “Eighth”redirect here. For All powers of 2 (2* x), have an aliquot sum of one less
other uses, see 8 (disambiguation). than themselves.
A number is divisible by 8 if its last 3 digits, when written
8 (eight /ˈeɪt/) is the natural number following 7 and pre- in decimal, are also divisible by 8, or its last 3 digits are
ceding 9. 0 when written in binary.
8 and 9 form a Ruth–Aaron pair under the second defini-
tion in which repeated prime factors are counted as often
8.1 In mathematics as they occur.
There are a total of eight convex deltahedra.
8 is:
A polygon with eight sides is an octagon. Figurate num-
bers representing octagons (including eight) are called
• a composite number, its proper divisors being 1, 2, octagonal numbers.
and 4. It is twice 4 or four times 2.
A polyhedron with eight faces is an octahedron. A
• a power of two, being 23 (two cubed), and is the first cuboctahedron has as faces six equal squares and eight
number of the form p3 , p being an integer greater equal regular triangles.
than 1.
A cube has eight vertices.
• the first number which is neither prime nor Sphenic numbers always have exactly eight divisors.
semiprime.
The number 8 is involved with a number of interesting
• the base of the octal number system, which is mostly mathematical phenomena related to the notion of Bott
used with computers. In octal, one digit represents periodicity. For example, if O(∞) is the direct limit of
3 bits. In modern computers, a byte is a grouping of the inclusions of real orthogonal groups
eight bits, also called an octet.
• a Fibonacci number, being 3 plus 5. The next Fi- O(1) ,→ O(2) ,→ . . . ,→ O(k) ,→ . . .
bonacci number is 13. 8 is the only positive Fi-
bonacci number, aside from 1, that is a perfect then
cube.* [1]
• the only nonzero perfect power that is one less than πk+8 (O(∞)) ∼ = πk (O(∞))
another perfect power, by Mihăilescu's Theorem.
Clifford algebras also display a periodicity of 8. For ex-
• the order of the smallest non-abelian group all of ample, the algebra Cl(p + 8,q) is isomorphic to the al-
whose subgroups are normal. gebra of 16 by 16 matrices with entries in Cl(p,q). We
also see a period of 8 in the K-theory of spheres and in
• the dimension of the octonions and is the highest the representation theory of the rotation groups, the lat-
possible dimension of a normed division algebra. ter giving rise to the 8 by 8 spinorial chessboard. All of
these properties are closely related to the properties of the
• the first number to be the aliquot sum of two num-
octonions.
bers other than itself; the discrete biprime 10, and
the square number 49. The spin group Spin(8) is the unique such group that ex-
hibits the phenomenon of triality.
It has an aliquot sum of 7 in the 4 member aliquot se- The lowest-dimensional even unimodular lattice is the 8-
quence (8,7,1,0) being the first member of 7-aliquot tree. dimensional E8 lattice. Even positive definite unimodular
59
lattice exist only in dimensions divisible by 8.

A figure 8 is the common name of a geometric shape, of-
ten used in the context of sports, such as skating. Figure-
eight turns of a rope or cable around a cleat, pin, or bitt
are used to belay something.
8.1.1 In numeral systems Evolution of the numeral 8 from the Indians to the Europeans

glyph used in India in the early centuries of the Common
Era developed considerable variation, and in some cases
8.2 Etymology took the shape of a single wedge, which was adopted into
the Perso-Arabic tradition as ٨ (and also gave rise to the
English eight, from Old English eahta, æhta, Proto- later Devanagari numeral ८; the alternative curved glyph
Germanic *ahto is a direct continuation of Proto-Indo- also existed as a variant in Perso-Arabic tradition, where
European *oḱtṓ(w)-, and as such cognate with Greek it came to look similar to our glyph 5.
ὀκτώ and Latin octo-, both of which stems are reflected
The numerals as used in Al-Andalus by the 10th century
by the English prefix oct(o)-, as in the ordinal adjective
were a distinctive western variant of the glyphs used in
octaval or octavary, the distributive adjective is octonary.
the Arabic-speaking world, known as ghubār numerals
The adjective octuple (Latin octu-plus) may also be used
(ghubār translating to "sand table"). In these numerals,
as a noun, meaning“a set of eight items"; the diminutive
the line of the 5-like glyph used in Indian manuscripts for
octuplet is mostly used to refer to eight sibling delivered
eight came to be formed in ghubār as a closed loop, which
in one birth.
was the 8-shape that became adopted into European use
The Semitic numeral is based on a root *θmn-, whence in the 10th century.* [4]
Akkadian smn-, Arabic ṯmn-, Hebrew šmn- etc. The
Just as in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text
Chinese numeral (pinyin bā) is from an Old Chinese
figures the 8 character usually has an ascender, as, for
*priāt-, ultimately from Sino-Tibetan b-r-gyat or b-g-ryat
which also yielded Tibetan brgyat.
It has been argued that, as the cardinal number seven example, in .
is the highest number of item that can universally be The infinity symbol ∞, described as “sideways figure
cognitively processed as a single set, the etymology of the eight”is unrelated to the 8 glyph in origin; it is first used
numeral eight might be the first to be considered compos- (in the mathematical meaning “infinity”) in the 17th
ite, either as “twice four”or as “two short of ten”, century, and it may be derived from the Roman numeral
or similar. The Turkic words for “eight”are from a for “one thousand”CIƆ, or alternatively from the final
Proto-Turkic stem *sekiz, which has been suggested as Greek letter, ω.
originating as a negation of eki “two”, as in “with-
out two fingers”(i.e., “two short of ten; two fingers are The numeral eight in Greek numerals, developed in
not being held up”);* [2] this same principle is found in Classical Greece by the 5th century BC, was written as
Finnic *kakte-ksa, which conveys a meaning of “two Η, the eighth letter of the Greek alphabet.
before (ten)". The Proto-Indo-European reconstruction The Chinese numeral eight is written in two strokes, 八;
*oḱtṓ(w)- itself has been argued as representing an old the glyph is also the 12th Kangxi radical.
dual, which would correspond to an original meaning of
“twice four”. Proponents of this “quaternary hypothe-
sis”adduce the numeral nine, which might be built on the
stem new-, meaning“new”(indicating the beginning of a 8.4 In science
“new set of numerals”after having counted to eight).* [3]
8.4.1 Physics
8.3 Glyph
• In nuclear physics, the second magic number.
The modern 8 glyph, like all modern Hindu-Arabic nu-
merals (other than zero) originates with the Brahmi nu- • In particle physics, the eightfold way is used to clas-
merals. The Brahmi numeral for eight by the 1st century sify sub-atomic particles.
was written in one stroke as a curve └┐ looking like an
uppercase H with the bottom half of the left line and the • In statistical mechanics, the eight-vertex model has
upper half of the right line removed. However the eight 8 possible configurations of arrows at each vertex.
8.5. IN TECHNOLOGY 61
8.4.2 Astronomy • Animals of phylum Ctenophora swim by means of

eight meridional bands of transverse ciliated plates,
• Messier object M8, a magnitude 5.0 nebula in the each plate representing a row of large modified cilia.
constellation of Sagittarius.
• The eight-spotted forester (genus Alypia, family
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 8, a double Zygaenidae) is a diurnal moth having black wings
star in the constellation Pegasus. with brilliant white spots.
• The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which • The ascus in fungi of the class Ascomycetes, fol-
began on 2579 BCE 7 March and ended on 1281 lowing nuclear fusion, bears within it typically eight
BCE 26 April. The duration of Saros series 8 was ascospores.
• Herbs of genus Coreopsis (tickseed) have showy
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which flower heads with involucral bracts in two distinct
began on 2512 BCE 27 July and ended on 961 BCE series of eight each.
13 February. The duration of Saros series 7 was
1550.6 years, and it contained 87 lunar eclipses. • Timothy Leary identified a hierarchy of eight levels
of consciousness.
• Since the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet on
August 24, 2006, in our Solar System, eight of the • In human adult dentition there are eight teeth in each
bodies orbiting the Sun are considered to be planets. quadrant. The eighth tooth is the so-called wisdom
tooth.
8.4.3 Chemistry • There are eight cervical nerves on each side in man
and most mammals.
• The atomic number of oxygen.
• The number of allotropes of carbon. 8.5 In technology

• The most stable allotrope of a sulfur molecule is
made of eight sulfur atoms arranged in a rhombic
form.
• The maximum number of electrons that can occupy

a valence shell.
• The red pigment lycopene consists of eight isoprene

units.
8.4.4 Geology
• A disphenoid crystal is bounded by eight scalene tri-
angles arranged in pairs. A ditetragonal prism in
the tetragonal crystal system has eight similar faces
whose alternate interfacial angles only are equal.
8.4.5 Biology
• All spiders, and more generally all arachnids, have NATO signal flag for 8
eight legs. Orb-weaver spiders of the cosmopolitan
family Areneidae have eight similar eyes.
• A byte is eight bits
• The octopus and its cephalopod relatives in genus
Argonauta have eight arms (tentacles). • Many (mostly historic) computer architectures are
eight-bit, among them the Nintendo Entertainment
• Compound coelenterates of the subclass or order System
Alcyonaria have polyps with eight-branched tenta-
cles and eight septa. • Standard-8 and Super-8 are 8 mm film formats
• Sea anemones of genus Edwardsia have eight • Video8, Hi8 and Digital8 are related 8 mm video
mesenteries. formats
• On most phones, the 8 key is associated with the

letters T, U, and V, but on the BlackBerry it is the
key for B, N, and X.
• An eight may refer to an eight-cylinder engine or au-

tomobile. A V8 engine is an internal combustion
engine with eight cylinders configured in two banks
(rows) of four forming a “V”when seen from the
end.
• A figure-eight knot (so named for its configuration)

is a kind of stopper knot.
• The number eight written in parentheses is the code

for the musical note in Windows Live Messenger
• On a seven-segment display, when an 8 is illumi-

nated, all the display bulbs are on.
In Buddhism, the 8-spoked Dharmacakra represents the Noble

8.5.1 In measurement Eightfold Path
• The SI prefix for 10008 is yotta (Y), and for its re-
ciprocal, yocto (y). • The Dharmacakra, a Buddhist symbol, has eight
spokes. The Buddha's principal teaching—the Four
• In liquid measurement (United States customary Noble Truths—ramifies as the Noble Eightfold Path
units), there are eight fluid ounces in a cup, eight and the Buddha emphasizes the importance of the
pints in a gallon and eight tablespoonfuls in a gill. eight attainments or jhanas.
• There are eight furlongs in a mile. • In Mahayana Buddhism, the branches of the
Eightfold Path are embodied by the Eight Great
• The clove, an old English unit of weight, was equal Bodhisattvas: (Manjusri, Vajrapani, Avalokiteśvara,
to eight pounds when measuring cheese. Maitreya, Ksitigarbha, Nivaranavishkambhi,
• An eight may be an article of clothing of the eighth Akasagarbha, and Samantabhadra). These are
size. later (controversially) associated with the Eight
Consciousnesses according to the Yogacara school
• Force eight is the first wind strength attributed to of thought: consciousness in the five senses,
a gale on the Beaufort scale when announced on a thought-consciousness, self-consciousness, and
Shipping Forecast. unconsciousness-'consciousness' or 'store-house
consciousness' (alaya-vijñana). The 'irreversible'
state of enlightenment, at which point a Bodhisattva
goes on 'autopilot', is the Eight Ground or bhūmi.
8.6 In culture In general, 'eight' seems to be an auspicious number
for Buddhists, e.g., the 'eight auspicious symbols'
8.6.1 Architecture (the jewel-encrusted parasol; the goldfish (always
shown as a pair, e.g., the glyph of Pisces); the
• Various types of buildings are usually eight-sided self-replenishing amphora; the white kamala lotus-
(octagonal), such as single-roomed gazebos and flower; the white conch; the eternal (Celtic-style,
multi-roomed pagodas (descended from stupas; see infinitely looping) knot; the banner of imperial
religion section below). victory; the eight-spoked wheel that guides the ship
of state, or that symbolizes the Buddha's teaching).
• Eight caulicoles rise out of the leafage in a Similarly, Buddha's birthday falls on the 8th day of
Corinthian capital, ending in leaves that support the the 4th month of the Chinese calendar.
volutes.
Judaism
8.6.2 In religion, folk belief and divination
• The religious rite of brit milah (commonly known as
Buddhism circumcision) is held on a baby boy's eighth day of
life.
8.6. IN CULTURE 63
• Hanukkah is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts • Eight (⼋ hachi, ya) is also considered a lucky num-
on the 25th day of Kislev. ber in Japan, but the reason is different from that
in Chinese culture. Eight gives an idea of growing
• Shemini Atzeret (Hebrew: “Eighth Day of Assem-
prosperous, because the letter (⼋) broadens gradu-
bly”) is a one-day Jewish holiday immediately fol-
ally.
lowing the seven-day holiday of Sukkot.
• The Japanese thought eight (や ya) as a holy number
Christianity in the ancient times. The reason is less well under-
stood, but it is thought that it is related to the fact
• The spiritual Eighth Day, because the number 7 they used eight to express large numbers vaguely
refers to the days of the week (which repeat them- such as manyfold (やえはたえ Yae Hatae) (liter-
selves). ally, eightfold and twentyfold), many clouds (やく
• The number of Beatitudes. も Yakumo) (literally, eight clouds), millions and
millions of Gods (やおよろずのかみ Yaoyorozu
• 1 Peter 3:20 states that there were eight people on no Kami) (literally, eight millions of Gods), etc. It
Noah's Ark. is also guessed that the ancient Japanese gave im-
• The Antichrist is the eighth king in the Book of Rev- portance to pairs, so some researchers guess twice
elation.* [5] as four (よ yo), which is also guessed to be a holy
number in those times because it indicates the world
Islam (north, south, east, and west) might be considered a
very holy number.
• In Islam, eight is the number of angels carrying the • In numerology, 8 is the number of building, and in
throne of Allah in heaven. some theories, also the number of destruction.
• The number of gates of heaven.
In astrology
Other
• In astrology, Scorpio is the 8th astrological sign of
• The Eight Immortals are Chinese demigods.
the Zodiac.
• In Wicca, there are eight Sabbats, festivals, seasons,
• In the Middle Ages, 8 was the number of “unmov-
or spokes in the Wheel of the Year.
ing”stars in the sky, and symbolized the perfection
• In Hinduism, it is the number of wealth, abundance. of incoming planetary energy.
The Goddess Lakshmi has eight forms. There are
eight nidhi, or seats of wealth. There are also eight
Guardians of the directions. 8.6.3 In music and dance
• In Taoism and Chinese cosmology, the eight tri- • A note played for one-eighth the duration of a whole
grams of the Bagua.“Bagua”literally means“eight note is called an eighth note, or quaver.
symbols”.
• An octave, the interval between two musical notes
• In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the Ogdoad repre- with the same letter name (where one has double the
sents the eight primordial deities of creation. frequency of the other), is so called because there
• In Scientology there are 8 dynamics of existence are eight notes between the two on a standard major
or minor diatonic scale, including the notes them-
selves and without chromatic deviation. The ecclesi-
As a lucky number astical modes are ascending diatonic musical scales
of eight notes or tones comprising an octave.
• The number eight is considered to be a lucky num-
ber in Chinese and other Asian cultures.* [6] Eight • There are eight notes in the octatonic scale.
(八; accounting 捌; pinyin bā) is considered a lucky
number in Chinese culture because it sounds like the • There are eight musicians in a double quartet or an
word meaning to generate wealth (發 (T) 发 (S); octet. Both terms may also refer to a musical com-
Pinyin: fā). Property with the number 8 may be position for eight voices or instruments.
valued greatly by Chinese. For example, a Hong • Caledonians is a square dance for eight, resembling
Kong number plate with the number 8 was sold the quadrille.
for $640,000.* [7] The opening ceremony of the
Summer Olympics in Beijing started at 8 seconds • Albums with the number eight in their title include
and 8 minutes past 8 pm (local time) on 8 August 8 by the Swedish band Arvingarna and The Meaning
2008.* [8] of 8 by Minnesota indie rock band Cloud Cult
• Dream Theater's eighth album Octavarium contains 8.6.5 In sports and other games
many different references to the number 8, includ-
ing the number of songs and various aspects of the
music and cover artwork
•“Eight maids a-milking”is the gift on the eighth
day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of
Christmas"
• The 8-track cartridge is a musical recording format
• "#8”is the stagename of Slipknot vocalist Corey
Taylor
•“Too Many Eights”is a song by Athens, Georgia's
Supercluster.
• Eight Seconds, a Canadian musical group popular in
the 1980s with their most notable song “Kiss You
(When It's Dangerous)" An 8-ball in billiards
• "Eight Days a Week" is a #1 single for the music

group The Beatles. • Eight-ball pocket billiards is played with a cue ball
and 15 numbered balls, the black ball numbered 8
• Figure 8 is the fifth studio album by singer- being the middle and most important one, as the
songwriter Elliott Smith, released in the year 2000. winner is the player or side that legally pockets it
after first pocketing its numerical group of 7 object
balls (for other meanings see Eight ball (disambigua-
8.6.4 In film and television tion)).
• 8 Guys is a 2003 short film written and directed by • Balklines divide a billiards table into eight outside
Dane Cook compartments or divisions called balks. In balkline
• 8 Man (or Eightman): 1963 Japanese manga and billiards the table also has eight anchor spaces.
anime superhero. • In the 2008 Games of the XXIX Olympiad, the of-
• 8 Mile is a 2002 film directed by Curtis Hanson ficial opening was on 08/08/08 at 8:8:08 p.m. local
time in Beijing, China.
• 8mm is a 1999 film directed by Joel Schumacher
• In football, the number 8 has historically been the
• 8 Women (Original French title: 8 femmes) is a 2002 number of the Central Midfielder.
film directed by François Ozon
• in baseball scorekeeping, the center fielder is desig-
• Eight Below is a 2006 film directed by Frank Mar- nated as number 8.
shall
• In rugby union, the only position without a proper
• Eight Legged Freaks is a 2002 film directed by Ellory name is the Number 8, a forward position.
Elkayem
• In most rugby league competitions (though not the
• Eight Men Out is a 1988 film directed by John Sayles European Super League, which uses static squad
• Jennifer Eight, also known as Jennifer 8, is a 1992 numbering), one of the two starting props wears the
film written and directed by Bruce Robinson number 8.
• Eight Is Enough is an American television comedy- • In rowing an “eight”refers to a sweep-oar racing
drama series boat with a crew of eight rowers plus a coxswain.
• In Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis, dialing an 8- • In chess, each side has eight pawns and the board
chevron address will open a wormhole to another is made of 64 squares arranged in an eight by eight
galaxy. lattice. The eight queens puzzle is a challenge to ar-
range eight queens on the board so that none can
• The Hateful Eight is a 2015 American western mys-
capture any of the others.
tery film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino.
• In the game of eights or Crazy Eights, each succes-
• Kate Plus 8 is an American reality television show
sive player must play a card either of the same suit
• The Weather Channel's segment Local on the 8s fea- or of the same rank as that played by the preceding
tures daily and weekly forecasts for major cities in player, or may play an eight and call for any suit. The
the United States object is to get rid of all one's cards first.
8.6. IN CULTURE 65
• In poker, a "Dead Man's Hand" consists of two pairs; • The New Orleans Saints have never for-
aces and eights. While playing poker in a saloon in mally retired the number, but have not
Deadwood, Dakota Territory (now South Dakota), reissued #8 since Archie Manning left the
Wild Bill Hickok held this hand when he was shot team during the 1982 season.
from behind and killed. • In the NHL:
• The throw of eight in craps is called (in rhyming • The Anaheim Ducks retired Teemu
slang) an eighter from Decatur. Selännes number 8 in 2015.* [9]
• The Boston Bruins, for Hall of Famer
• While racing for DEI, Dale Earnhardt, Jr. raced in
Cam Neely.* [10]
the #8 car in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series .
• The Minnesota North Stars, for Bill
• Ralph Earnhardt, Dale Earnhardt, Jr.'s grandfather Goldsworthy. The franchise, now the
drove #8 in the NASCAR Sportsman Division and Dallas Stars, continues to honor the num-
NASCAR Grand National Series ber.
• In Israeli Football Premiere league, Maccabi Tel • The Ottawa Senators, for Frank Finnigan,
Aviv legendary star- Avi Nimni wore the number 8 the final surviving player from the original
and it retired with him. Senators team that won the 1927 Stanley
Cup, and an ambassador for the group
• Nintendo's Mario Kart series: that returned the NHL to Ottawa.
• The number of characters required to compete • The St. Louis Blues, for Barclay Plager.
in each race. • The Quebec Nordiques retired the num-
ber for Marc Tardif. However, the
• The number of cups since Mario Kart DS.
team moved to Denver as the Colorado
• The number on the logo for Mario Kart 8 Avalanche after the 1994–95 season,
• The jersey number 8 has been retired by several and the Avalanche placed all of the
North American sports teams in honor of past play- Nordiques' retired numbers back into cir-
ing greats or other key figures: culation.
• In the NBA:
• In Major League Baseball:
• The Los Angeles Lakers, once worn by
• The Baltimore Orioles, for Hall of Famer
Kobe Bryant.
Cal Ripken, Jr.
• In Formula One the number 8 is used by
• The Boston Red Sox, for Hall of Famer
Romain Grosjean for Haas F1 Team
Carl Yastrzemski.
• The Cincinnati Reds, for Hall of Famer
Joe Morgan. 8.6.6 In foods
• The Montreal Expos, for Hall of Famer
Gary Carter. The franchise continues to • Nestlé sells a brand of chocolates filled with
honor the number in its current incar- peppermint-flavoured cream called After Eight, re-
nation as the Washington Nationals (al- ferring to the time 8 p.m.
though it initially planned to reissue all of
• There are eight vegetables in V8 juice
the Expos' retired numbers).
• The New York Yankees, for Hall of • In cooking recipes, there are approximately 8
Famers Yogi Berra and Bill Dickey. pinches to a teaspoon
• The Pittsburgh Pirates, for Hall of Famer
Willie Stargell.
8.6.7 In literature
• In the NFL:
• The St. Louis Cardinals, for Hall of • Eights may refer to octosyllabic, usually iambic,
Famer Larry Wilson. The franchise, now lines of verse.
the Arizona Cardinals, continues to honor
the number. • The drott-kvaett, an Old Icelandic verse, consisted
of a stanza of eight regular lines.
• The San Francisco 49ers, for Hall of
Famer Steve Young. • In Terry Pratchett's Discworld series, eight is a magi-
• The Dallas Cowboys have a policy of not cal number and is considered taboo. Eight is not safe
retiring numbers. However, they have not to be said by wizards on the Discworld and is the
issued #8 since the retirement of Hall of number of Bel-Shamharoth. Also, there are eight
Famer Troy Aikman after the 2000 sea- days in a Disc week and eight colours in a Disc spec-
son. trum, the eighth one being octarine.
• Lewis Carroll's poem The Hunting of the Snark has [3] the hypothesis is discussed critically (and rejected as
8 “fits”(cantos), which is noted in the full name “without sufficient support”) by Werner Winter, 'Some
“The Hunting of the Snark - An Agony, in Eight Fits thought about Indo-European numerals' in: Jadranka
Gvozdanović (ed.), Indo-European Numerals, Walter de
• 8 apparitions appear to Macbeth in Act 4 scene 1 of Gruyter, 1992, 14f.
Shakespeare's Macbeth as representations of the 8
descendants of Banquo Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer transl. David
24.68.
8.6.8 In slang
[5] “Life Application New Testament Commentary”, Bruce
• An “eighth”is a common measurement of B. Barton. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2001. ISBN
marijuana, meaning an eighth of an ounce. It is also 0-8423-7066-8, ISBN 978-0-8423-7066-0. p. 1257
a common unit of sale for psilocybin mushrooms. [6] Ang, Swee Hoon (1997). “Chinese consumers'
Also, an eighth of an ounce of cocaine is commonly perception of alpha-numeric brand names”. Jour-
referred to as an “8-ball.”* [11] nal of Consumer Marketing. 14 (3): 220–233.
doi:10.1108/07363769710166800.
• Referring to the shape of the numeral, eight was for-
merly represented in bingo slang as“One Fat Lady” [7] Steven C. Bourassa; Vincent S. Peng (1999). “Hedonic
. Eighty-eight was “Two Fat Ladies”. Prices and House Numbers: The Influence of Feng Shui”
(PDF). International Real Estate Review. 2 (1): 79–93.
• The numeral “8”is sometimes used in informal Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2015.
writing and Internet slang to represent the syllable
[8] “Patriot games: China makes its point with greatest show”
“ate”, as in writing “H8”for “hate”, or “con-
by Richard Williams, The Guardian, published 9 August
gratul8ions”for“congratulations”. Avril Lavigne's 2008
song "Sk8er Boi" uses this convention in the title.
[9] “Anaheim Ducks retire Teemu Selanne's No. 8”.
•“Section 8”is common U.S. slang for “crazy”, NHL.com.
based on the U.S. military's Section 8 discharge for
mentally unfit personnel [10] “A to Z Encyclopaedia of Ice Hockey - Ne”.
[11] “Cocaine - Frequently Asked Questions”. thegooddrugs-

• The Housing Choice Voucher Program, operated by
guide.com.
the United States Department of Housing and Urban
Development, is commonly referred to as the Sec-
tion 8 program, as this was the original section of
the Act which instituted the program 8.9 External links
• In Colombia and Venezuela, “volverse un ocho” • The Octonions, John C. Baez
(meaning to tie oneself in a figure 8) refers to getting
in trouble or contradicting one's self.
• In China, '8' is used in chat speak as a term for part-

ing. This is due to the closeness in pronunciation of
'8' (bā) and the English word 'bye'.
8.7 See also

• The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
8.8 References
[2] Etymological Dictionary of Turkic Languages: Common

Turkic and Interturkic stems starting with letters «L», «M»,
«N», «P», «S», Vostochnaja Literatura RAS, 2003, 241f.
(altaica.ru)
Chapter 9
9 (number)
This article is about the number. For other uses, see 9 • In Indian aesthetics, there are nine kinds of Rasa.
(disambiguation).
9.3.2 Chinese culture

9 (nine /ˈnaɪn/) is the natural number following 8 and pre-
ceding 10. • Nine (九 pinyin jiǔ) is considered a good number in
Chinese culture because it sounds the same as the
word “long-lasting”(久 pinyin jiǔ).
9.1 Alphabets and codes
• Nine is strongly associated with the Chinese dragon,
• In the NATO phonetic alphabet, the digit 9 is called a symbol of magic and power. There are nine forms
“Niner”. of the dragon, it is described in terms of nine at-
tributes, and it has nine children. It has 117 scales
• Five-digit produce PLU codes that begin with 9 are – 81 yang (masculine, heavenly) and 36 yin (femi-
organic. nine, earthly). All three numbers are multiples of 9
(9 × 13 = 117, 9 × 9 = 81, 9 × 4 = 36)* [1] as well as
having the same digital root of 9.
9.2 Commerce • The dragon often symbolizes the Emperor, and the
number nine can be found in many ornaments in the
• Common terminal digit in psychological pricing. Forbidden City.
• The circular altar platform (Earthly Mount) of the

9.3 Culture and mythology Temple of Heaven has one circular marble plate in
the center, surrounded by a ring of nine plates, then
by a ring of 18 plates, and so on, for a total of nine
9.3.1 Indian culture rings, with the outermost having 81 = 9 × 9 plates.
Nine is a number that appears often in Indian Culture and • The name of the area called Kowloon in Hong Kong
mythology. Some instances are enumerated below. literally means: nine dragons.
• The nine-dotted line (Chinese: 南海九段线;

• Nine influencers are attested in Indian astrology.
pinyin: nánhǎi jiǔduàn xiàn; literally: “Nine-
• In the Vaisheshika branch of Hindu philosophy, segment line of the South China Sea”) delimits cer-
there are nine universal substances or elements: tain island claims by China in the South China Sea.
Earth, Water, Air, Fire, Ether, Time, Space, Soul,
• The nine-rank system was a civil service nomination
and Mind.
system used during certain Chinese dynasties.
• Navaratri is a nine-day festival dedicated to the nine
forms of Durga.
9.3.3 Ancient Egypt
• Navaratna, meaning “9 jewels”may also refer to
Navaratnas - accomplished courtiers, Navratan - a • The nine bows is a term used in Ancient Egypt to
kind of dish, or a form of architecture. represent the traditional enemies of Egypt.
• According to Yoga, the human body has nine doors • The Ennead is a group of 9 Egyptian deities, who,
- two eyes, two ears, the mouth, two nostrils, and the in the some versions of the Osiris myth, judged
openings for defecation and procreation. whether Horus or Set should inherit Egypt.
67
9.3.4 European culture character usually has a descender, as, for example, in
• The Nine Worthies are nine historical, or semi- .

legendary figures who, in the Middle Ages, were be-
lieved to personify the ideals of chivalry. This numeral resembles an inverted 6. To disambiguate
the two on objects and documents that can be inverted,
• In Norse mythology, the universe is divided into the 9 is often underlined, as is done for the 6. Another
nine worlds which are all connected by the world tree distinction from the 6 is that it is sometimes handwritten
Yggdrasil. with a straight stem, resembling a raised lower-case letter
q.
9.3.5 Greek mythology

9.5 Idioms and popular phrases
• The nine Muses in Greek mythology are Calliope
(epic poetry), Clio (history), Erato (erotic po- •“to go the whole nine yards-"
etry), Euterpe (lyric poetry), Melpomene (tragedy),
Polyhymnia (song), Terpsichore (dance), Thalia •“A cat-o'-nine-tails suggests perfect punishment and
(comedy), and Urania (astronomy). atonement.”--Robert Ripley.
•“A cat has nine lives”
• It takes nine days (for an anvil) to fall from heaven
to earth, and nine more to fall from earth to Tartarus •“to be on cloud nine”
—a place of torment in the underworld.
•“A stitch in time saves nine”
• Leto labored for nine days and nine nights for •“found true 9 out of 10 times”
Apollo, according to the Homeric Hymn to Delian
Apollo. •“possession is nine tenths of the law”
• The word“K-9”pronounces the same as canine and
is used in many U.S. police departments to denote
9.4 Evolution of the glyph the police dog unit. Despite not sounding like the
translation of the word canine in other languages,
See also: Hindu-Arabic numeral system many police and military units around the world use
the same designation.
According to Georges Ifrah, the origin of the 9 integers • Someone dressed “to the nines”is dressed up as
can be attributed to the ancient Indian civilization, and much as they can be.
was adopted by subsequent civilizations in conjunction • In North American urban culture,“nine”is a slang
with the 0.* [2] word for a 9mm pistol or homicide, the latter from
the Illinois Criminal Code for homicide.
9.6 Internet
• The 9 on Yahoo!, hosted by Maria Sansone, was a
In the beginning, various Indians wrote 9 similar to the
daily video compilation show, or vlog, on Yahoo!
modern closing question mark without the bottom dot.
featuring the nine top “web finds”of the day.
The Kshatrapa, Andhra and Gupta started curving the
bottom vertical line coming up with a 3-look-alike. The
Nagari continued the bottom stroke to make a circle and
enclose the 3-look-alike, in much the same way that the 9.7 Literature
@ character encircles a lowercase a. As time went on,
the enclosing circle became bigger and its line continued • There are nine circles of Hell in Dante's Divine Com-
beyond the circle downwards, as the 3-look-alike became edy.
smaller. Soon, all that was left of the 3-look-alike was a • The Nine Bright Shiners, characters in Garth Nix's
squiggle. The Arabs simply connected that squiggle to the Old Kingdom trilogy. The Nine Bright Shiners was
downward stroke at the middle and subsequent European a 1930s book of poems by Anne Ridler* [3] and a
change was purely cosmetic. 1988 fiction book by Anthea Fraser;* [4] the name
While the shape of the 9 character has an ascender in derives from“a very curious old semi-pagan, semi-
most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the Christian”song.* [5]
9.8. MATHEMATICS 69
• The Nine Tailors is a 1934 mystery novel by British In bases 12, 18 and 24, nine is a 1-automorphic number
writer Dorothy L. Sayers, her ninth featuring sleuth and in base 6 a 2-automorphic number (displayed as '13').
Lord Peter Wimsey. A polygon with nine sides is called a nonagon or en-
*
• Nine Unknown Men are, in occult legend, the cus- neagon. [9] A group of nine of anything is called an en-
todians of the sciences of the world since ancient nead.
times. In base 10 a positive number is divisible by nine if and
only if its digital root is 9.* [10] That is, if any natural
• In J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, there are nine number is multiplied by nine, and repeatedly add the dig-
rings of power given to men, and consequently, nine its of the answer until it is just one digit, the sum will be
ringwraiths. nine:
• Additionally, The Fellowship of the Ring con-
• 2 × 9 = 18 (1 + 8 = 9)
sists of nine companions, representing the free
races and also as a positive mirror of the nine • 3 × 9 = 27 (2 + 7 = 9)
ring wraiths.
• 9 × 9 = 81 (8 + 1 = 9)
• In Lorien Legacies there are nine Garde sent to
Earth. • 121 × 9 = 1089 (1 + 0 + 8 + 9 = 18; 1 + 8 = 9)
• 234 × 9 = 2106 (2 + 1 + 0 + 6 = 9)
• Number Nine is a character in Lorien Legacies.
• 578329 × 9 = 5204961 (5 + 2 + 0 + 4 + 9 + 6 + 1 =
• In the A Song of Ice and Fire series, there are nine 27; 2 + 7 = 9)
regions of Westeros (the Crownlands, the North,
the Riverlands, the Westerlands, the Reach, the • 482729235601 × 9 = 4344563120409 (4 + 3 + 4 +
Stormlands, the Vale of Arryn, the Iron Islands and 4 + 5 + 6 + 3 + 1 + 2 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 9 = 45; 4 + 5 =
Dorne). 9)
• Additionally, there is a group of nine city- There are other interesting patterns involving multiples of
states in western Essos known collectively as nine:
the Free Cities (Braavos, Lorath, Lys, Myr,
Norvos, Pentos, Qohor, Tyrosh and Volantis).
• 12345679 × 9 = 111111111
• 12345679 × 18 = 222222222
9.8 Mathematics • 12345679 × 81 = 999999999
Nine is a composite number, its proper divisors being 1 This works for all the multiples of 9. n = 3 is the only
and 3. It is 3 times 3 and hence the third square number. other n > 1 such that a number is divisible by n if and
Nine is a Motzkin number.* [6] It is the first composite only if its digital root is n. In base N, the divisors of N −
lucky number, along with the first composite odd number. 1 have this property. Another consequence of 9 being 10
9 is the only positive perfect power that is one more than − 1, is that it is also a Kaprekar number.
another positive perfect power, by Mihăilescu's Theorem. The difference between a base-10 positive integer and the
Nine is the highest single-digit number in the decimal sys- sum of its digits is a whole multiple of nine. Examples:
tem. It is the second non-unitary square prime of the form
(p2 ) and the first that is odd. All subsequent squares of • The sum of the digits of 41 is 5, and 41 − 5 = 36. The
this form are odd. It has a unique aliquot sum 4 which is digital root of 36 is 3 + 6 = 9, which, as explained
itself a square prime. Nine is; and can be, the only square above, demonstrates that it is divisible by nine.
prime with an aliquot sum of the same form. The aliquot
sequence of nine has 5 members (9,4,3,1,0) this num- • The sum of the digits of 35967930 is 3 + 5 + 9 + 6 +
ber being the second composite member of the 3-aliquot 7 + 9 + 3 + 0 = 42, and 35967930 − 42 = 35967888.
tree. It is the aliquot sum of only one number the discrete The digital root of 35967888 is 3 + 5 + 9 + 6 + 7 +
semiprime 15. 8 + 8 + 8 = 54, 5 + 4 = 9.
There are nine Heegner numbers.* [7]
Subtracting two base-10 positive integers that are trans-
Since 9 = 3* 21 , 9 is an exponential factorial.* [8] positions of each other yields a number that is a whole
8 and 9 form a Ruth-Aaron pair under the second defi- multiple of nine. Examples:
nition that counts repeated prime factors as often as they
occur. • 41 − 14 = 27 (2 + 7 = 9)
• 36957930 − 35967930 = 990000, a multiple of downtime of no more than five minutes per year − typi-
nine. cally a very high degree of reliability; but never 100%.
This works regardless of the number of digits that are

transposed. For example, the largest transposition of 9.9 Organizations
35967930 is 99765330 (all digits in descending order)
and its smallest transposition is 03356799 (all digits in
• Divine Nine—The National Pan-Hellenic Council
ascending order); subtracting pairs of these numbers pro-
(NPHC) is a collaborative organization of nine his-
duces:
torically African American, international Greek let-
tered fraternities and sororities.
• 99765330 − 35967930 = 63797400; 6 + 3 + 7 + 9
+ 7 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 36; 3 + 6 = 9.
• 99765330 − 03356799 = 96408531; 9 + 6 + 4 + 0 9.10 Places and thoroughfares
+ 8 + 5 + 3 + 1 = 36; 3 + 6 = 9.
• 35967930 − 03356799 = 32611131; 3 + 2 + 6 + 1 • List of highways numbered 9
+ 1 + 1 + 3 + 1 = 18; 1 + 8 = 9.
• Ninth Avenue is a major avenue in Manhattan.
Casting out nines is a quick way of testing the calculations • Outside the Norwegian coast, east of the Barents sea
of sums, differences, products, and quotients of integers, number 9, in a 260 meters depth.
known as long ago as the 12th Century.* [11]
Every prime in a Cunningham chain of the first kind with
a length of 4 or greater is congruent to 9 mod 10 (the only 9.11 Religion and philosophy
exception being the chain 2, 5, 11, 23, 47).
Six recurring nines appear in the decimal places 762
through 767 of π, see Six nines in pi.
If an odd perfect number is of the form 36k + 9, it has at
least nine distinct prime factors.* [12]
If dividing a number by the amount of 9s correspond-
ing to its number of digits, the number is turned into a
repeating decimal. (e.g. 274/999 = 0.274274274274...)
It appears in the Padovan sequence, preceded by the
terms 4, 5, 7 (it is the sum of the first two of these).* [13]
Nine is the binary complement of number six:
9 = 1001 6 = 0110
9.8.2 Numeral systems
9.8.3 Probability A nine-pointed star
In probability, the nine is a logarithmic measure of prob-

ability of an event, defined as the negative of the base-10 • Nine, as the highest single-digit number (in base
logarithm of the probability of the event's complement. ten), symbolizes completeness in the Bahá'í Faith.
For example, an event that is 99% likely to occur has In addition, the word Bahá' in the Abjad notation
an unlikelihood of 1% or 0.01, which amounts to −log10 has a value of 9, and a 9-pointed star is used to
0.01 = 2 nines of probability. Zero probability gives zero symbolize the religion.
nines (−log10 1 = 0). A 100% probability is considered
to be impossible in most circumstances: that results in • The number 9 is revered in Hinduism and consid-
infinite improbability. The effectivity of processes and ered a complete, perfected and divine number be-
the availability of systems can be expressed (as a rule of cause it represents the end of a cycle in the decimal
thumb, not explicitly) as a series of“nines”. For exam- system, which originated from the Indian subconti-
ple, “five nines”(99.999%) availability implies a total nent as early as 3000 BC.
9.13. SPORTS 71
• In Buddhism, Gautama Buddha, was believed to 9.12.3 Physiology

have nine virtues, which he was (1) Accomplished,
(2) Perfectly Enlightened, (3) Endowed with knowl- A human pregnancy normally lasts nine months, the basis
edge and Conduct or Practice, (4) Well-gone or of Naegele's rule.
Well-spoken, (5) the Knower of worlds, (6) the
Guide Unsurpassed of men to be tamed, (7) the
Teacher of gods and men, (8) Enlightened, and (9) 9.13 Sports
Blessed.
• Important Buddhist rituals usually involve nine
monks.
• The first nine days of the Hebrew month of Av
are collectively known as “The Nine Days”(Tisha
HaYamim), and are a period of semi-mourning lead-
ing up to Tisha B'Av, the ninth day of Av on which
both Temples in Jerusalem were destroyed.
• Nine is a significant number in Norse Mythology.
Odin hung himself on an ash tree for nine days to
learn the runes.
• The Fourth Way Enneagram is one system of knowl-
edge which shows the correspondence between the
9 integers and the circle. Billiards: A Nine-ball rack with the no. 9 ball at the center
• In the Christian angelic hierarchy there are 9 choirs
of angels.
• Ramadan, the month of fasting and prayer, is the
9.13.1 Auto racing
ninth month of the Islamic calendar.
• A car in the Sprint Cup Series currently owned
by Richard Petty Motorsports. The number was
most notably borne by the car that Bill Elliott drove
9.12 Science to the Cup Series title in 1988 with Melling Rac-
ing. Evernham Motorsports, the predecessor team
9.12.1 Astronomy to Richard Petty Motorsports, acquired the number
in 2001 when Elliott joined that team after a brief
• Before 2006 (when Pluto was officially designated stint as a driver-owner. Elliott used this number
as a non-planet), there were nine planets in the solar again through the 2003 season. Kasey Kahne has
system. driven the 9 car since 2004. Currently, the 9 car is
not used in NASCAR.
• Messier object M9 is a magnitude 9.0 globular clus-
ter in the constellation Ophiuchus. • In Formula One the number 9 is used by Marcus
Ericsson for Sauber.
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 9, a spiral
galaxy in the constellation Pegasus
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which 9.13.2 Baseball
began on June 26, 2501 BC and ended on September
5, 1167 BC. The duration of Saros series 9 was • In baseball, nine represents the right fielder's posi-
1334.23 years, and it contained 75 lunar eclipses. tion.
• The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which • The number of innings in a regulation, non-tied
began on February 6, 2568 BC and ended on April 4, game of baseball.
1252 BC. The duration of Saros series 9 was 1316.2
years, and it contained 74 solar eclipses. • The number of players on the field including the
pitcher.
9.12.2 Chemistry • The number worn by Roy Hobbs in the movie The
Natural.
• The purity of chemicals (see Nine (purity))
• The score of a forfeit in a league where the game
• Nine is the atomic number of fluorine. would ordinarily last nine innings is 9-0.
• NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture, • The Chicago Blackhawks, for Hall of Famer
published by the University of Nebraska Press* [14] Bobby Hull.
• The Dallas Stars, for Mike Modano.
9.13.3 Billiards • The Detroit Red Wings, for Hall of Famer
Gordie Howe.
• Nine-ball is the standard professional pocket • The Edmonton Oilers, for Hall of Famer
billiards variant played in the United States. Glenn Anderson.
• The Montreal Canadiens, for Hall of Famer
Maurice Richard.
9.13.4 Rugby
• The New York Islanders, for Hall of Famer
• In rugby league, the jersey number assigned to the Clark Gillies.
hooker. • The New York Rangers, for Hall of Famer
Andy Bathgate and Adam Graves.
• In rugby union, the number worn by the starting • The Toronto Maple Leafs have a policy of not
scrum-half. retiring numbers unless the player honoured
either died or suffered a career-ending inci-
dent while a member of the team. Other play-
9.13.5 Soccer ers whose numbers would otherwise be retired
instead have their numbers enshrined by the
• In association football (soccer) the centre-
team as“Honoured Numbers”, which remain
forward/striker traditionally (since at least the
in circulation for future players. The number
fifties) wears the number 9 shirt.
9 is currently honoured for Hall of Famers Ted
Kennedy and Charlie Conacher.
9.13.6 All sports • The first NHL incarnation of the Winnipeg
Jets, also for Hull. Although the Jets moved
The jersey number 9 has been retired by several North from Winnipeg to become the Phoenix Coy-
American sports teams in honor of past playing greats (or otes, the Coyotes continue to honor all num-
in one case, an owner): bers retired by the Jets. The Coyotes briefly
took the number out of retirement for Hull's
• In Major League Baseball: son Brett Hull, also a Hall of Famer, in 2005–
06 until the younger Hull retired five games
• The Boston Red Sox, for Hall of Famer Ted into that season. The current Winnipeg Jets
Williams. have yet to officially retire any numbers, but
• The Chicago White Sox, for Minnie Miñoso. Evander Kane received Bobby Hull's blessing
to wear the number.
• The New York Yankees, for Roger Maris.
• No NFL team has yet retired #9.
• The Oakland Athletics, for Hall of Famer
Reggie Jackson.
• The Pittsburgh Pirates, for Hall of Famer Bill 9.14 Technology
Mazeroski.
• The St. Louis Cardinals, for Hall of Famer • ISO 9 is the ISO's standard for the transliteration of
Enos Slaughter. Cyrillic characters into Latin characters
• In the NBA: • In the Rich Text Format specification, 9 is the lan-
guage code for the English language. All codes for
• The Atlanta Hawks, for Hall of Famer Bob regional variants of English are congruent to 9 mod
Pettit. 256.
• The Phoenix Suns, for Dan Majerle.
• The seven-segment display allows the number 9 to
• The Utah Jazz, for owner Larry Miller. be constructed two ways, either with a hook at the
end of its stem or without one. Most LCD calcula-
• In the NHL:
tors use the former, but some VFD models use the
• The Boston Bruins, for Hall of Famer Johnny latter.
Bucyk. • The9 Limited (owner of the9.com) is a company in
• The Calgary Flames, for Hall of Famer Lanny the video-game industry, including former ties to the
McDonald. extremely popular MMORPG World of Warcraft
9.16. SEE ALSO 73
9.15 Other fields
• Nine justices sit on the United States Supreme

Court.
• Stanines, a method of scaling test scores, range from

1 to 9.
• 9 square feet in a square yard.
• 9 semitones in a Major 6th interval in music.
9.16 See also
• 9 (disambiguation)
International maritime signal flag for 9
• 0.999...
• Cloud Nine
9.18 Further reading

• Cecil Balmond,“Number 9, the search for the sigma
code”1998, Prestel 2008, ISBN 3-7913-1933-7,
ISBN 978-3-7913-1933-9
Playing cards showing the 9 of all four suits
9.17 References
[1] Donald Alexander Mackenzie (2005). Myths of China
And Japan. Kessinger. ISBN 1-4179-6429-4.
[2] Georges Ifrah (1985). From One to Zero: A Universal

History of Numbers. Viking. ISBN 0-670-37395-8.
[3] Jane Dowson (1996). Women's Poetry of the 1930s: A

Critical Anthology. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13095-6.
[4] Anthea Fraser (1988). The Nine Bright Shiners. Double-

day. ISBN 0-385-24323-5.
[5] Charles Herbert Malden (1905). Recollections of an Eton

Colleger, 1898-1902. Spottiswoode.
[6] “Sloane's A001006 : Motzkin numbers”. The On-


[8] “Sloane's A049384 : a(0)=1, a(n+1) = (n+1)â(n)". The

[9] Robert Dixon, Mathographics. New York: Courier Dover

Publications: 24
[10] Martin Gardner, A Gardner's Workout: Training the Mind

and Entertaining the Spirit. New York: A. K. Peters
(2001): 155
[11] Cajori, Florian (1991, 5e) A History of Mathematics,

AMS. ISBN 0-8218-2102-4. p.91
[12] Eyob Delele Yirdaw, "Proving Touchard's Theorem from

Euler's Form" ArXiv preprint.
[13] “Sloane's A000931 : Padovan sequence”. The On-

[14] “Web site for NINE: A Journal of Baseball History &

Culture”. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
Chapter 10
10 (number)
This article is about the number. For the year, see AD the first discrete semiprime to be in deficit. All subse-
10. For other uses of “ten”, see Ten (disambiguation). quent discrete semiprimes are in deficit. The aliquot se-
For other uses of the ordinal 10th, see Tenth (disam- quence for 10 comprises five members (10,8,7,1,0) with
biguation). this number being the second composite member of the
7-aliquot tree.
10 (ten * i/ˈtɛn/) is an even natural number following Ten is the smallest semiprime that is the sum of all the
9 and preceding 11. Ten is the base of the decimal distinct prime numbers from its lower factor through its
numeral system, by far the most common system of de- higher factor (10 = 2 + 3 + 5 = 2 . 5) Only three other
noting numbers in both spoken and written language. The small semiprimes (39, 155, and 371) share this attribute.
reason for the choice of ten is assumed to be that humans It is the aliquot sum of only one number the discrete
have ten fingers (digits).
semiprime 14.
Ten is a semi-meandric number.
10.1 Common usage and derived Ten is the sum of the first three prime numbers, of the
four first numbers (1 + 2 + 3 + 4), of the square of the
terms two first odd numbers and also of the first four factorials
(0! + 1! + 2! + 3!). Ten is the eighth Perrin number,
• A collection of ten items (most often ten years) is preceded in the sequence by 5, 5, 7.
called a decade.
A polygon with ten sides is a decagon, and 10 is a
*
• The ordinal adjective is decimal; the distributive ad- decagonal number. [2] Because
1
10 is the product of
jective is denary. a power of 2 (namely 2 ) with nothing but distinct
Fermat primes (specifically 5), a regular decagon is a
• Increasing a quantity by one order of magnitude constructible polygon.
is most widely understood to mean multiplying the Ten is also a triangular number, a centered triangular
quantity by ten. number,* [3] and a tetrahedral number.* [4]
• To reduce something by one tenth is to decimate. (In Ten is the number of n queens problem solutions for n =
ancient Rome, the killing of one in ten soldiers in a 5.
cohort was the punishment for cowardice or mutiny; Ten is the smallest number whose status as a possible
or, one-tenth of the able-bodied men in a village as friendly number is unknown.
a form of retribution, thus causing a labor shortage
and threat of starvation in agrarian societies.)
10.2.1 In numeral systems
10.2 In mathematics Decimal system
Ten is a composite number, its proper divisors being 1, Main article: Decimal
2 and 5. Ten is the smallest noncototient, a number that
cannot be expressed as the difference between any integer As is the case for any base in its system, ten is the first
and the total number of coprimes below it.* [1] two-digit number in decimal and thus the lowest number
Ten is the second discrete semiprime (2 × 5) and the where the position of a numeral affects its value. Any
second member of the (2 × q) discrete semiprime fam- integer written in the decimal system can be multiplied
ily. Ten has an aliquot sum σ(n) of 8 and is accordingly by ten by adding a zero to the end (e.g. 855 × 10 = 8550).
75
Roman numerals • The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which
began on June 17, 2454 BC and ended on August
The Roman numeral for ten is X (which looks like two 15, 1138 BC. The duration of Saros series 10 was
V's [the Roman numeral for 5] put together); it is thought 1316.2 years, and it contained 74 lunar eclipses.
that the V for five is derived from an open hand (five digits
displayed), and X for ten from both hands. Incidentally, • Messier object M10, a magnitude 6.4 globular clus-
the Chinese word numeral for ten, is also a cross: 十. ter in the constellation Ophiuchus.
Positional numeral systems other than decimal 10.4 In religion and philosophy
The digit '1' followed by '0' is how the value of p is written
in base p. (E.g. 16 in hexadecimal is 10.)
Properties:
• Ten is a Harshad number in bases 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 and

all others above.
• In bases 15, 18 and 30, ten is a 1-automorphic num-
ber (displayed as the numeral 'A')..
10.3 In science
The SI prefix for 10 is “deca-".
The meaning “10”is part of the following terms: The tetractys
• decapoda, an order of crustaceans with ten feet • References in the Bible, Judaism and Christianity:
• decane, a hydrocarbon with 10 carbon atoms • The Ten Commandments of Exodus* [5] and
Deuteronomy* [6] are considered a corner-
Also, the number 10 plays a role in the following: stone of Judaism and Christianity.
• The atomic number of neon. • People traditionally tithed one-tenth of their
produce. The practice of tithing is still com-
• The number of hydrogen atoms in butane, a hydro- mon in Christian churches today, though it is
carbon. disputed in some circles as to whether or not it
is required of Christians.
• The number of spacetime dimensions in some
superstring theories. • In Deuteronomy 26:12, the Torah commands
Jews to give one-tenth of their produce to the
The metric system is based on the number 10, so con- poor (Maaser Ani). From this verse and from
verting units is done by adding or removing zeros (e.g. 1 an earlier verse (Deut. 14:22) there derives a
centimeter = 10 millimeters, 1 decimeter = 10 centime- practice for Jews to give one-tenth of all earn-
ters, 1 meter = 100 centimeters, 1 dekameter = 10 meters, ings to the poor.* [7]
1 kilometer = 1,000 meters). • Ten Plagues were inflicted on Egypt in Exodus
7-12
• Jews observe the annual Ten Days of Repen-
10.3.1 Astronomy
tance beginning on Rosh Hashanah and ending
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 10, a on Yom Kippur.
magnitude 12.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation • In Jewish liturgy, Ten Martyrs are singled out
Sculptor. as a group.
• The Saros number of the solar eclipse series which • There are said to be Ten Lost Tribes of Israel
began on February 28, 2467 BC and ended on April (those other than Judah and Benjamin)
18, 1169 BC. The duration of Saros series 10 was • There are Ten Sephirot in the Kabbalistic Tree
1298.1 years, and it contained 73 solar eclipses. of Life
10.7. IN SPORTS AND GAMES 77
• In Judaism, ten men are the required quorum, • In association football, the number 10 is traditionally
called a minyan, for prayer services. worn by the team's advanced playmaker. This use
has led to “Number 10”becoming a synonym for
• Interpretations of Genesis in Talmudic and
the player in that particular role, even if he or she
Midrashic teachings suggest that on the first
does not wear that number.* [8]
day, God drew forth ten primal elements from
the abyss in order to construct all of Creation: • In Australian rules football, considered the break
Heaven (or Fire), Earth, Chaos, Void, Light, even amount of games won in a regular 22 game sea-
Darkness, Wind (or Spirit), Water, Day, and son.
Night. See also Bereshit (parsha).
• Jesus tells the Parable of the Ten Virgins in • In baseball, 10 is the minimum number of players
Matthew 25:1-13. on the field at any given time during play (including
the batter).
• In Pythagoreanism, the number 10 played an impor-
tant role and was symbolized by the tetractys. • In basketball:
• The top of the rim (goal) is 10 feet from the

• In Hinduism, Lord Vishnu appeared on the earth in
floor.
10 incarnations.
• In standard full-court basketball, there are 10
players on the court (5 on each team).
10.5 In money • In blackjack, the Ten, Jack, Queen and King are all
worth 10 points.
Most countries issue coins and bills with a denomination
of 10 (See e.g. 10 dollar note). Of these, the U.S. dime, • In boxing, if the referees counts to 10 whether the
with the value of ten cents, or one tenth of a dollar, de- boxer is unconscious or not, it will declare a winner
rives its name from the meaning“one-tenth”− see Dime by knockout.
(United States coin)#Denomination history and etymol-
• In cricket, 10 is the number of wickets required to
ogy.
be taken by the bowling side for the batting side to
be bowled out.
10.6 In music • In gridiron football, 10 is the number of yards the

offense must advance to maintain possession in a
single set of downs—four in American and three in
• The interval of a major tenth is an octave plus a ma-
Canadian.
jor third.
• In most rugby league competitions, the number 10
• The interval of a minor tenth is an octave plus a mi-
is worn by one of the two starting props. (One ex-
nor third.
ception to this rule is the European Super League,
which uses static squad numbering.)
• The title of quite a few albums. See Ten (album).
• In rugby union, the starting fly-half wears the 10
•“Ten lords a-leaping”is the gift on the tenth day of
shirt.
mas" • In ten-pin bowling, 10 pins are arranged in a trian-
gular pattern and there are 10 frames per game.
10.7 In sports and games • The highest score possible in Olympics gymnastics
competitions.
The meaning “10”is part of the following terms: • Driving a racing car at ten-tenths is driving as fast as
possible, on the limit.
• decathlon, a combined event in athletics consisting
• Danica Patrick's car number in the NASCAR Sprint
of ten track and field events.
Cup Series.
Also, the number 10 plays a role in the following: The jersey number 10 has been retired by several North
American sports teams in honor of past playing greats or
• In American football, the end zones are 10 yards other key figures, including Major League Baseball, the
deep. NBA, the NFL, and the NHL.
10.8 In technology • A 1977 short documentary film Powers of Ten de-

picts the relative scale of the Universe in factors of
• Ten-codes are commonly used on emergency service ten (orders of magnitude).
radio systems.
• CBS has a game show called Power of 10, where
• Ten refers to the "meter band" on the radio spectrum the player's prize goes up and down by either the
between 28 and 29.7 MHz, used by amateur radio. previous or next power of ten.
• ASCII and Unicode code point for line feed •“Ten Chances”is one the pricing games on The Price
is Right.
• In MIDI, Channel 10 is reserved for unpitched
percussion instruments. • There are ten official inkblots in the Rorschach
inkblot test.
• In the Rich Text Format specification, all language
codes for regional variants of the Spanish language • The traditional Snellen chart uses 10 different let-
are congruent to 10 mod 256. ters.
• In macOS, the F10 function key tiles all the windows • Ten is an Australian television network. The Syd-
of the current application and grays the windows of ney member of the network has the three-letter call-
other applications. sign TEN and used to broadcast in analogue on VHF
Channel 10.
• The IP addresses in the range 10.0.0.0/8 (meaning
the interval between 10.0.0.0 and 10.255.255.255) • Number Ten (also called Ella) is a character in the
is reserved for use by Private networks by RFC book series Lorien Legacies. The sixth book, The
1918. Fate of Ten, is named after her.
• The ten-code may be used in law-enforcement

brevity communications.
Ten is:
• The number of kingdoms in Five Dynasties and Ten

Kingdoms period
• The house number of 10 Downing Street.
• The number of Provinces in Canada.
• The designation of United States Interstate 10, a

freeway that runs from California to Florida.
• Number of dots in a tetractys.
10 playing cards of all four suits • The number of the French department Aube.
• The number of regions in Ghana.

• Blake Edwards' 1979 movie 10. • The state number of Virginia.
• Series on HBO entitled 1st & Ten which aired be- • The number in tarot decks that corresponds to either
tween December 1984 and January 1991. Chance, Fortune, or the Wheel of Fortune depend-
• Series on ESPN and ESPN2 entitled 1st and 10 ing on the deck variant
which launched on ESPN in October 2003 to 2008
and moved to ESPN2 from 2008 to present.
10.10 See also
• In astrology, Capricorn is the 10th astrological sign
of the Zodiac.
• In Chinese astrology, the 10 Heavenly Stems, refer

to a cyclic number system that is used also for time
reckoning. • Mathematics portal
10.11 References
[1] “Sloane's A005278 : Noncototients”. The On-Line En-
trieved 2016-06-01.
[2] “Sloane's A001107 : 10-gonal (or decagonal) numbers”

. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
[3] “Sloane's A005448 : Centered triangular numbers”. The

[4] “Sloane's A000292 : Tetrahedral numbers”. The On-

[5] Exodus 20:2-13
[6] Deuteronomy 5:6-17
[7] Archived February 23, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[8] Khalil Garriot (21 June 2014).“Mystery solved: Why do

the best soccer players wear No. 10?". Yahoo. Retrieved
19 May 2015.
10.12 External links

Chapter 11
11 (number)
This article is about the number. For other uses, see 11 11.3 In mathematics
(disambiguation).
"Ⅺ" redirects here. For other uses, see XI (disambigua-
tion) and xi (disambiguation). 11 is the 5th smallest prime number. It is the smallest
two-digit prime number in the decimal base; as well as,
of course, in undecimal (where it is the smallest two-
11 is the natural number following 10 and preceding 12. digit number). It is also the smallest three-digit prime
In English, it is the smallest positive integer requiring in ternary, and the smallest four-digit prime in binary,
three syllables and the largest prime number with a single- but a single-digit prime in bases larger than 11, such as
morpheme name. duodecimal, hexadecimal, vigesimal and sexagesimal. 11
is the fourth Sophie Germain prime,* [5] the third safe
prime,* [6] the fourth Lucas prime,* [7] the first repunit
prime,* [8] and the second good prime.* [9] Although it is
11.1 Name necessary for n to be prime for 2* n − 1 to be a Mersenne
prime, the converse is not true: 211 − 1 = 2047 which is
Eleven derives from the Old English ęndleofon which 23 × 89. The next prime is 13, with which it comprises
is first attested in Bede's late 9th-century Ecclesiastical a twin prime. 11 is an Eisenstein prime with no imagi-
History of the English People.* [1]* [3] It has cognates in nary part and real part of the form 3n − 1. Displayed on a
every Germanic language (for example, German elf), calculator, 11 is a strobogrammatic prime and a dihedral
whose Proto-Germanic ancestor has been reconstructed prime because it reads the same whether the calculator is
as *ainlif, from the prefix *aino- (adjectival "one") and turned upside down or reflected on a mirror, or both.
suffix *-lif- of uncertain meaning.* [3] It is sometimes If a number is divisible by 11, reversing its digits will
compared with the Lithuanian vënólika, although -lika is result in another multiple of 11. As long as no two ad-
used as the suffix for all numbers from 11 to 19 (analo- jacent digits of a number added together exceed 9, then
gous to "-teen”).* [3] multiplying the number by 11, reversing the digits of the
The Old English form has closer cognates in Old Frisian, product, and dividing that new number by 11, will yield
Saxon, and Norse, whose ancestor has been reconstructed a number that is the reverse of the original number. (For
as *ainlifun. This has formerly been considered derived example: 142,312 × 11 = 1,565,432 → 2,345,651 ÷ 11
from Proto-Germanic *tehun ("ten");* [3]* [4] it is now = 213,241.)
sometimes connected with *leiq or *leip (“left; remain- Because it has a reciprocal of unique period length among
ing”), with the implicit meaning that“one is left”after primes, 11 is the second unique prime.* [10] 11 goes into
having already counted to ten.* [3] 99 exactly 9 times, so vulgar fractions with 11 in the
denominator have two digit repeating sequences in their
decimal expansions. Multiples of 11 by one-digit num-
bers all have matching double digits: 00 (=0), 11, 22,
11.2 In languages 33, 44, etc. Bob Dorough, in his Schoolhouse Rock song
“The Good Eleven”, called them “Double-digit doo-
gies”(soft g). 11 is the Aliquot sum of one number, the
11.2.1 Grammar discrete semiprime 21 and is the base of the 11-aliquot
tree.
While, as mentioned above, 11 has its own name in Ger-
manic languages such as English and German, it is the first As 11 is the smallest factor of the first 11 terms
*
of the
compound number in many other languages, e.g. Italian Euclid–Mullin sequence, it is the 12th term. [11]
ùndici (but in Spanish and Portuguese, 16, and in French, An 11-sided polygon is called a hendecagon or un-
17 is the first compound number), Japanese 十一 jūichi. decagon.
80
11.4. IN NUMERAL SYSTEMS 81
In both base 6 and base 8, the smallest prime with a com- In base 13 and higher bases (such as hexadecimal), 11 is
posite sum of digits is 11. represented as B, where ten is A. In duodecimal, however,
Any number b + 1 is written as “11 " in base b, so 11 is 11 is sometimes represented as E and ten as T or X.
b
trivially a palindrome in base 10. However 11 is a strictly 11 is a Størmer number,* [14] a Heegner number,* [15]
non-palindromic number.* [12] It is the only palindromic and a Mills prime.* [16]
prime with an even number of digits. There are 11 orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems
In base 10, there is a simple test to determine if an integer (to within a conformal symmetry) in which the 3-variable
is divisible by 11: take every digit of the number located Helmholtz equation can be solved using the separation of
in odd position and add them up, then take the remaining variables technique.
digits and add them up. If the difference between the two See also 11-cell.
sums is a multiple of 11, including 0, then the number is
divisible by 11.* [13] For instance, if the number is 65,637 11 of the thirty-five hexominoes can be folded to form
then (6 + 6 + 7) - (5 + 3) = 19 - 8 = 11, so 65,637 is cubes. 11 of the sixty-six octiamonds can be folded to
divisible by 11. This technique also works with groups of form octahedra.
digits rather than individual digits, so long as the number The partition numbers (sequence A000041 in the OEIS)
of digits in each group is odd, although not all groups have contain much more multiples of 11 than the one-eleventh
to have the same number of digits. For instance, if one one would expect.
uses three digits in each group, one gets from 65,637 the
calculation (065) - 637 = −572, which is divisible by 11. According to David A. Klarner, a leading researcher and
contributor to the study of polyominoes, it is possible to
Another test for divisibility is to separate a number into cut a rectangle into an odd number of congruent, non-
groups of two consecutive digits (adding a leading zero rectangular polyominoes. 11 is the smallest such number,
if there is an odd number of digits), and then add up the the only such number that is prime, and the only such
numbers so formed; if the result is divisible by 11, the number that is not a multiple of three.
number is divisible by 11. For instance, if the number is
65,637, 06 + 56 + 37 = 99, which is divisible by 11, so 11 raised to the nth power is the nth row of Pascal's Tri-
65,637 is divisible by eleven. This also works by adding angle. (This works for any base, but the number eleven
a trailing zero instead of a leading one: 65 + 63 + 70 = must be changed to the number represented as 11 in that
198, which is divisible by 11. This also works with larger base; for example, in duodecimal this must be done using
groups of digits, providing that each group has an even thirteen.)
number of digits (not all groups have to have the same
number of digits).
An easy way of multiplying numbers by 11 in base 10 is:
If the number has:
11.4 In numeral systems
• 1 digit - Replicate the digit (so 2 x 11 becomes 22).
• 2 digits - Add the 2 digits together and place the re-

11.5 In science
sult in the middle (so 47 x 11 becomes 4 (11) 7 or 4
(10+1) 7 or (4+1) 1 7 or 517). • 11 is the atomic number of the element sodium.
• 3 digits - Keep the first digit in its place for the re- • In chemistry, Group 11 of the Periodic Table of the
sult's first digit, add the first and second digits to- Elements (IUPAC numbering) consists of the three
gether to form the result's second digit, add the sec- coinage metals copper, silver, and gold known from
ond and third digits together to form the result's third antiquity, and roentgenium, a recently synthesized
digit, and keep the third digit as the result's fourth superheavy element.
digit. For any resulting numbers greater than 9,
carry the 1 to the left. Example 1: 123 x 11 be- • The number of spacetime dimensions in M-theory.
comes 1 (1+2) (2+3) 3 or 1353. Example 2: 481
x 11 becomes 4 (4+8) (8+1) 1 or 4 (10+2) 9 1 or
(4+1) 2 9 1 or 5291. 11.5.1 Astronomy
• 4 or more digits - Follow the same pattern as for 3
• Apollo 11 was the first manned spacecraft to land on
digits.
the Moon.
In base 10, 11 is the smallest integer that is not a • The approximate periodicity of a sunspot cycle is 11
Nivenmorphic number. years.
• Messier object M11, a magnitude 7.0 open cluster • The interval of an octave and a fourth is an 11th.
in the constellation Scutum, also known as the Wild A complete 11th chord has almost every note of a
Duck Cluster. diatonic scale.
• The New General Catalogue object NGC 11, a spiral • The number of thumb keys on a bassoon, not count-
galaxy in the constellation Andromeda ing the whisper key. (A few bassoons have a 12th
thumb key.)
began on −2511 December 26 and ended on −1158 • In the mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap, Spinal
March 18. The duration of Saros series 11 was Tap's amplifiers go up to eleven.
• In Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, there are 11
• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which consecutive repetitions of the same chord.
began on −2389 June 19 and ended on −1037
September 8. The duration of Saros series 11 was • In Tool's song Jimmy, and in Negativland's song
1352.2 years, and it contained 76 lunar eclipses. Time Zones the number 11 is heard numerous times
in the lyrics.
• The 11th moon of Jupiter is Himalia.
•“Eleven pipers piping”is the gift on the 11th day of
mas"
11.6 In religion
• In Green Grow the Rushes, O, Eleven is for “the
11.6.1 Christianity eleven who went to heaven”
• The Eleven is a song by The Grateful Dead.

After Judas Iscariot was disgraced, the remaining
apostles of Jesus were sometimes described as “the • In “Time Enough For Rocking When We're Old”
Eleven”(Mark 16:11; Luke 24:9 and 24:33); this oc- by The Magnetic Fields, a lyric references “when
curred even after Matthias was added to bring the number our pheromones go up to eleven.”
to twelve, as in Acts 2:14: Peter stood up with the eleven
(New International Version). The New Living Transla- • Eleven Records is the record label of Jason Web-
tion says Peter stepped forward with the eleven other apos- ley, and many of Webley's works feature the number
tles, making clear that the number of apostles was now 11.* [19]
twelve.
Saint Ursula is said to have been martyred in the third
or fourth century in Cologne with a number of compan- 11.8 In sports
ions, whose reported number“varies from five to eleven”
.* [17] A legend that Ursula died with eleven thousand vir- • There are 11 players on a soccer team on the field at
gin companions * [18] has been thought to appear from a time as well as in a cricket team. Within a school
misreading XI. M. V. (Latin abbreviation for “Eleven or college, the phrase first eleven (or first XI) - often
martyr virgins”) as “Eleven thousand virgins”. “first football XI”and “first cricket XI”- gener-
ally refers to the first (best) team currently playing.
Other teams are often referred to as “the second
11.6.2 Thelema XI”etc.
11 is a spiritually significant number in Thelema. • Also in soccer, in the German language (and others
like Italian -“gli undici metri”-, countries that pre-
dominantly use the metric system) a penalty kick is
11.6.3 Babylonian referred to as “Elfmeter”because the penalty spot
is approximately 11m (precisely 12 yards) from the
In the Enûma Eliš the goddess Tiamat creates eleven goal line. Historically, in the Pyramid formation that
monsters to take revenge for the death of her husband, position names are taken from, a left wing-forward
Apsû. in football wears number 11. In the modern game,
especially using the 4-4-2 formation, it is worn by a
left-sided midfielder. Less commonly a striker will
wear the shirt.
11.7 In music
• There are 11 players in a field hockey team. The
See also: Eleven (disambiguation) § Music player wearing 11 will usually play on the left-hand
side, as in soccer.
11.9. IN THE MILITARY 83
• An American football team also has 11 players on • The New York Giants, for Phil Simms.
the field at one time during play. 11 is also worn by • In the NHL:
quarterbacks, kickers, punter and wide receivers in
American football's NFL. • The Buffalo Sabres, for Hall of Famer
Gilbert Perreault.
• In most rugby league competitions (but not the Eu- • The Edmonton Oilers and New York
ropean Super League, which uses static squad num- Rangers, for Hall of Famer Mark
bering), one of the starting second-row forwards Messier.
wears the number 11.
• The St. Louis Blues, for Brian Sutter.
• In rugby union, the starting left wing wears the 11 • The Washington Capitals, for Hall of
shirt. Famer Mike Gartner.
• In cricket, the 11th batsman is usually the weakest • In racing:
batsman, at the end of the tail. He is primarily in • 11 is the number of a race car in the
the team for his bowling abilities. NASCAR Sprint Cup Series owned by
Joe Gibbs Racing and currently driven by
• The jersey number 11 has been retired by several
Denny Hamlin.
ing greats or other key figures:
• In Major League Baseball: 11.9 In the military
• The Chicago White Sox, for Hall of
Famer Luis Aparicio. In 2010 and • The number of guns in a gun salute to U.S. Army,
2011, Aparicio allowed fellow Venezue- Air Force and Marine Corps Brigadier Generals,
lan Omar Vizquel to wear the number. and to Navy and Coast Guard Rear Admirals Lower
• The Cincinnati Reds, for Hall of Famer Half.
Barry Larkin.
• The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) desig-
• The Detroit Tigers, for Hall of Fame
nator given to US Army Infantry Officer as well as
manager Sparky Anderson.
to enlisted personnel (AKA 11 MOS Series, or 11B,
• The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, for 11C, 11D, 11H, 11M, etc.)
Jim Fregosi, who played for the team in
its former incarnations as the Los Ange- • The number of General Orders for Sentries in the
les Angels and California Angels, and also Marine Corps and United States Navy.
managed the California Angels.
• The Pittsburgh Pirates, for Hall of Famer • A page in the Service Record Book of an enlisted
Paul Waner. Marine for writing down disciplinary actions.
• The San Francisco Giants, for Hall of • World War I ended with an Armistice on November
Famer Carl Hubbell, honoring the num- 11, 1918, which went into effect at 11:00 am—the
ber's retirement when the team was 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of the
known as the New York Giants. year. Armistice Day is still observed on November
• In the NBA: 11 of each year, although it is now called Veterans
• The Cleveland Cavaliers, for Zydrunas Il- Day in the United States and Remembrance Day in
gauskas.* [20] the Commonwealth of Nations and parts of Europe.
• The Detroit Pistons, for Hall of Famer
Isiah Thomas.
• The Sacramento Kings, for Hall of Famer 11.10 In computing
Bob Davies, honoring the number's re-
tirement when the team was known as the • In Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Konqueror for KDE,
Rochester Royals. Google Chrome and Internet Explorer for Windows,
• The Washington Wizards, for Hall of the function key F11 key toggles full screen viewing
Famer Elvin Hayes, who played for the mode. In macOS, F11 hides all open windows.
team in its past incarnations as the Bal-
• The windowing system for Unix computers is known
timore, Capital, and Washington Bullets,
as X11.
and won the franchise's only NBA Cham-
pionship with the 1977-1978 Washington • Computers of the PDP-11 series from Digital
Bullets. Equipment Corporation were informally referred to
• In the NFL: as “elevens”.
11.11 In Canada • Ocean's Eleven is the name of two American films.

• In the anime series Code Geass, Japan is known as
• The stylized maple leaf on the Flag of Canada has
Area 11 of the Brittanian Empire.
11 points.
• Eleven is the name of a character in the 2016 Netflix
• The loonie is a hendecagon, an 11-sided polygon.
original series Stranger Things.
• Clocks depicted on Canadian currency, like the
• In bingo 11 is referred to as chicken legs.
Canadian fifty-dollar bill, show 11:00.
• Eleven denominations of Canadian currency are
produced in large quantities. 11.13 See also
• Due to Canada's federal nature, eleven legally
distinct Crowns effectively exist in the country, • 11:11
with the Monarch represented separately in each • 11:11 (numerology)
province, and at the federal level.
11.14 References
[1] Specifically, in the line Osred ðæt rice hæfde endleofan
• Sector 11 in the North American Industry Classifi- wintra.* [2]
cation System is the code for Agriculture, Forestry,
Fishing and Hunting industries. [2] Bede, Eccl. Hist., Bk. V, Ch. xviii.
• The number 11 is important in numerology, as it is [3] Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. “eleven, adj. and n."
Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1891.
the first of the Master Numbers.
[4] Dantzig, Tobias (1930), Number: The Language of Sci-
• Being only one hour before 12:00, the eleventh hour
ence.
means the last possible moment to take care of
something, and often implies a situation of urgent [5] “Sloane's A005384 : Sophie Germain primes”. The
danger or emergency (see Doomsday clock). On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foun-
• In Astrology, Aquarius is the 11th astrological sign
of the Zodiac. [6]“Sloane's A005385 : Safe primes”. The On-Line Encyclo-
pedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved
• In Basque, hamaika (“eleven”) has the double 2016-06-01.
meaning of "infinite", probably from amaigabe,
[7] “Sloane's A005479 : Prime Lucas numbers”. The On-
“endless”, as in Hamaika aldiz etortzeko esan dizut!
(“I told you infinite/eleven times to come!"). tion. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
• English-speaking surveyors have developed several [8] “Sloane's A004022 : Primes of the form (10^n - 1)/9”
slang terms for 11 to distinguish it from its rhyme . The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
“seven": “punk,”“top,”& “railroad”* [21] Foundation. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
• American Airlines flight 11, a Boston-Los Angeles [9] “Sloane's A028388 : Good primes”. The On-Line En-
flight which was reported to have crashed into the cyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Re-
North Tower of the World Trade Center in New trieved 2016-06-01.
York City, New York on September 11, 2001.
[10] “Sloane's A040017 : Unique period primes”. The On-
• The number 11 bus is a low-cost way of sightseeing Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Founda-
in London. tion. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
• In the game of blackjack, an Ace can be counted as [11] “Sloane's A000945 : Euclid-Mullin sequence”. The
either one or 11, whichever is more advantageous for
the player.
[12] “Sloane's A016038 : Strictly non-palindromic numbers”
• 11 is the number of the French department Aude. . The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
• Three films -- Ben-Hur (1959), Titanic (1997), and
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) [13] Higgins, Peter (2008). Number Story: From Counting to
-- have each won 11 Academy Awards, including Cryptography. New York: Copernicus. p. 47. ISBN 978-
Best Picture of their respective years. 1-84800-000-1.
[14] “Sloane's A005528 : Størmer numbers”. The On-Line

Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
Retrieved 2016-06-01.

[16] “Sloane's A051254 : Mills primes”. The On-Line En-

trieved 2016-06-01.
[17] Ursulines of the Roman Union, Province of Southern

Africa, St. Ursula and Companions, accessed 10 July
2016
[18] Four scenes from the life of St Ursula, accessed 10 July

2016
[19] Corazon, Billy (July 1, 2009). “Imaginary Interview: Ja-

son Webley”. Three Imaginary Girls. Archived from the
original on 2012-04-04. Retrieved 2012-09-06.
[20] “Cavs Announce Zydrunas Ilgauskas' Jersey (#11) to be

Retired”. THE OFFICIAL SITE OF THE CLEVELAND
CAVALIERS.
[21] “Surveying Units and Terms”. Directlinesoftware.com.

2012-07-30. Retrieved 2012-08-20.

• Grimes, James. “Eleven”. Numberphile. Brady
Haran.
Chapter 12
This article is about the number and digit 0. It is not to There are different words used for the number or concept
be confused with the letter O. of zero depending on the context. For the simple notion
“Zero”redirects here. For other uses, see 0 (disam- of lacking, the words nothing and none are often used.
biguation) and Zero (disambiguation). Sometimes the words nought, naught and aught * [10] are
“Naught”redirects here. For the album by Stolen Babies, used. Several sports have specific words for zero, such
see Naught (album). as nil in football, love in tennis and a duck in cricket. It
is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers.
0 (zero; BrE: /ˈzɪərəʊ/ or AmE: /ˈziːroʊ/) is both a Slang words for zero include zip, zilch, nada, and scratch.
number* [1] and the numerical digit used to represent that Duck egg and goose egg are also slang for zero.* [11]
number in numerals. The number 0 fulfills a central role
in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real
numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, 12.2 History
0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems. Names
for the number 0 in English include zero, nought or (US)
12.2.1 Ancient Near East
naught (/ˈnɔːt/), nil, or—in contexts where at least one
adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter“O” —oh or
Ancient Egyptian numerals were base 10. They used
o (/ˈoʊ/). Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch
hieroglyphs for the digits and were not positional. By
and zip.* [2] Ought and aught (/ˈɔːt/),* [3] as well as ci-
1740 BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in ac-
pher,* [4] have also been used historically.* [5]
counting texts. The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was
also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs
and pyramids and distances were measured relative to the
12.1 Etymology base line as being above or below this line.* [12]
By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian
Main articles: Names for the number 0 and Names for mathematics had a sophisticated sexagesimal positional
the number 0 in English numeral system. The lack of a positional value (or zero)
was indicated by a space between sexagesimal numerals.
By 300 BC, a punctuation symbol (two slanted wedges)
The word zero came into the English language via French
was co-opted as a placeholder in the same Babylonian sys-
zéro from Italian zero, Italian contraction of Venetian
tem. In a tablet unearthed at Kish (dating from about 700
zevero form of 'Italian zefiro via ṣafira or ṣifr.* [6] In pre-
BC), the scribe Bêl-bân-aplu wrote his zeros with three
Islamic time the word ṣifr (Arabic ‫ )صفر‬had the meaning
hooks, rather than two slanted wedges.* [13]
'empty'.* [7] Sifr evolved to mean zero when it was used
to translate śūnya (Sanskrit: शून्य) from India.* [7] The The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because
first known English use of zero was in 1598.* [8] it was not used alone. Nor was it used at the end of a
number. Thus numbers like 2 and 120 (2×60), 3 and 180
The Italian mathematician Fibonacci (c.1170–1250),
(3×60), 4 and 240 (4×60), looked the same because the
who grew up in North Africa and is credited with in-
larger numbers lacked a final sexagesimal placeholder.
troducing the decimal system to Europe, used the term
Only context could differentiate them.
zephyrum. This became zefiro in Italian, and was then
contracted to zero in Venetian. The Italian word zefiro
was already in existence (meaning “west wind”from
12.2.2 Pre-Columbian Americas
Latin and Greek zephyrus) and may have influenced the
spelling when transcribing Arabic ṣifr.* [9]
The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar developed in
south-central Mexico and Central America required the
Modern usage use of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-
86
12.2. HISTORY 87
12.2.3 Classical antiquity
The ancient Greeks did not have a name for zero and did
not use a placeholder.* [17]
They seemed unsure about the status of zero as a num-
ber. They asked themselves,“How can nothing be some-
thing?", leading to philosophical and, by the medieval pe-
riod, religious arguments about the nature and existence
of zero and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea
depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of
zero.
Example of the early Greek symbol for zero (lower right corner)
The back of Olmec stela C from Tres Zapotes, the second oldest from a 2nd-century papyrus
Long Count date discovered. The numerals 7.16.6.16.18 trans-
late to September, 32 BC (Julian). The glyphs surrounding the By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the
date are thought to be one of the few surviving examples of Epi- Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero (a small circle
Olmec script.
with a long overbar) in his work on mathematical astron-
omy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the
Almagest. The way in which it is used can be seen in his
table of chords in that book. Ptolemy's zero was used
within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using al-
phabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not
20) positional numeral system. Many different glyphs, just as a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was perhaps
the first documented use of a number zero in the Old
including this partial quatrefoil— —were used as a World.* [18] However, the positions were usually limited
zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the earliest of to the fractional part of a number (called minutes, sec-
which (on Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas) has a onds, thirds, fourths, etc.)—they were not used for the
date of 36 BC.* [14] integral part of a number. In later Byzantine manuscripts
of Ptolemy's Almagest, the Hellenistic zero had morphed
Since the eight earliest Long Count dates appear out- into the Greek letter omicron (otherwise meaning 70).
side the Maya homeland,* [15] it is generally believed that
the use of zero in the Americas predated the Maya and Another zero was used in tables alongside Roman numer-
was possibly the invention of the Olmecs.* [16] Many als by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as
of the earliest Long Count dates were found within the a word, nulla meaning“nothing”, not as a symbol.* [19]
Olmec heartland, although the Olmec civilization ended When division produced zero as a remainder, nihil, also
meaning “nothing”, was used. These medieval zeros
by the 4th century BC, several centuries before the earli-
est known Long Count dates. were used by all future medieval calculators of Easter.
The initial “N”was used as a zero symbol in a table of
Although zero became an integral part of Maya numerals, Roman numerals by Bede or his colleagues around 725.
with a different, empty tortoise-like “shell shape” used
for many depictions of the“zero”numeral, it is assumed
to have not influenced Old World numeral systems. 12.2.4 China
Quipu, a knotted cord device, used in the Inca Empire and
its predecessor societies in the Andean region to record The Sunzi Suanjing, of unknown date but estimated to
accounting and other digital data, is encoded in a base ten be dated from the 1st to 5th centuries CE, and Japanese
positional system. Zero is represented by the absence of records dated from the eighteenth century, describe how
a knot in the appropriate position. the c4th century BCE Chinese counting rods system en-
88 CHAPTER 12. 0
tion of the value of zero divided by zero as zero.* [32]
Epigraphy
This is a depiction of zero expressed in Chinese counting rods,

based on the example provided by A History of Mathematics.
An empty space is used to represent zero.* [20]
ables one to perform decimal calculations. According to

A History of Mathematics, the rods “gave the decimal
representation of a number, with an empty space denot-
ing zero.”* [20] The counting rod system is considered a
positional notation system.* [21]
Zero was not treated as a number at that time, but The number 605 in Khmer numerals, from the Sambor inscrip-
as a “vacant position”.* [22] Ch'in Chiu-shao's 1247 tion (Saka era 605 corresponds to AD 683). The earliest known
Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections is the oldest sur- material use of zero as a decimal figure.
viving Chinese mathematical text using a round symbol
for zero.* [23] Chinese authors had been familiar with the There are numerous copper plate inscriptions, with the
idea of negative numbers by the Han Dynasty (2nd cen- same small o in them, some of them possibly dated to the
tury AD), as seen in the The Nine Chapters on the Mathe- 6th century, but their date or authenticity may be open to
matical Art,* [24] much earlier than the fifteenth century doubt.* [13]
when they became well established in Europe.* [23] A stone tablet found in the ruins of a temple near Sambor
on the Mekong, Kratié Province, Cambodia, includes the
inscription of“605”in Khmer numerals (a set of numeral
12.2.5 India and Southeast Asia glyphs of the Hindu numerals family). The number is the
year of the inscription in the Saka era, corresponding to
*
The concept of zero as a digit in the decimal place value a date of AD 683. [33]
notation was developed in India, presumably as early as The first known use of special glyphs for the decimal dig-
during the Gupta period (c. 5th century), with the oldest its that includes the indubitable appearance of a symbol
unambiguous evidence dating to the 7th century.* [25] for the digit zero, a small circle, appears on a stone in-
The Indian scholar Pingala (c. 200 BC) used binary num- scription found at* the Chaturbhuja
*
Temple at Gwalior in
bers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter India, dated 876. [34] [35]
equal in length to two short syllables), a notation simi-
lar to Morse code.* [26] Pingala used the Sanskrit word
12.2.6 Middle Ages
śūnya explicitly to refer to zero.* [27]
The earliest text to use a decimal place-value system, in- Transmission to Islamic culture
cluding a zero, is the Lokavibhāga, a Jain text surviving
in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, See also: History of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system
which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380). In
this text, śūnya (“void, empty”) is also used to refer to
The Arabic-language inheritance of science was largely
zero.* [28] Greek,* [36] followed by Hindu influences.* [37] In 773,
The origin of the modern decimal-based place value at Al-Mansur's behest, translations were made of many
notation can be traced to the Aryabhatiya (c. 500), ancient treatises including Greek, Roman, Indian, and
which states sthānāt sthānaṁ daśaguṇaṁ syāt “from others.
place to place each is ten times the preceding.” In AD 813, astronomical tables were prepared by
*
[29]* [29]* [30]* [31] a Persian mathematician, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-
The rules governing the use of zero appeared for the first Khwārizmī, using Hindu numerals;* [37] and about 825,
time in the Brahmasputha Siddhanta (7th century). This he published a book synthesizing Greek and Hindu
work considers not only zero, but negative numbers, and knowledge and also contained his own contribution to
the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arith- mathematics including an explanation of the use of
metic with such numbers. In some instances, his rules zero.* [38] This book was later translated into Latin in the
differ from the modern standard, specifically the defini- 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum.
12.3. MATHEMATICS 89
This title means “al-Khwarizmi on the Numerals of the chance omitted anything more or less proper
Indians”. The word “Algoritmi”was the translator's or necessary, I beg indulgence, since there is
Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name, and the word“Al- no one who is blameless and utterly provident
gorithm”or“Algorism”started meaning any arithmetic in all things. The nine Indian figures are: 9 8
based on decimals.* [37] 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. With these nine figures, and
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi, in 976, stated that with the sign 0 ... any number may be writ-
if no number appears in the place of tens in a calculation, ten.* [40]* [41]
a little circle should be used “to keep the rows”. This
circle was called ṣifr.* [39] Here Leonardo of Pisa uses the phrase“sign 0”, indicat-
ing it is like a sign to do operations like addition or multi-
plication. From the 13th century, manuals on calculation
Transmission to Europe (adding, multiplying, extracting roots, etc.) became com-
mon in Europe where they were called algorismus after
The Hindu–Arabic numeral system (base 10) reached the Persian mathematician al-Khwārizmī. The most pop-
Europe in the 11th century, via the Iberian Penin- ular was written by Johannes de Sacrobosco, about 1235
sula through Spanish Muslims, the Moors, together and was one of the earliest scientific books to be printed in
with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like the 1488. Until the late 15th century, Hindu–Arabic numer-
astrolabe, first imported by Gerbert of Aurillac. For this als seem to have predominated among mathematicians,
reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as while merchants preferred to use the Roman numerals.
“Arabic numerals”. The Italian mathematician Fibonacci In the 16th century, they became commonly used in Eu-
or Leonardo of Pisa was instrumental in bringing the sys- rope.
tem into European mathematics in 1202, stating:
After my father's appointment by his 12.3 Mathematics

homeland as state official in the customs house
of Bugia for the Pisan merchants who thronged
to it, he took charge; and in view of its future See also: parity of zero
usefulness and convenience, had me in my boy-
hood come to him and there wanted me to de- 0 is the integer immediately preceding 1. Zero is an even
vote myself to and be instructed in the study number,* [42] because it is divisible by 2 with no remain-
of calculation for some days. There, follow- der. 0 is neither positive nor negative. By most defini-
ing my introduction, as a consequence of mar- tions* [43] 0 is a natural number, and then the only natural
velous instruction in the art, to the nine digits number not to be positive. Zero is a number which quan-
of the Hindus, the knowledge of the art very tifies a count or an amount of null size. In most cultures, 0
much appealed to me before all others, and was identified before the idea of negative things, or quan-
for it I realized that all its aspects were studied tities less than zero, was accepted.
in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily, and Provence,
The value, or number, zero is not the same as the digit
with their varying methods; and at these places
zero, used in numeral systems using positional notation.
thereafter, while on business. I pursued my
Successive positions of digits have higher weights, so in-
study in depth and learned the give-and-take of
side a numeral the digit zero is used to skip a position
disputation. But all this even, and the algorism,
and give appropriate weights to the preceding and follow-
as well as the art of Pythagoras, I considered
ing digits. A zero digit is not always necessary in a posi-
as almost a mistake in respect to the method
tional number system, for example, in the number 02. In
of the Hindus (Modus Indorum). Therefore,
some instances, a leading zero may be used to distinguish
embracing more stringently that method of the
a number.
Hindus, and taking stricter pains in its study,
while adding certain things from my own un-
derstanding and inserting also certain things
from the niceties of Euclid's geometric art. I
12.3.1 Elementary algebra
have striven to compose this book in its entirety
as understandably as I could, dividing it into fif- The number 0 is the smallest non-negative integer. The
teen chapters. Almost everything which I have natural number following 0 is 1 and no natural number
introduced I have displayed with exact proof, precedes 0. The number 0 may or may not be considered
in order that those further seeking this knowl- a natural number, but it is a whole number and hence a
edge, with its pre-eminent method, might be rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic
instructed, and further, in order that the Latin number and a complex number).
people might not be discovered to be without The number 0 is neither positive nor negative and is usu-
it, as they have been up to now. If I have per- ally displayed as the central number in a number line. It is
90 CHAPTER 12. 0
neither a prime number nor a composite number. It can- • In lattice theory, 0 may denote the bottom element
not be prime because it has an infinite number of factors of a bounded lattice.
and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed
by multiplying prime numbers (0 must always be one of • In category theory, 0 is sometimes used to denote an
the factors).* [44] Zero is, however, even. initial object of a category.
The following are some basic (elementary) rules for deal-
• In recursion theory, 0 can be used to denote the
ing with the number 0. These rules apply for any real or
Turing degree of the partial computable functions.
complex number x, unless otherwise stated.
• Addition: x + 0 = 0 + x = x. That is, 0 is an identity

12.3.3 Related mathematical terms
element (or neutral element) with respect to addi-
tion.
• A zero of a function f is a point x in the domain
• Subtraction: x − 0 = x and 0 − x = −x. of the function such that f(x) = 0. When there are
finitely many zeros these are called the roots of the
• Multiplication: x ·0 = 0 ·x = 0. function. This is related to zeros of a holomorphic
• Division: 0 ⁄x = 0, for nonzero x. But * x⁄0 is function.
undefined, because 0 has no multiplicative inverse
(no real number multiplied by 0 produces 1), a con- • The zero function (or zero map) on a domain D is the
sequence of the previous rule. constant function with 0 as its only possible output
value, i.e., the function f defined by f(x) = 0 for all
• Exponentiation: x0 = * x/x = 1, except that the case x x in D. The zero function is the only function that is
= 0 may be left undefined in some contexts. For all both even and odd. A particular zero function is a
positive real x, 0* x = 0. zero morphism in category theory; e.g., a zero map
is the identity in the additive group of functions. The
The expression 0 ⁄0 , which may be obtained in an at- determinant on non-invertible square matrices is a
tempt to determine the limit of an expression of the form zero map.
*
f(x)⁄g(x) as a result of applying the lim operator inde-
pendently to both operands of the fraction, is a so-called • Several branches of mathematics have zero ele-
"indeterminate form". That does not simply mean that ments, which generalise either the property 0 + x
the limit sought is necessarily undefined; rather, it means = x, or the property 0 × x = 0, or both.
that the limit of * f(x)⁄g(x) , if it exists, must be found by
another method, such as l'Hôpital's rule.
The sum of 0 numbers is 0, and the product of 0 numbers 12.4 Physics
is 1. The factorial 0! evaluates to 1.
The value zero plays a special role for many physical
12.3.2 Other branches of mathematics quantities. For some quantities, the zero level is natu-
rally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for oth-
• In set theory, 0 is the cardinality of the empty set: ers it is more or less arbitrarily chosen. For example, for
if one does not have any apples, then one has 0 ap- an absolute temperature (as measured in kelvins) zero is
ples. In fact, in certain axiomatic developments of the lowest possible value (negative temperatures are de-
mathematics from set theory, 0 is defined to be the fined, but negative-temperature systems are not actually
empty set. When this is done, the empty set is the colder). This is in contrast to for example temperatures
Von Neumann cardinal assignment for a set with no on the Celsius scale, where zero is arbitrarily defined to be
elements, which is the empty set. The cardinality at the freezing point of water. Measuring sound intensity
function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty in decibels or phons, the zero level is arbitrarily set at a
set as a value, thereby assigning it 0 elements. reference value—for example, at a value for the threshold
of hearing. In physics, the zero-point energy is the lowest
• Also in set theory, 0 is the lowest ordinal number, possible energy that a quantum mechanical physical sys-
corresponding to the empty set viewed as a well- tem may possess and is the energy of the ground state of
ordered set. the system.
• In propositional logic, 0 may be used to denote the
truth value false.
• In abstract algebra, 0 is commonly used to denote a 12.5 Chemistry
zero element, which is a neutral element for addition
(if defined on the structure under consideration) and Zero has been proposed as the atomic number of the the-
an absorbing element for multiplication (if defined). oretical element tetraneutron. It has been shown that a
12.8. OTHER FIELDS 91
cluster of four neutrons may be stable enough to be con- A null pointer is a pointer in a computer program that
sidered an atom in its own right. This would create an does not point to any object or function. In C, the integer
element with no protons and no charge on its nucleus. constant 0 is converted into the null pointer at compile
As early as 1926, Andreas von Antropoff coined the term time when it appears in a pointer context, and so 0 is a
neutronium for a conjectured form of matter made up of standard way to refer to the null pointer in code. How-
neutrons with no protons, which he placed as the chemi- ever, the internal representation of the null pointer may
cal element of atomic number zero at the head of his new be any bit pattern (possibly different values for different
version of the periodic table. It was subsequently placed data types).
as a noble gas in the middle of several spiral representa- In mathematics −0 = +0 = 0; both −0 and +0 represent ex-
tions of the periodic system for classifying the chemical actly the same number, i.e., there is no “negative zero”
elements. distinct from zero. In some signed number representa-
tions (but not the two's complement representation used
to represent integers in most computers today) and most
12.6 Astronomy floating point number representations, zero has two dis-
tinct representations, one grouping it with the positive
• The Saros number [45] of the solar eclipse series numbers and one with the negatives; this latter represen-
*
which began on May 23, 2955 BC and ended on tation is known as negative zero.
June 29, 1675 BC. The duration of Saros series In binary, 0 represents the value for“off”, which means
0 was 1280.14 years, and it contained 72 solar no electricity flow.* [47]
eclipses.
Zero is the value of false in many programming lan-
• The Saros number* [46] of the lunar eclipse series guages.
which began on March 1, 2653 BC and ended on In Unix time, zero is midnight before the first of January
April 30, 1337 BC. The duration of Saros series 0 1970. This is known as the Unix epoch.
was 1316.2 years, and it contained 74 lunar eclipses.
12.7 Computer science 12.8 Other fields

• In telephony, pressing 0 is often used for dialling
The most common practice throughout human history has out of a company network or to a different city or
been to start counting at one, and this is the practice in region, and 00 is used for dialling abroad. In some
early classic computer science programming languages countries, dialling 0 places a call for operator assis-
such as Fortran and COBOL. However, in the late 1950s tance.
LISP introduced zero-based numbering for arrays while
Algol 58 introduced completely flexible basing for array • DVDs that can be played in any region are some-
subscripts (allowing any positive, negative, or zero integer times referred to as being "region 0"
as base for array subscripts), and most subsequent pro-
gramming languages adopted one or other of these po- • Roulette wheels usually feature a “0”space (and
sitions. For example, the elements of an array are num- sometimes also a “00”space), whose presence is
bered starting from 0 in C, so that for an array of n items ignored when calculating payoffs (thereby allowing
the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to n−1. This the house to win in the long run).
permits an array element's location to be calculated by • In Formula One, if the reigning World Champion
adding the index directly to address of the array, whereas no longer competes in Formula One in the year fol-
1 based languages precalculate the array's base address to lowing their victory in the title race, 0 is given to one
be the position one element before the first. of the drivers of the team that the reigning champion
There can be confusion between 0 and 1 based indexing, won the title with. This happened in 1993 and 1994,
for example Java's JDBC indexes parameters from 1 al- with Damon Hill driving car 0, due to the reigning
though Java itself uses 0-based indexing. World Champion (Nigel Mansell and Alain Prost re-
spectively) not competing in the championship.
In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value.
It is then said to have a null value. For numeric fields it is
not the value zero. For text fields this is not blank nor the
empty string. The presence of null values leads to three- 12.9 Symbols and representations
valued logic. No longer is a condition either true or false,
but it can be undetermined. Any computation including Main article: Symbols for zero
a null value delivers a null result. Asking for all records The modern numerical digit 0 is usually written as a circle
with value 0 or value not equal 0 will not yield all records, or ellipse. Traditionally, many print typefaces made the
since the records with value null are excluded. capital letter O more rounded than the narrower, elliptical
92 CHAPTER 12. 0
12.12 References
[1] Matson, John (21 August 2009). “The Origin of Zero”.
Scientific American. Springer Nature. Retrieved 24 April
2016.
[2] Soanes, Catherine; Waite, Maurice; Hawker, Sara, eds.

(2001). The Oxford Dictionary, Thesaurus and Word-
power Guide (Hardback) (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860373-3.
[3]“aught, Also ought”in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary

* (1927), Third Edition, Springfield, MA: G. & C. Mer-
digit 0. [48] Typewriters originally made no distinction in riam.
shape between O and 0; some models did not even have
a separate key for the digit 0. The distinction came into [4]“cipher”, in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1927), Third
prominence on modern character displays.* [48] Edition, Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
A slashed zero can be used to distinguish the number from [5] aught at etymonline.com
the letter. The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems [6] See:
to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays
and has continued with some modern computer typefaces • Douglas Harper (2011), Zero, Etymology Dictio-
such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation nary, Quote="figure which stands for naught in the
systems. One variation uses a short vertical bar instead Arabic notation,”also“the absence of all quantity
of the dot. Some fonts designed for use with computers considered as quantity,”c.1600, from French zéro
or directly from Italian zero, from Medieval Latin
made one of the capital-O–digit-0 pair more rounded and
zephirum, from Arabic sifr “cipher,”translation
the other more angular (closer to a rectangle). A further of Sanskrit sunya-m“empty place, desert, naught";
distinction is made in falsification-hindering typeface as
• Menninger, Karl (1992). Number words and num-
used on German car number plates by slitting open the
ber symbols: a cultural history of numbers. Courier
digit 0 on the upper right side. Sometimes the digit 0 is Dover Publications. pp. 399–404. ISBN 0-486-
used either exclusively, or not at all, to avoid confusion 27096-3.;
altogether.
• “zero, n.”. OED Online. Oxford University Press.
December 2011. Archived from the original on 6
March 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-04. French zéro
12.10 Year label (1515 in Hatzfeld & Darmesteter) or its source Ital-
ian zero , for *zefiro , < Arabic çifr
Main article: 0 (year) [7] See:
• Smithsonian Institution, Oriental Elements of Cul-

In the BC calendar era, the year 1 BC is the first year ture in the Occident, p. 518, at Google Books, An-
before AD 1; there is not a year zero. By contrast, in nual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution; Harvard University Archives,
astronomical year numbering, the year 1 BC is numbered
Quote="Sifr occurs in the meaning of “empty”
0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and so on.* [49]
even in the pre-Islamic time. (...) Arabic sifr in the
meaning of zero is a translation of the correspond-
ing India sunya.”;
12.11 See also • Jan Gullberg (1997), Mathematics: From the Birth
of Numbers, W.W. Norton & Co., ISBN 978-
0393040029, page 26, Quote = ‘ ‘Zero derives
• Zeroth (zero as an ordinal number) from Hindu sunya – meaning void, emptiness – via
Arabic sifr, Latin cephirum, Italian zevero.’’;
• Brahmagupta • Robert Logan (2010), The Poetry of Physics and
the Physics of Poetry, World Scientific, ISBN 978-
• Division by zero 9814295925, page 38, Quote =“The idea of sunya
and place numbers was transmitted to the Arabs
• Grammatical number who translated sunya or “leave a space”into their
language as sifr.”
• Number theory
[8] Zero, Merriam Webster online Dictionary
• Peano axioms [9] Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers:
From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Wiley.
• Signed zero ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
12.12. REFERENCES 93
[10] 'Aught' definition, Dictionary.com – Retrieved April [27] Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton
2013. University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676, page 54–56.
Quote – “In the Chandah-sutra of Pingala, dating per-
[11] 'Aught' synonyms, Thesaurus.com – Retrieved April haps the third or second century BC, [...] Pingala's use
2013. of a zero symbol [śūnya] as a marker seems to be the first
known explicit reference to zero.”Kim Plofker (2009),
[12] Joseph, George Gheverghese (2011). The Crest of the Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN
Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edi- 978-0691120676, 55–56. “In the Chandah-sutra of Pin-
tion). Princeton. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-691-13526-7. gala, dating perhaps the third or second century BC, there
[13] Kaplan, Robert. (2000). The Nothing That Is: A Natural are five questions concerning the possible meters for any
History of Zero. Oxford: Oxford University Press. value “n”. [...] The answer is (2)7 = 128, as expected,
but instead of seven doublings, the process (explained by
[14] No long count date actually using the number 0 has been the sutra) required only three doublings and two squarings
found before the 3rd century AD, but since the long count – a handy time saver where “n”is large. Pingala’s use
system would make no sense without some placeholder, of a zero symbol as a marker seems to be the first known
and since Mesoamerican glyphs do not typically leave explicit reference to zero.
empty spaces, these earlier dates are taken as indirect ev-
idence that the concept of 0 already existed at the time. [28] Ifrah, Georges (2000), p. 416.
[15] Diehl, p. 186 [29] Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, translated by Walter Eugene

Clark.
[16] Mortaigne, Véronique (November 28, 2014). “The
golden age of Mayan civilisation – exhibition review”. [30] O'Connor, Robertson, J.J., E. F. “Aryabhata the Elder”
The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 Novem- . School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St
ber 2014. Retrieved October 10, 2015. Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
[17] Wallin, Nils-Bertil (19 November 2002). “The History [31] William L. Hosch, ed. (15 August 2010). The Britannica
of Zero”. YaleGlobal online. The Whitney and Betty Guide to Numbers and Measurement (Math Explained).
Macmillan Center for International and Area Studies at books.google.com.my. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp.
Yale. Retrieved September 1, 2016. 97–98. ISBN 9781615301089.
[18] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., “A history
[32] Algebra with Arithmetic of Brahmagupta and Bhaskara,
of Zero”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive,
translated to English by Henry Thomas Colebrooke
University of St Andrews.
(1817) London
[19] “Zero and Fractions”. Know the Romans. Retrieved 21
September 2016. [33] Cœdès, Georges, “A propos de l'origine des chiffres
arabes,”Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Uni-
[20] Hodgkin, Luke (2 June 2005). A History of Mathematics versity of London, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1931, pp. 323–328.
: From Mesopotamia to Modernity: From Mesopotamia to Diller, Anthony,“New Zeros and Old Khmer,”The Mon-
Modernity. Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0- Khmer Studies Journal, Vol. 25, 1996, pp. 125–132.
19-152383-0.
[34] Casselman, Bill. “All for Nought”. ams.org. University
[21] Crossley, Lun. 1999, p.12 “the ancient Chinese system of British Columbia), American Mathematical Society.
is a place notation system”
[35] Ifrah, Georges (2000), p. 400.
[22] Kang-Shen Shen; John N. Crossley; Anthony W. C. Lun;
Hui Liu (1999). The Nine Chapters on the Mathemati- [36] Pannekoek, A. (1961). A History of Astronomy. George
cal Art: Companion and Commentary. Oxford Univer- Allen & Unwin. p. 165.
sity Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-19-853936-0. zero was
regarded as a number in India... whereas the Chinese em- [37] Will Durant (1950), The Story of Civilization, Volume 4,
ployed a vacant position The Age of Faith: Constantine to Dante – A.D. 325–
1300, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0965000758, p. 241,
[23] “Mathematics in the Near and Far East” (pdf). gr-
Quote = “The Arabic inheritance of science was over-
math4.phpnet.us. p. 262.
whelmingly Greek, but Hindu influences ranked next. In
[24] Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. 773, at Mansur's behest, translations were made of the Sid-
New York: Dover Publications. pp. 32–33. "In these dhantas – Indian astronomical treatises dating as far back
matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for as 425 BC; these versions may have the vehicle through
the first time in history." which the“Arabic”numerals and the zero were brought
from India into Islam. In 813, al-Khwarizmi used the
[25] Bourbaki, Nicolas Elements of the History of Mathematics Hindu numerals in his astronomical tables.”
(1998), p. 46. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007),
entry “Algebra” [38] Brezina, Corona (2006). Al-Khwarizmi: The Inventor Of
Algebra. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-
[26] “Math for Poets and Drummers” (pdf). people.sju.edu. 4042-0513-0.
94 CHAPTER 12. 0
[39] Will Durant (1950), The Story of Civilization, Volume • Kaplan, Robert (2000) The Nothing That Is: A Nat-
4, The Age of Faith, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978- ural History of Zero, Oxford: Oxford University
0965000758, p. 241, Quote = “In 976, Muhammad ibn Press.
Ahmad, in his Keys of the Sciences, remarked that if, in a
calculation, no number appears in the place of tens, a little • Seife, Charles (2000) Zero: The Biography of a
circle should be used“to keep the rows”. This circle the Dangerous Idea, Penguin USA (Paper). ISBN 0-14-
Mosloems called ṣifr, “empty”whence our cipher.” 029647-6.
[40] Sigler, L., Fibonacci's Liber Abaci. English translation, • Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998). Elements of the History
Springer, 2003.
of Mathematics. Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York:
[41] Grimm, R.E.,“The Autobiography of Leonardo Pisano” Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-64767-8.
, Fibonacci Quarterly 11/1 (February 1973), pp. 99–104.
• Isaac Asimov (1978). Article“Nothing Counts”in
[42] Lemma B.2.2, The integer 0 is even and is not odd, in Pen- Asimov on Numbers. Pocket Books.
ner, Robert C. (1999). Discrete Mathematics: Proof Tech-
niques and Mathematical Structures. World Scientific. p. • This article is based on material taken from the Free On-
34. ISBN 981-02-4088-0. line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008
and incorporated under the “relicensing”terms of the
[43] Bunt, Lucas Nicolaas Hendrik; Jones, Phillip S.; Bedient,
Jack D. (1976). The historical roots of elementary mathe- GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
matics. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 254–255. ISBN
• Chris Woodford (2006), Digital Technology, Evans
0-486-13968-9., Extract of pages 254–255
Brothers, ISBN 978-02-3752-725-9
[44] Reid, Constance (1992). From zero to infinity: what makes
numbers interesting (4th ed.). Mathematical Association
of America. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-88385-505-8.
[45] “Solar Eclipses of Saros 1 to 175”. sun-
earth.gsfc.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on • Search for the world's first zero leads to the home of
5 February 2007. Angkor Wat
[46] “NASA – Lunar Eclipses of Saros Series 1 to 175”.
• A History of Zero
sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 29
February 2008. • Zero Saga
[47] Chris Woodford 2006, p. 9.
• The History of Algebra
[48] Bemer, R. W. (1967). “Towards standards for handwrit-
ten zero and oh: much ado about nothing (and a letter), • Edsger W. Dijkstra: Why numbering should start at
or a partial dossier on distinguishing between handwrit- zero, EWD831 (PDF of a handwritten manuscript)
ten zero and oh”. Communications of the ACM. 10 (8):
513–518. doi:10.1145/363534.363563. • Zero on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
[49] Steel, Duncan (2000). Marking time: the epic quest to in-
• Weisstein, Eric W. “0”. MathWorld.
vent the perfect calendar. John Wiley & Sons. p. 113.
ISBN 0-471-29827-1. In the B.C./A.D. scheme there is
no year zero. After 31 December 1 BC came AD 1 Jan- • Texts on Wikisource:
uary 1. ... If you object to that no-year-zero scheme, then
don't use it: use the astronomer's counting scheme, with • "Zero". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
negative year numbers. 1911.
• "Zero". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
12.13 Bibliography
• Amir D. Aczel (2015) Finding Zero, New York City:
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-27984-2
• Barrow, John D. (2001) The Book of Nothing, Vin-
tage. ISBN 0-09-928845-1.
• Diehl, Richard A. (2004) The Olmecs: America's
First Civilization, Thames & Hudson, London.
• Ifrah, Georges (2000) The Universal History of
Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the
Computer, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
Chapter 13
Aliquot sum
In mathematics, the aliquot sum s(n) of a positive integer

n is the sum of all proper divisors of n. The aliquot sums
of perfect, deficient, and abundant numbers are equal to,
less than, and greater than the number itself respectively.
The aliquot sequence is the sequence obtained by repeat-
edly applying the aliquot sum function s. The aliquot sum
function is also referred to as the restricted divisor func-
tion.* [1]
For example, the proper divisors of 15 (that is, the pos-
itive divisors of 15 that are not equal to 15) are 1, 3 and
5, so the aliquot sum of 15 is 9 (1 + 3 + 5).
13.1 See also

• Divisor function
13.2 References
[1] Weisstein, Eric W. “Restricted Divisor Function”.
MathWorld.
95
Chapter 14
Perfect number
For the 2012 film, see Perfect Number (film). equal to half the sum of all its positive divisors: ( 1 + 2 +
In number theory, a perfect number is a positive inte- 3 + 6 ) / 2 = 6. The next perfect number is 28 = 1 + 2 +
4 + 7 + 14. This is followed by the perfect numbers 496
and 8128 (sequence A000396 in the OEIS).
14.2 History
In about 300 BC Euclid showed that if 2* p−1 is prime
then (2* p−1)2* p−1 is perfect. The first four perfect num-
bers were the only ones known to early Greek mathe-
matics, and the mathematician Nicomachus had noted
8128 as early as 100 AD.* [2] Philo of Alexandria in
his first-century book “On the creation”mentions per-
fect numbers, claiming that the world was created in
6 days and the moon orbits in 28 days because 6 and
28 are perfect. Philo is followed by Origen,* [3] and
by Didymus the Blind, who adds the observation that
there are only four perfect numbers that are less than
Demonstration, with Cuisenaire rods, of the perfection of the 10,000. (Commentary on Genesis 1. 14-19).* [4] St Au-
number 6 gustine defines perfect numbers in City of God (Part XI,
Chapter 30) in the early 5th century AD, repeating the
ger that is equal to the sum of its proper positive divisors, claim that God created the world in 6 days because 6
that is, the sum of its positive divisors excluding the num- is the smallest perfect number. The Egyptian mathe-
ber itself (also known as its aliquot sum). Equivalently, a matician Ismail ibn Fallūs (1194–1252) mentioned the
perfect number is a number that is half the sum of all of next three perfect numbers (33,550,336, 8,589,869,056
its positive divisors (including itself) i.e. σ1 (n) = 2n. and 137,438,691,328) and listed a few more which are
This definition is ancient, appearing as early as Euclid's now known to be incorrect.* [5] In a manuscript writ-
Elements (VII.22) where it is called τέλειος ἀριθμός ten between 1456 and 1461, an unknown mathematician
(perfect, ideal, or complete number). Euclid also proved a recorded the earliest European reference to a fifth perfect
formation rule (IX.36) whereby q(q+1)/2 is an even per- number, with 33,550,336 being correctly identified for
fect number whenever q is a prime of the form 2p − 1 for the first time.* [6]* [7] In 1588, the Italian mathematician
prime p —what is now called a Mersenne prime. Much Pietro Cataldi also identified the sixth (8,589,869,056)
later, Euler proved that all even perfect numbers are of and the seventh (137,438,691,328) perfect numbers, and
this form.* [1] This is known as the Euclid–Euler theo- also proved that every perfect number obtained from Eu-
rem. clid's rule ends with a 6 or an 8.* [8]* [9]* [10]
It is not known whether there are any odd perfect num-
bers, nor whether infinitely many perfect numbers exist.
14.3 Even perfect numbers
14.1 Examples See also: Euclid–Euler theorem
The first perfect number is 6. Its proper divisors are 1, 2, Euclid proved that 2* p−1(2* p − 1) is an even perfect num-
and 3, and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Equivalently, the number 6 is ber whenever 2* p − 1 is prime (Euclid, Prop. IX.36).
96
14.3. EVEN PERFECT NUMBERS 97
For example, the first four perfect numbers are generated and the 2* p−1th hexagonal number. Furthermore, each
by the formula 2* p−1(2* p − 1), with p a prime number, even perfect number except for 6 is the ((2* p + 1)/3)th
as follows: centered nonagonal number and is equal to the sum of
the first 2* (p−1)/2 odd cubes:
for p = 2: 21 (22 − 1) = 6
for p = 3: 22 (23 − 1) = 28
6 = 21 (22 − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3,
for p = 5: 24 (25 − 1) = 496
for p = 7: 26 (27 − 1) = 8128. 28 = 22 (23 − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 13 + 33 ,
Prime numbers of the form 2* p − 1 are known as 496 = 24 (25 − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 29 + 30 + 31

Mersenne primes, after the seventeenth-century monk = 13 + 33 + 53 + 73 ,
Marin Mersenne, who studied number theory and perfect
numbers. For 2* p − 1 to be prime, it is necessary that p 8128 = 26 (27 − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 125 + 126 + 127
itself be prime. However, not all numbers of the form 2* p
= 13 + 33 + 53 + 73 + 93 + 113 + 133 + 1
− 1 with a prime p are prime; for example, 211 − 1 = 2047
= 23 × 89 is not a prime number.* [11] In fact, Mersenne
33550336 = 212 (213 − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 8189 + 8190 + 8191
primes are very rare—of the 9,592 prime numbers p less
than 100,000,* [12] 2* p − 1 is prime for only 28 of them. = 13 + 33 + 53 + · · · + 1233 + 1253 + 127
Nicomachus (60-120 AD) conjectured that every per-
Even perfect numbers (except 6) are of the form
fect number is of the form 2* p−1(2* p − 1) where 2* p
− 1 is prime.* [13] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) circa 1000
AD conjectured that every even perfect number is of that
form.* [14] It was not until the 18th century that Leonhard (2p − 2) × (2p + 1)
T2p −1 = 1 + = 1 + 9 × T(2p −2)/3
Euler proved that the formula 2* p−1(2* p − 1) will yield 2
all the even perfect numbers. Thus, there is a one-to-
one correspondence between even perfect numbers and with each resulting triangular number (after subtracting
Mersenne primes; each Mersenne prime generates one 1 from the perfect number and dividing the result by 9)
even perfect number, and vice versa. This result is oftenending in 3 or 5, the sequence starting with 3, 55, 903,
referred to as the Euclid–Euler theorem. As of January 3727815, ....* [17] This can be reformulated as follows:
2016, 49 Mersenne primes are known,* [15] and therefore adding the digits of any even perfect number (except 6),
then adding the digits of the resulting number, and re-
49 even perfect numbers (the largest of which is 274207280
× (274207281 − 1) with 44,677,235 digits). peating this process until a single digit (called the digital
root) is obtained, always produces the number 1. For ex-
An exhaustive search by the GIMPS distributed comput- ample, the digital root of 8128 is 1, because 8 + 1 + 2 +
ing project has shown that the first 44 even perfect num- 8 = 19, 1 + 9 = 10, and 1 + 0 = 1. This works with all
bers are 2* p−1(2* p − 1) for perfect numbers 2* p−1(2* p − 1) with odd prime p and,
in fact, with all numbers of the form 2* m−1(2* m − 1) for
p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, odd integer (not necessarily prime) m.
127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, Owing to their form, 2* p−1(2* p − 1), every even perfect
4423, 9689, 9941, 11213, 19937, 21701, number is represented in binary as p ones followed by p
23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, − 1 zeros:
216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269,
2976221, 3021377, 6972593, 13466917,
20996011, 24036583, 25964951, 30402457, 610 = 1102
and 32582657 (sequence A000043 in the
OEIS).* [16] 2810 = 111002
49610 = 1111100002
Five higher perfect numbers have also been discov-
ered, namely those for which p = 37156667, 42643801, 812810 = 11111110000002
43112609, 57885161, and 74207281, though there may 3355033610 =
be others within this range. It is not known whether there 11111111111110000000000002 .
are infinitely many perfect numbers, nor whether there
are infinitely many Mersenne primes.
As well as having the form 2* p−1(2* p − 1), each even Thus every even perfect number is a pernicious number.
perfect number is the (2* p − 1)th triangular number (and Note that every even perfect number is also a practical
hence equal to the sum of the integers from 1 to 2* p − 1) number (c.f. Related concepts).
98 CHAPTER 14. PERFECT NUMBER
14.4 Odd perfect numbers 14.5 Minor results

It is unknown whether there is any odd perfect num- All even perfect numbers have a very precise form; odd
ber, though various results have been obtained. In 1496, perfect numbers either do not exist or are rare. There are
Jacques Lefèvre stated that Euclid's rule gives all perfect a number of results on perfect numbers that are actually
numbers,* [18] thus implying that no odd perfect number quite easy to prove but nevertheless superficially impres-
exists. More recently, Carl Pomerance has presented a sive; some of them also come under Richard Guy's strong
heuristic argument suggesting that indeed no odd perfect law of small numbers:
number should exist.* [19] All perfect numbers are also
Ore's harmonic numbers, and it has been conjectured as • The only even perfect number of the form x3 + 1 is
well that there are no odd Ore's harmonic numbers other 28 (Makowski 1962).* [32]
than 1.
• 28 is also the only even perfect number that is a sum
Any odd perfect number N must satisfy the following of two positive integral cubes (Gallardo 2010).* [33]
conditions:
• The reciprocals of the divisors of a perfect number
• N > 101500 .* [20] N must add up to 2 (to get this, take the definition
of a perfect number, σ1 (n) = 2n , and divide both
• N is not divisible by 105.* [21] sides by n):
• N is of the form N ≡ 1 (mod 12), N ≡ 117 (mod
• For 6, we have 1/6 + 1/3 + 1/2 + 1/1 = 2 ;
468), or N ≡ 81 (mod 324).* [22]
• For 28, we have 1/28 + 1/14 + 1/7 + 1/4 +
• N is of the form 1/2 + 1/1 = 2 , etc.
• The number of divisors of a perfect number
(whether even or odd) must be even, because N can-
1 · · · pk ,
2ek
N = q α p2e 1
not be a perfect square.* [34]
where: • From these two results it follows that every
• q, p1 , ..., pk are distinct primes (Euler). perfect number is an Ore's harmonic number.
• q ≡ α ≡ 1 (mod 4) (Euler). • The even perfect numbers are not trapezoidal num-
• The smallest prime factor of N is less than bers; that is, they cannot be represented as the dif-
(2k + 8) / 3.* [23] ference of two positive non-consecutive triangular
• Either q* α > 1062 , or p j * 2ej > 1062 for numbers. There are only three types of non-
some j.* [20] trapezoidal numbers: even perfect numbers, powers
• N < 2* 4* k+1.* [24] of two, and the numbers of the form 2n−1 (2n + 1)
formed as the product of a Fermat prime 2n +1 with
• The largest prime factor of N is greater than a power of two in a similar way to the construction of
108 .* [25] even perfect numbers from Mersenne primes.* [35]
• The second largest prime factor is greater than 104 , • The number
√ of perfect numbers less than n is less
and the third largest prime factor is greater than c n , where c > 0 is a constant.* [36] In fact it
than √
100.* [26]* [27] is o( n) , using little-o notation.* [37]
• N has at least 101 prime factors and at least 10 dis- • Every even perfect number ends in 6 or 28, base ten;
tinct prime factors.* [20]* [28] If 3 is not one of the and, with the only exception of 6, ends in 1, base
factors of N, then N has at least 12 distinct prime 9.* [38]* [39] Therefore in particular the digital root
factors.* [29] of every even perfect number other than 6 is 1.
• The only square-free perfect number is 6.* [40]
In 1888, Sylvester stated:* [30]
...a prolonged meditation on the subject has

satisfied me that the existence of any one such 14.6 Related concepts
[odd perfect number] —its escape, so to say,
from the complex web of conditions which hem The sum of proper divisors gives various other kinds of
it in on all sides —would be little short of a numbers. Numbers where the sum is less than the num-
miracle. ber itself are called deficient, and where it is greater than
the number, abundant. These terms, together with per-
Euler stated: “Whether (...) there are any odd perfect fect itself, come from Greek numerology. A pair of num-
numbers is a most difficult question”.* [31] bers which are the sum of each other's proper divisors are
14.8. NOTES 99
called amicable, and larger cycles of numbers are called [11] All factors of 2* p − 1 are congruent to 1 mod 2p. For
sociable. A positive integer such that every smaller posi- example, 211 − 1 = 2047 = 23 × 89, and both 23 and 89
tive integer is a sum of distinct divisors of it is a practical yield a remainder of 1 when divided by 11. Furthermore,
number. whenever p is a Sophie Germain prime—that is, 2p + 1 is
also prime—and 2p + 1 is congruent to 1 or 7 mod 8, then
By definition, a perfect number is a fixed point of the 2p + 1 will be a factor of 2* p − 1, which is the case for p
restricted divisor function s(n) = σ(n) − n, and the aliquot = 11, 23, 83, 131, 179, 191, 239, 251, ... A002515.
sequence associated with a perfect number is a constant
sequence. All perfect numbers are also S -perfect num- [12] Song Y. Yan (2009). Primality Testing and Integer Fac-
bers, or Granville numbers. torization in Public-Key Cryptography. Advances in Infor-
mation Security. 11 (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 199.
A semiperfect number is a natural number that is equal to
ISBN 0-387-77268-5.
the sum of all or some of its proper divisors. A semiper-
fect number that is equal to the sum of all its proper divi- [13] http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/
sors is a perfect number. Most abundant numbers are also Perfect_numbers.html
semiperfect; abundant numbers which are not semiper-
fect are called weird numbers. [14] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., “Abu Ali al-
Hasan ibn al-Haytham”, MacTutor History of Mathemat-
ics archive, University of St Andrews.
14.7 See also [15] “GIMPS Home”. Mersenne.org. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
• Jan Brożek [16] GIMPS Milestones Report. Retrieved 2014-02-24
• List of perfect numbers [17] Weisstein, Eric W. “Perfect Number”. MathWorld.
• Multiply perfect number [18] Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers,
Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
• Superperfect numbers p. 6.
[19] Oddperfect.org.
14.8 Notes
[20] Ochem, Pascal; Rao, Michaël (2012). “Odd per-
fect numbers are greater than 101500 " (PDF).
[1] Caldwell, Chris, “A proof that all even perfect numbers Mathematics of Computation. 81 (279): 1869–
are a power of two times a Mersenne prime”. 1877. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2012-02563-4. ISSN
[2] Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, 0025-5718. Zbl pre06051364.
Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
p. 4. [21] Kühnel, U (1949). “Verschärfung der notwendigen Be-
dingungen für die Existenz von ungeraden vollkomme-
[3] Commentary on the Gospel of John 28.1.1-4, with further nen Zahlen”. Mathematische Zeitschrift. 52: 201–211.
references in the Sources Chrétiennes edition: vol. 385, doi:10.1515/crll.1941.183.98. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
58-61.
[22] Roberts, T (2008). “On the Form of an Odd Perfect
[4] http://torreys.org/sblpapers2015/S22-05_philonic_ Number” (PDF). Australian Mathematical Gazette. 35
arithmological_exegesis.pdf (4): 244.
[5] Roshdi Rashed, The Development of Arabic Mathematics:
[23] Grün, O (1952). "Über ungerade vollkommene Zahlen”
Between Arithmetic and Algebra (Dordrecht: Kluwer Aca-
. Mathematische Zeitschrift. 55 (3): 353–354.
demic Publishers, 1994), pp. 328–329.
doi:10.1007/BF01181133. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
[6] Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 14908
[24] Nielsen, PP (2003). “An upper bound for odd perfect
[7] Smith, DE (1958). The History of Mathematics: Volume numbers”. Integers. 3: A14–A22. Retrieved 30 March
II. New York: Dover. p. 21. ISBN 0-486-20430-8. 2011.
[8] Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, [25] Goto, T; Ohno, Y (2008). “Odd perfect numbers have
Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. a prime factor exceeding 108 " (PDF). Mathematics of
p. 10. Computation. 77 (263): 1859–1868. doi:10.1090/S0025-
[9] Pickover, C (2001). Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in 5718-08-02050-9. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
Mathematics, Mind, and Meaning. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. p. 360. ISBN 0-19-515799-0. [26] Iannucci, DE (1999). “The second largest prime di-
visor of an odd perfect number exceeds ten thousand”
[10] Peterson, I (2002). Mathematical Treks: From Surreal (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 68 (228): 1749–
Numbers to Magic Circles. Washington: Mathematical 1760. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-99-01126-6. Retrieved
Association of America. p. 132. ISBN 88-8358-537-2. 30 March 2011.
100 CHAPTER 14. PERFECT NUMBER
[27] Iannucci, DE (2000). “The third largest prime divi- • Kanold, H.-J. (1941).“Untersuchungen über unger-
sor of an odd perfect number exceeds one hundred” ade vollkommene Zahlen”. Journal für die Reine
(PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 69 (230): 867– und Angewandte Mathematik. 183: 98–109.
879. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-99-01127-8. Retrieved
30 March 2011. • Steuerwald, R. “Verschärfung einer notwendigen
Bedingung für die Existenz einer ungeraden vol-
[28] Nielsen, PP (2015). “Odd perfect numbers, Diophan- lkommenen Zahl”. S.-B. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 1937:
tine equations, and upper bounds” (PDF). Mathematics
69–72.
of Computation. 84 (0): 2549–2567. doi:10.1090/S0025-
5718-2015-02941-X. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
[29] Nielsen, PP (2007). “Odd perfect numbers have at least 14.10 Further reading
nine distinct prime factors”(PDF). Mathematics of Com-
putation. 76 (260): 2109–2126. doi:10.1090/S0025-
5718-07-01990-4. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
• Nankar, M.L.: “History of perfect numbers,”
Ganita Bharati 1, no. 1–2 (1979), 7–8.
[30] The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph
Sylvester p. 590, tr. from“Sur les nombres dits de Hamil- • Hagis, P. (1973). “A Lower Bound for the set of
ton”, Compte Rendu de l'Association Française (Toulouse, odd Perfect Prime Numbers”. Mathematics of Com-
1887), pp. 164–168. putation. 27: 951–953. doi:10.2307/2005530.
[31] http://www.math.harvard.edu/~{}knill/seminars/ • Riele, H.J.J. “Perfect Numbers and Aliquot Se-

perfect/handout.pdf quences”in H.W. Lenstra and R. Tijdeman (eds.):
Computational Methods in Number Theory, Vol.
[32] Makowski, A. (1962). “Remark on perfect numbers”. 154, Amsterdam, 1982, pp. 141–157.
Elem. Math. 17 (5): 109.
• Riesel, H. Prime Numbers and Computer Methods
[33] Gallardo, Luis H. (2010). “On a remark of Makowski
for Factorisation, Birkhauser, 1985.
about perfect numbers”. Elem. Math. 65: 121–126..
• Sándor, Jozsef; Crstici, Borislav (2004). Handbook
[34] Yan, Song Y. (2012), Computational Number Theory and
of number theory II. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
Modern Cryptography, John Wiley & Sons, Section 2.3,
Exercise 2(6), ISBN 9781118188613. pp. 15–98. ISBN 1-4020-2546-7. Zbl 1079.11001.
[35] Jones, Chris; Lord, Nick (1999). “Characterising

non-trapezoidal numbers”. The Mathematical Gazette. 14.11 External links
The Mathematical Association. 83 (497): 262–263.
doi:10.2307/3619053. JSTOR 3619053
• Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001),“Perfect number”
[36] Hornfeck, B (1955). “Zur Dichte der Menge der vol- , Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-
lkommenen zahlen”. Arch. Math. 6 (6): 442–443. 1-55608-010-4
doi:10.1007/BF01901120.
• David Moews: Perfect, amicable and sociable num-
[37] Kanold, HJ (1956). “Eine Bemerkung über die Menge bers
der vollkommenen zahlen”. Math. Ann. 131 (4): 390–
392. doi:10.1007/BF01350108. • Perfect numbers – History and Theory
[38] H. Novarese. Note sur les nombres parfaits Texeira J. VIII • Weisstein, Eric W.“Perfect Number”. MathWorld.
(1886), 11–16.
[39] Dickson, L. E. (1919). History of the Theory of Numbers, • “Sloane's A000396 : Perfect numbers”. The
Vol. I. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington. On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
p. 25. Foundation.
[40] Redmond, Don (1996). Number Theory: An Introduction • OddPerfect.org A projected distributed computing
to Pure and Applied Mathematics. Chapman & Hall/CRC project to search for odd perfect numbers.
Pure and Applied Mathematics. 201. CRC Press. Prob-
lem 7.4.11, p. 428. ISBN 9780824796969.. • Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search
• Perfect Numbers, math forum at Drexel.
14.9 References • Grimes, James. “8128: Perfect Numbers”. Num-

berphile. Brady Haran.
• Euclid, Elements, Book IX, Proposition 36. See
D.E. Joyce's website for a translation and discussion
of this proposition and its proof.
Chapter 15
Digital root
The digital root (also repeated digital sum) of a non-

negative integer is the (single digit) value obtained by an ⌊ ⌋
n−1
iterative process of summing digits, on each iteration us- dr(n) = n − 9 .
9
ing the result from the previous iteration to compute a
digit sum. The process continues until a single-digit num-
ber is reached. 15.2 Abstract multiplication of
For example, the digital root of 65,536 is 7, because 6 + digital roots
5 + 5 + 3 + 6 = 25 and 2 + 5 = 7.
Digital roots can be calculated with congruences in The table below shows the digital roots produced by the
modular arithmetic rather than by adding up all the digits, familiar multiplication table in the decimal system.
a procedure that can save time in the case of very large
numbers. The table shows a number of interesting patterns and
symmetries and is known as the Vedic square.
Digital roots can be used as a sort of checksum, to check
that a sum has been performed correctly. If it has, then
the digital root of the sum of the given numbers will equal
the digital root of the sum of the digital roots of the given
15.3 Formal definition
numbers. This check, which involves only single-digit
calculations, can catch many errors in calculation. Let S(n) denote the sum of the digits of n and let the
composition of S(n) be as follows:
Digital roots are used in Western numerology, but cer-
tain numbers deemed to have occult significance (such as
11 and 22) are not always completely reduced to a single S 1 (n) = S(n), S m (n) = S (S m−1 (n)) , for m ≥ 2.
digit.
The number of times the digits must be summed to reach Eventually the sequence S (n), S∗ (n), S (n), · · · be-
1 2 3
the digital sum is called a number's additive persistence; comes a one digit number. Let S (n) (the digital sum
in the above example, the additive persistence of 65,536 of n ) represent this one digit number.
is 2.
15.3.1 Example
Let us find the digital sum of 1853 .
15.1 Significance and formula of
the digital root
S(1853) = 17
It helps to see the digital root of a positive integer as the S(17) = 8
position it holds with respect to the largest multiple of 9
less than the number itself. For example, the digital root Thus,
of 11 is 2, which means that 11 is the second number after
9. Likewise, the digital root of 2035 is 1, which means
that 2035 − 1 is a multiple of 9. If a number produces a S 2 (1853) = 8.
digital root of exactly 9, then the number is a multiple of For simplicity let us agree simply that
9.
With this in mind the digital root of a positive integer n
may be defined by using floor function ⌊x⌋ , as S ∗ (1853) = dr(1853) = 8.
101
102 CHAPTER 15. DIGITAL ROOT
15.3.2 Proof that a constant value exists 15.5 Some properties of digital
How do we know that the sequence
roots
S 1 (n), S 2 (n), S 3 (n), · · · eventually becomes a one
digit number? Here's a proof: The digital root of a number is zero if and only if the
number is itself zero.
Let n = d1 + 10d2 + · · · + 10m−1 dm , for all i , di is an
integer greater than or equal to 0 and less than 10. Then,
S(n) = d1 + d2 + · · · + dm . This means that S(n) < n dr(n) = 0 ⇔ n = 0.
, unless d2 , d3 , · · · , dm = 0 , in which case n is a one
digit number. Thus, repeatedly using the S(n) function The digital root of a number is a positive integer if and
would cause n to decrease by at least 1, until it becomes only if the number is itself a positive integer.
a one digit number, at which point it will stay constant, as
S(d1 ) = d1 .
dr(n) > 0 ⇔ n > 0.
The digital root of n is n itself if and only if the number

15.4 Congruence formula has exactly one digit.
The formula is:

dr(n) = n ⇔ n ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
 The digital root of n is less than n if and only if the num-

0 if n = 0, ber is greater than or equal to 10.
dr(n) = 9 if n ̸= 0, n ≡ 0 (mod 9),


n mod 9 if n ̸≡ 0 (mod 9)
dr(n) < n ⇔ n ≥ 10.
or,
The digital root of a + b is digital root of the sum of the
digital root of a and the digital root of b .
dr(n) = 1 + ((n − 1) mod 9).

dr(a + b) = dr(dr(a) + dr(b)).
To generalize the concept of digital roots to other bases
b, one can simply change the 9 in the formula to b - 1. The digital root of a - b is congruent with the difference
(sequence A010888 in the OEIS) of the digital root of a and the digital root of b modulo 9.
The digital root is the value modulo 9 because 10 ≡

1 (mod 9), and thus 10k ≡ 1k ≡ 1 (mod 9), so regard- dr(a − b) ≡ dr(a) − dr(b) (mod 9).
less of position, the value mod 9 is the same – a · 100 ≡
a · 10 ≡ a (mod 9) – which is why digits can be mean- Especially, we can define the digital root of minus n as
ingfully added. Concretely, for a three-digit number, follows:
9) ≡ −dr(n) (mod 9).

dr(−n)
dr(abc) ≡ a·102 +b·10+c·1 ≡ a·1+b·1+c·1 ≡ a+b+c (mod
The digital root of a × b is digital root of the product of
To obtain the modular value with respect to other num- the digital root of a and the digital root of b .
bers n, one can take weighted sums, where the weight on
the kth digit corresponds to the value of 10k modulo n,
or analogously for bk for different bases. This is simplest
dr(a × b) = dr(dr(a) × dr(b)).
for 2, 5, and 10, where higher digits vanish (since 2 and 5
divide 10), which corresponds to the familiar fact that the
• The digital root of a nonzero number is 9 if and only
divisibility of a decimal number with respect to 2, 5, and
if the number is itself a multiple of 9.
10 can be checked by the last digit (even numbers end in
0, 2, 4, 6, or 8).
dr(n) = 9 ⇔ n = 9m for m = 1, 2, 3, · · · .
Also of note is the modulus 11: since 10 ≡
−1 (mod 11), and thus 102 ≡ (−1)2 ≡ 1 (mod 11), • The digital root of a nonzero number is a multiple
taking the alternating sum of digits yields the value mod- of 3 if and only if the number is itself a multiple of
ulo 11. 3.
15.6. IN OTHER BASES 103
dr(n) = 3 ⇔ n = 9m + 3 for m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , • The digital root of a centered hexagram, or star

dr(n) = 6 ⇔ n = 9m + 6 for m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , number is 1 or 4. Digital roots of star numbers
dr(n) = 9 ⇔ n = 9m for m = 1, 2, 3, · · · . progress in the sequence 1, 4, 1.
• The digital root of a factorial ≥ 6! is 9. • The digital root of a centered hexagonal number is 1
or 7, their digital roots progressing in the sequence
dr(n!) = 9 ⇔ n ≥ 6. 1, 7, 1.
• The digital root of a square is 1, 4, 7, or 9. Digital • The digital root of a triangular number is 1, 3, 6 or
roots of square numbers progress in the sequence 1, 9. Digital roots of triangular numbers progress in
4, 9, 7, 7, 9, 4, 1, 9. the sequence 1, 3, 6, 1, 6, 3, 1, 9, 9, which is palin-
dromic after the first eight terms.
• The digital root of a perfect cube is 1, 8 or 9, and
digital roots of perfect cubes progress in that exact • The digital root of Fibonacci numbers is a repeating
sequence. pattern of 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 4, 3, 7, 1, 8, 9, 8, 8, 7, 6,
• The digital root of a prime number (except 3) is 1, 4, 1, 5, 6, 2, 8, 1, 9.
2, 4, 5, 7, or 8.
• The digital root of Lucas numbers is a repeating pat-
• The digital root of a power of 2 is 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or tern of 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 2, 9, 2, 2, 4, 6, 1, 7, 8, 6, 5, 2,
8. Digital roots of the powers of 2 progress in the 7, 9, 7, 7, 5, 3, 8.
sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 7, 5. This even applies to neg-
ative powers of 2; for example, 2 to the power of 0 • The digital root of the product of twin primes, other
is 1; 2 to the power of −1 (minus one) is .5, with a than 3 and 5, is 8. The digital root of the product of
digital root of 5; 2 to the power of −2 is .25, with a 3 and 5 (twin primes) is 6.
digital root of 7; and so on, ad infinitum in both di-
rections. This is because negative powers of 2 share
the same digits (after removing leading zeroes) as
corresponding positive powers of 5, whose digital 15.6 In other bases
roots progress in the sequence 1, 5, 7, 8, 4, 2.
• The digital root of a power of 5 is 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 or 8. This article is about the digital root in decimal or base
Digital roots of the powers of 5 progress in the se- ten, hence it is the number mod 9. It is nothing different
quence 1, 5, 7, 8, 4, 2. This even applies to negative as the number converted to base 9 and then only the last
powers of 5; for example, 5 to the power of 0 is 1; 5 digit taken. In other radixes the digital root is number
to the power of −1 (minus one) is .2, with a digital mod (base-1) so in base 12 a digital root of a number is
root of 2; 5 to the power of −2 is .04, with a digital the number mod 11 (Ɛduod ), for example, 1972duod is 1
root of 4; and so on, ad infinitum in both directions. + 9 + 7 + 2 = 19 = 17duod which is 1 + 7 = 8, while in
This is because the negative powers of 5 share the decimal the root of the same number (3110) is 5; and in
same digits (after removing leading zeroes) as cor- base 16 a digital root of a number is the number mod 15
responding positive powers of 2, whose digital roots (0xF), for example, 0x7DF is 7 + 13 + 15 = 35 = 0x23
progress in sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 7, 5. which is 2 + 3 = 5, while in decimal the root of the same
number (2015) is 8.
• The digital roots of powered numbers progress in
sequence (only certain for positive powers, although
in for some exceptions it also may occur for negative
powers), and this is because of one of the previously 15.7 See also
shown properties. As the digital root of a b is con-
gruent with the multiple of the digital root of a and
• Base 9
the digital root of b modulo 9, the digital root of a
a will also do it. So, for example, as shown above,
• Casting out nines
powers of 2 will follows the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 7, 5;
Powers of 47 (whose digital root is 2) will also fol-
low this sequence. The very sequence follows this • Digit sum
rule, and is appliable to any othe number.
• Hamming weight
dr(a ) ≡ dr (a) (mod 9).
n n
• Multiplicative digital root

• The digital root of an even perfect number (except
6) is 1. • Vedic square
15.8 References
• Averbach, Bonnie; Chein, Orin (27 May 1999),
Problem Solving Through Recreational Mathematics,
Dover Books on Mathematics (reprinted ed.), Mi-
neola, NY: Courier Dover Publications, pp. 125–
127, ISBN 0-486-40917-1 (online copy, p. 125, at
Google Books)
• Ghannam, Talal (4 January 2011), The Mystery

of Numbers: Revealed Through Their Digital Root,
CreateSpace Publications, pp. 68–73, ISBN 978-1-
4776-7841-1 (online copy, p. 68, at Google Books)
• Hall, F. M. (1980), An Introduction into Abstract Al-

gebra, 1 (2nd ed.), Cambridge, U.K.: CUP Archive,
p. 101, ISBN 978-0-521-29861-2 (online copy, p.
101, at Google Books)
• O'Beirne, T. H. (13 March 1961), “Puzzles and

Paradoxes”, New Scientist, Reed Business Infor-
mation, 10 (230): 53–54, ISSN 0262-4079 (online
copy, p. 53, at Google Books)
• Rouse Ball, W. W.; Coxeter, H. S. M. (6 May 2010),

Mathematical Recreations and Essays, Dover Recre-
ational Mathematics (13th ed.), NY: Dover Publi-
cations, ISBN 978-0-486-25357-2 (online copy at
Google Books)
15.9 External links

• pattern of digital root using MS Excel
• Weisstein, Eric W. “Digital Root”. MathWorld.
15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 105
15.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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ganBot, Kvdveer, Xiahou, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Zakuragi, X!, VolkovBot, JohnBlackburne, LokiClock, WOSlinker, Kaiwynn, TXiK-
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• 2 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_(number)?oldid=759402489 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Bryan Derksen,
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• 3 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_(number)?oldid=759420735 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kowloonese, XJaM, Toby Bar-
tels, William Avery, Heron, Karl Palmen, Sfdan, Olivier, Michael Hardy, GUllman, SGBailey, Dcljr, Egil, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier,
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Schneelocke, Alex S, Timwi, Dcoetzee, RickK, Reddi, Denni, Dysprosia, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Hyacinth, Sabbut, Ed g2s, Dmetric,
Joy, Warofdreams, Dpbsmith, AnonMoos, Pakaran, Wolfram~enwiki, Jeffq, Wst~enwiki, RadicalBender, Denelson83, PuzzletChung, John
Trapp, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jaredwf, Moriori, Fredrik, Altenmann, Lowellian, Merovingian, Ashdurbat, Yarvin, Academic
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corn, Vampirefreakgh, Christoph at Wiki, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Freakshow527, Razor2988, GoingBatty, RA0808, NotAnonymous0,
Wikipelli, Xileer, DeadShrimpBlues, ZéroBot, Fæ, StringTheory11, Pliming, R. J. Mathar, Killernerd24, Brastworld, Pickuptha'Musket,
A930913, TheodoreNg, Wayne Slam, JoeSperrazza, LWG, Alborzagros, Mayur, Donner60, Ego White Tray, ChuispastonBot, Wan-
dersonza, 28bot, Rocketrod1960, Reingelt, OwnedU2Fast, ClueBot NG, Ezekiel63745, Lorrielorrelson5, RS12118, LutherVinci, Yp-
nypn, MelbourneStar, Vikasjain2, Thoroughgoodness, Bped1985, Baseball Watcher, Vacation9, TruPepitoM, Frietjes, Hapticfever, Widr,
Jaffaroll, Jayman17460, Helpful Pixie Bot, Xxanniexx123, Sdfdfs, Electriccatfish2, Snajafi, S196635, Wbm1058, Lowercase sigmabot,
Zoester122333, BG19bot, EgoSumAbbas, Vagobot, Chrysalifourfour, Wheatsing, Flsehop, Researchprojectsorry, MusikAnimal, Amp71,
Mark Arsten, 6561jayson, Wgr3, Sandakelum, LVTDUDE, XxxFilipks, Nutsackandasscrack, Jfhutson, Anbu121, RichardMills65, Con-
norsmac, Cyberbot II, The Illusive Man, Serchia, Calu2000, 22dragon22burn, Fugicara, FifthCrow, SiBr4, Michael Anon, MrTechno kitty,
Jo-Jo Eumerus, Telfordbuck, Mr pwnzy, Ekips39, Rainbow Dash loves girls, Clueless9898, P0kemaztr, Epicgenius, Vanamonde93, Deli-
cacysmegma, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, ProtossPylon, SirInik, Jakec, Faceoffbob, Jeffreysv97, Gaben3, LCS check, Wamiq, Bolasbolasbolas,
Monochrome Monitor, LieutenantLatvia, Kennethaw88, MagicatthemovieS, Naoise Celtic, JaconaFrere, हेमन्त डबराल, Zombiex100, Jay-
dreams, 3primetime3, Shae1405, Julietdeltalima, TaqPol, AlphaBetaGamma01, Quivico, Bajabberwabbers, MahuCG, Wwwasserar, The
user; square root of 19, Alban15398, Fitindia, KGirlTrucker81, ContentContentConten, Gulumeemee, Jiklo1569, Imminent77, Cookie
Monster 123455, 420 Sonorian 420 and Anonymous: 853
• 4 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_(number)?oldid=759424323 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Rjstott, Jagged, Kowloonese,

XJaM, Rmhermen, Christian List, Deb, William Avery, Heron, Olivier, Robertolyra, AntonioMartin, RTC, Michael Hardy, Matchboy,
Llywrch, GUllman, SGBailey, Egil, Bdonlan, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Samuelsen, Glenn, Llull, Cimon Avaro, Panoramix, Schneelocke,
Hashar, Dcoetzee, Denni, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Wik, Grendelkhan, Sabbut, Ed g2s, Topbanana, Dmetric, Fvw, Warofdreams, Wol-
fram~enwiki, Wst~enwiki, RadicalBender, Denelson83, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Jaredwf, Iam, Moriori, RedWolf, ZimZalaBim,
Lowellian, Academic Challenger, Texture, Yacht, Dehumanizer, JesseW, PrimeFan, Mattflaschen, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Graeme Bartlett,
Mikez, Sj, Numerao, Anton Mravcek, Rick Block, Duncharris, Guanaco, Dmmaus, Eequor, Tagishsimon, Andycjp, Lst27, Dvavasour,
Jorm, Beland, Aulis Eskola, Mzajac, Maximaximax, Mozzerati, Spottedowl, Urhixidur, Andy Christ, Picapica, J Bytheway, 朝彦, Zondor,
Reflex Reaction, Kate, Mike Rosoft, Brianjd, Liquideagle, Davidbod, Bornintheguz, Diagonalfish, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Guan-
abot, Cacycle, Rspeer, Silence, Xezbeth, Martpol, ESkog, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Flying Hamster, Reinyday, Flxmghvgvk,
Jguk 2, Giraffedata, Jojit fb, Chicago god, Alansohn, Hektor, Njaard, Wiki-uk, Verdlanco, Sligocki, Mailer diablo, Cdc, Bart133, Jakek101,
Dirac1933, Skatebiker, RickDeNatale, Kitch, Mmxbass, Oleg Alexandrov, WilliamKF, Imaginatorium, Woohookitty, Georgia guy, Uncle
G, Dodiad, Mandarax, Jobnikon, BD2412, Terryn3, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Roger McCoy, Mendaliv, Jshadias, Josh Parris, Viswaprabha,
Odysseyandoracle, Omnieiunium, Salix alba, Jb-adder, NeonMerlin, Notorious4life, Nandesuka, Xsg, Anskas, Mathbot, Arasaka, Alex
Sims, Meeve, Joedeshon, WouterBot, Chobot, Benlisquare, DVdm, Gdrbot, 334a, Gwernol, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Wavelength,
Borgx, Samuel Wiki, Jimp, RussBot, Vlad4599, Muchness, Aree, Ori Livneh, Wimt, NawlinWiki, BlackWidower, Xunflash, Yoninah,
Cholmes75, My winkey has a key, GoAround, Zwobot, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, Gokugohan382, Matrixfusion, Komuta, Allchopin,
Mrbluesky, Nlu, The Joker, Theodolite, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Pb30, Pasitbank, Gobexe, Curpsbot-unicodify, SmackBot, Cubs
Fan, Prodego, TestPilot, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jab843, Kintetsubuffalo, Edgar181, GraemeMcRae, Primaryspace, Commander Keane bot,
Yamaguchi 先生, Gilliam, Quidam65, Betacommand, Richfife, MikeRM, PrimeHunter, Silly rabbit, Akanemoto, DHN-bot~enwiki, The
owner of all, Audriusa, Yidisheryid, Parent5446, Jjjsixsix, Pax85, Ken S., Jwy, Nakon, Aelffin, Weemspm, Bws2002, DMacks, Hen-
rydms, Bdiscoe, FlyHigh, SashatoBot, Lambiam, BrownHairedGirl, Cesium 133, Aspirex, Majorclanger, Hvn0413, Midnightblueowl,
Novangelis, Outofline, BranStark, Iridescent, Blehfu, The Haunted Angel, HDCase, JForget, CBM, DSachan, Gegorg, Gregbard, An-
drewHowse, Doctormatt, Cydebot, The Chaotician, Andre666, TicketMan, Khatru2, Porsche997SBS, Eu.stefan, DumbBOT, Narcisso,
Rider kabuto, Barticus88, Dasani, Daniel, Mojo Hand, Berria, Bobblehead, Graemec2, JustAGal, Aericanwizard, Ideogram, Chandler,
RichardVeryard, Nick Number, Tylop~enwiki, Nixon11d7, RoboServien, Escarbot, Stannered, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Paul from Michi-
gan, Shinsuk, Alan Smithee 87, Storkk, Bjenks, Dhrm77, JAnDbot, Winndm31, Rearete, Magioladitis, Adias, Bongwarrior, VoABot
II, Jacce, Lemon martini, Oiuytre, Kajasudhakarababu, Nyttend, Rich257, JJ Harrison, Adrian J. Hunter, Estan williams, Eswaran, Cpl
Syx, JMyrleFuller, Georbe, Illwauk, Nevit, Welshleprechaun, Oroso, STBot, R'n'B, Pbroks13, Verdatum, Nono64, RockMFR, J.delanoy,
Love Krittaya, Bogey97, Tikiwont, Brest, Jreferee, Skumarlabot, Josh Biderman, Notyou7, Gman124, Nemo bis, HoldenV8, Shannahan-
bury, 97198, Hennessey, Patrick, KylieTastic, STBotD, Vanished user 39948282, Idioma-bot, Zakuragi, Geeky Randy, VolkovBot, Safe-
mariner, JohnBlackburne, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, The Tetrast, Mmbabies, Broadbot, Tean Butcher, Luuva, Hatkirby, Madhero88,
AmberAlert1713, Falcon8765, Draconx, Alcmaeonid, Ceranthor, AlleborgoBot, FlyingLeopard2014, Rider of the Storm, GoonerDP,
SieBot, TJRC, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Triwbe, Yintan, Snickers92, Arda Xi, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Oxymoron83, Byri-
albot, Fratrep, GodShiru, Rjfost, Knodeltheory, Tesi1700, Felizdenovo, Mx. Granger, ClueBot, PipepBot, Gazza-Xtreme, SerduchkaFan,
Arakunem, Drmies, Wildbird30, BoyInTheTree, JJIG, Estevoaei, The 888th Avatar, Etalli, Snowdreamer2000, Robert Skyhawk, Ex-
cirial, Johndeerboy247, Alexbot, Domestic Correction, Chickiedude1, Bremerenator, Dekisugi, Teutonic Tamer, ChrisHodgesUK, La Pi-
anista, Thingg, Jonverve, 7, Versus22, Qwfp, SoxBot III, Tyguy997, WikHead, Nukes4Tots, Sha721, D.M. from Ukraine, Addbot, Some
jerk on the Internet, Freakmighty, Halosean, CarsracBot, Chzz, Favonian, SpBot, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Romanskolduns,
Bradboss283, Cashelini, CountryBot, Sneaky Oviraptor18, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Numbuh1cubfan, Fraggle81, Melanippa, Kamikaze-
Bot, Daniel 1992, Daft oparin, AnomieBOT, Madgey7, DemocraticLuntz, Blah42b10, JackieBot, Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Mahmud-
masri, Materialscientist, BlurTento, GB fan, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Hanberke, Jeffwang, The Biting Pear Of Salamanca, Gap9551,
Nasa-verve, GrouchoBot, Cruz-iglesia, Ute in DC, RibotBOT, Intruductionetrondocapriccioso, Cartque, Nevermiand., N419BH, Shadow-
jams, Aaron Kauppi, Berenluck, FrescoBot, Tangent747, MHR65, Mitizhi, ThiagoRuiz, Maverick9711, Oashi, DivineAlpha, Biker Biker,
Pinethicket, HRoestBot, Mahaodeh, Dac04, Double sharp, TobeBot, Royal Blue Jersey, TheStrayCat, EvilEGrammeler69, Dinamik-bot,
Vrenator, I am my own Master, Villainus, Jeffrd10, Onel5969, Aircorn, EmausBot, John of Reading, Immunize, RA0808, Minimac's
Clone, Klbrain, Moswento, Wikipelli, K6ka, DeadShrimpBlues, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Érico, Pliming, Kellrissa, Mar4d, Derekleungtszhei,
Hereforhomework2, Killernerd24, Tolly4bolly, JoeSperrazza, TyA, Davanzo56, Exfiveare, Screwyouwiki, Donner60, Ego White Tray, Or-
ange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Wandersonza, Venugopalreddykonda, Senator2029, Lguipontes, DASHBotAV, Thezaphod42, ClueBot
NG, Ezekiel63745, Akuindo, Ypnypn, MelbourneStar, Oxandco, Baseball Watcher, Jake Golle, Frietjes, Widr, Jaffaroll, Jorgenev, Help-
ful Pixie Bot, Plantdrew, Youfuckingsuck69, BG19bot, Snaevar-bot, StoopEditor, Vagobot, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Jazzmaster59,
Wikih101, Jonathan63096, Randomking333, Artemis710, Serchia, 22dragon22burn, Najta, Awu1996, Cpt.a.haddock, Mogism, TwoT-
woHello, Lugia2453, Frosty, Kanjilearner358, Cheese00000, Sarkar89, Wiki4Blog, Wamiq, Noisavni, Ï¿½, Kharkiv07, AddWittyName-
Here, FrB.TG, Vampirelazarus, हेमन्त डबराल, Wgml98, Wjxb, 3primetime3, JonathanHopeThisIsUnique, Tedjam, Monumenteer2014,
Ferretsrock, Snow Lion Fenian, Zppix, Onedilovthemsjd, Andreaaaaaa23, AlphaBetaGamma01, SoSivr, Joseph2302, JackNewswanger69,
BrundelFly999, Jdcomix, Plmkkjhjhg, Meemees, CAPTAIN RAJU, Check the name leon, CeleryKnightAP, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC
bot, Gulumeemee, Inimesh and Anonymous: 544
• 5 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_(number)?oldid=760609509 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome, Kowloonese,

XJaM, Christian List, William Avery, Heron, Olivier, Patrick, RTC, Norm, Dominus, GUllman, SGBailey, Minesweeper, Tregoweth,
Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Angela, Darkwind, Glenn, Llull, Cimon Avaro, Panoramix, Schneelocke, Nikola Smolenski, Norwikian,
Hashar, Dcoetzee, JonMoore, Denni, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Radiojon, Paul-L~enwiki, Sabbut, Ed g2s, Dmetric, Wi-
waxia, Warofdreams, Dbabbitt, Wolfram~enwiki, Carlossuarez46, RadicalBender, Denelson83, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, RedWolf,
Christie~enwiki, Yarvin, Academic Challenger, Texture, Yacht, JesseW, JackofOz, Miles, Anthony, PrimeFan, Asparagus, Mattflaschen,
Enochlau, Snobot, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Graeme Bartlett, Andy, Sj, Zigger, Herbee, Numerao, Anton Mravcek, Daysra, Rick Block, Nite-
owlneils, Duncharris, Beta m, Prosfilaes, Eequor, Chameleon, Andycjp, Sohailstyle, Noe, Kusunose, Aulis Eskola, Jorgengb, Urhixidur,
Joyous!, Andy Christ, Corti, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Guanabot, Colin Angus Mackay, Martpol, ESkog, Neko-chan, Can-
isRufus, Kwamikagami, Warpozio, Bobo192, Reinyday, Giraffedata, Jojit fb, RazorChicken, Chicago god, QuantumEleven, Stephen Bain,
Martin S Taylor, Conny, Alansohn, Csabo, Lokicarbis, Atlant, Verdlanco, Cjthellama, ABCD, Samohyl Jan, Wtmitchell, Kdau, Evil Mon-
key, Skatebiker, Fountainofignorance, Oleg Alexandrov, Anonymous4367, WilliamKF, Imaginatorium, Woohookitty, Swamp Ig, Uncle G,
BillC, Jacobolus, GregorB, Macaddct1984, Gniw, Liface, Radiant!, Peligroso, Jobnikon, BD2412, Kbdank71, Roger McCoy, Mendaliv,
Josh Parris, Viswaprabha, Dimitrii, Koavf, Mike s, Tomtheman5, Notorious4life, Matt Deres, Xsg, John Baez, Mathbot, Wars, Brash,
Kanthoney, Alphachimp, Thecurran, Spencerk, Haonhien, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Sherool, DVdm, Gdrbot, 334a, Gwernol, Algebraist,
EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Borgx, JWB, Jimp, Icarus3, Pi Delport, RadioFan2 (usurped), Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, Keka, Yoninah, Hy-
perqube, Pietras1988, DryaUnda, BOT-Superzerocool, Cardsplayer4life, Bnitin, Nlu, Deville, Doktorbuk, Arthur Rubin, Jogers, Canley,
Pasitbank, Gobexe, Leeannedy, Katieh5584, Meegs, Umeditor, GrinBot~enwiki, Daya.sharma, SmackBot, Prodego, C.Fred, Jrockley,
KelleyCook, Kintetsubuffalo, GraemeMcRae, Yamaguchi 先生, Chinamanjoe, Gilliam, Quidam65, Betacommand, Psiphiorg, Quinsareth,
Musikfabrik, PrimeHunter, MalafayaBot, Timneu22, SchfiftyThree, Akanemoto, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Audriusa, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, All in, Neo139, OrphanBot, Yidisheryid, DaNASCAT, Rrburke, El edgar, TheLimbicOne, Aelffin, Lcarscad, BryanG,
DMacks, Mehnazhyder, Lambiam, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Accurizer, Hulmem, Mr. Vernon, Midnightblueowl, Naumz, Iridescent, Neuril-
lon, Tawkerbot2, InvisibleK, Geo8rge, Mattbr, DSachan, Gegorg, Neelix, Lordmaster913, BT14, Wild Wizard, AndrewHowse, Doctor-
matt, Shaulbehr, Mientkiewicz5508, Offspring9, Clayoquot, Andre666, Tfgbd, Chasingsol, Porsche997SBS, Rtiztik, Bmitchelf, Forbidden-
Word, Daniel Olsen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, TonyTheTiger, Bigwyrm, Berria, Bobblehead, Graemec2, JustAGal, Sorbus, Natalie
Erin, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Stannered, WinBot, Paul from Michigan, SummerPhD, Fireice, Dhrm77, JAnDbot, Tigga, DuncanHill, Sko-
morokh, Epeefleche, Zero132132, Ecrvich, PhilKnight, Adias, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Twsx, Froid, David Eppstein, DerHexer, Georbe,
Illwauk, Esanchez7587, War-Mage, Tulip19, Patstuart, Glp~enwiki, Hdt83, Mjbyars1, Nono64, Bucs10, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of
the Wizards, Trusilver, Uncle Dick, SteveLamacq43, Maurice Carbonaro, Headinthedoor, KILNA, TomS TDotO, Katalaveno, Notyou7,
WoWaddict, Gman124, Starnestommy, Richard D. LeCour, Userme, DH85868993, BernardZ, TBF Bri 10, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot,
Funandtrvl, Zakuragi, Jeff G., Aesopos, Dougie monty, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Sean D Martin, Djkrajnik,
Mmbabies, Jackfork, Tean Butcher, Ilyushka88, Luuva, AmberAlert1713, Boom dizzle, Equine.Scientist, Insanity Incarnate, Why Not A
Duck, AlleborgoBot, Wolfenator, SieBot, StAnselm, BotMultichill, Swaq, Merotoker1, Arda Xi, Keilana, Thesavagenorwegian, Toddst1,
Oda Mari, Byrialbot, Nuttycoconut, JackSchmidt, OKBot, Dravecky, Knodeltheory, 1zackman, Li4kata, Felizdenovo, Denisarona, Steve,
WakingLili, Martarius, Rich2809, ClueBot, Bob1960evens, PipepBot, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cliff, IceUnshattered,
SerduchkaFan, MIDI, Drmies, Wildbird30, JPCBR, Eka1007, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Kanguole, Joshram, Tj82472,
Morel, SounderBruce, Ewsraven, Warof7, C628, Thingg, Aitias, Jonverve, 7, Qwfp, Egmontaz, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, Dark
Mage, King Willan Bot~enwiki, WikHead, Halosean, Jarrraddamiani, CL, Zarcadia, Download, CarsracBot, Favonian, SpBot, Tassedethe,
Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Romanskolduns, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, Numbuh1cubfan, TaBOT-zerem, N80r, Tempodivalse, Daft oparin,
NerdsLimited, Drinkaboutit, AnomieBOT, Madgey7, Blah42b10, Jim1138, Emperor1992, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, Rpetrov~enwiki,
Nazrani, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, GB fan, Apollo, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Lily20, TinucherianBot II, Franklin67, Jeffrey Mall, Han-
berke, Herr Mlinka, Ched, Gap9551, Nasa-verve, Nevermiand., Shadowjams, Shariant, A.amitkumar, Rtrimm, FrescoBot, LucienBOT,
Lagelspeil, Gapress34, Rachel993, Ilostbec, Maverick9711, Tlork Thunderhead, Aleister Wilson, Vhann, CHUMOROCKS, Elockid,
HRoestBot, Mewto55555, Karlrulez77, Hellzies, John123521, FoxBot, Royal Blue Jersey, Duoduoduo, Candrias, Reaper Eternal, 4,
Fastilysock, Brambleclawx, Five-O-Klock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Balletblonde, Mean as custard, Bento00, Galloping Moses, DRAGON
BOOSTER, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Hamster25, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Varia4blackfire,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, DeadShrimpBlues, Savh, ZéroBot, Traxs7, Pliming, R. J. Mathar, Killernerd24, Potatosiris, Access Denied, Frigotoni,
Ocaasi, Gee-Unit65, ChuispastonBot, Wandersonza, Venugopalreddykonda, Senator2029, Ha897, ClueBot NG, Ezekiel63745, Smtcha-
hal, Giggett, Akuindo, Ypnypn, Pieninepa, Vacation9, Proscribe, Frietjes, Diesel fuell, Billiam1185, Widr, Philip K Glass, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Novusuna, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Krenair, Snaevar-bot, Vagobot, Celloplayer115, Ugncreative Usergname, Noambz, Gallosexybeast,
Anbu121, Mdann52, Panzertruth, Dj232222, Serchia, 22dragon22burn, Angiewangie!, Poopeepootagger, Osnwa, Thisbigman, Sijmon-
flippa, Lugia2453, Frosty, Cakeawesome, Tomneal93, Epicgenius, B14709, DavidLeighEllis, Wamiq, Ugog Nizdast, Glaisher, Newman-
srus, हेमन्त डबराल, Flash5lk, Prof. Mc, Ihuntpanda, Gokarting54, TranquilHope, Loraof, Snow Lion Fenian, Orduin, TaqPol, Righ-
teousbison, AlphaBetaGamma01, SparkyDill128, SoSivr, Macaronman, GeorgeHarold1, CAPTAIN RAJU, Kermosk, Qzd, Deliciously
sweet, Barravince, Rocko409, Gulumeemee, John“Hannibal”Smith, Abodh1986, Ydgjjhv, Giovanni Resta, Culverkwan, Cynulliad3 and
Anonymous: 608
• 6 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_(number)?oldid=758101889 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, Carpentis, XJaM,

Christian List, William Avery, Heron, Karl Palmen, Olivier, Patrick, JohnOwens, GUllman, SGBailey, Dcljr, Pcb21, Egil, Docu, Samuelsen,
5ko, Glenn, Llull, Panoramix, Schneelocke, Dcoetzee, Denni, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Timc, Grendelkhan, Sabbut, Ed g2s,
Dmetric, Wiwaxia, Fvw, Lumos3, RadicalBender, Denelson83, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Iam, RedWolf, Academic Challenger,
Texture, Yacht, PrimeFan, Mattflaschen, Fabiform, Giftlite, Gwalla, Dbenbenn, Graeme Bartlett, Sj, Aphaia, MSGJ, Numerao, Anton
Mravcek, Jorend, Darkhunger, Rick Block, Duncharris, Dmmaus, Eequor, Andycjp, Sigfpe, Lst27, Aulis Eskola, OwenBlacker, Pmander-
son, Urhixidur, Askewchan, Canterbury Tail, Kate, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Vsmith, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Triona,
Bobo192, Arlewis, Reinyday, Jguk 2, Chrisvls, Giraffedata, Jojit fb, Chicago god, Jumbuck, Verdlanco, Shadowlord, Flata, Saga City, Kdau,
Skatebiker, Stemonitis, Georgia guy, Uncle G, GregorB, Rad Racer, Graham87, Jobnikon, BD2412, Kbdank71, Roger McCoy, Mendaliv,
Notorious4life, Matt Deres, Xsg, RobertG, Mathbot, GünniX, Kolbasz, Chobot, Sherool, DVdm, Gdrbot, 334a, YurikBot, Borgx, Jimp,
Kafziel, RussBot, Cate, Alex Bakharev, Carps, NawlinWiki, Joth, Gwaihir, Introgressive, Yoninah, Misza13, BOT-Superzerocool, D-Day,
Wknight94, Ageekgal, Arthur Rubin, Pb30, Dspradau, Canley, Pasitbank, JuJube, Vicarious, GrinBot~enwiki, SmackBot, Classicfilms,
Deleted14857, Od Mishehu, TomStike, Jab843, Kintetsubuffalo, GraemeMcRae, Quidam65, Betacommand, Skizzik, Chris the speller,
Father McKenzie, DStoykov, PrimeHunter, Necronudist, Mattythewhite, Akanemoto, DHN-bot~enwiki, Audriusa, Maguirer, N.MacInnes,
Yidisheryid, DaNASCAT, VMS Mosaic, Addshore, Pax85, Aelffin, MartinRe, Polymath69, DMacks, Filpaul, Mlpkr, Lambiam, Michael
J, Waggers, Drtjumper, Cbuckley, Sjsharksrs, Wwagner, Thefuguestate, BranStark, Skalman, LadyofShalott, Tawkerbot2, CRGreathouse,
CBM, DSachan, THF, Dgw, FlyingToaster, WeggeBot, INVERTED, Chris83, AndrewHowse, Doctormatt, Cydebot, TylerJG, Road
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Headbomb, Aericanwizard, Noclevername, CompositeFan, Whisperednumber, RoboServien, Escarbot, Stannered, WinBot, Skynet1216,
Salgueiro~enwiki, Dhrm77, JAnDbot, Magiczoe, Fuzzybyte, Huphelmeyer, Magioladitis, Adias, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AtticusX, James-
BWatson, Kajasudhakarababu, Arthur B, Singularity, Froid, JaGa, Georbe, Smartings, Pax:Vobiscum, Charitwo, Welshleprechaun, STBot,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, LedgendGamer, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Maurice Carbonaro, MrBell, Jreferee, BBrucker2, DubmoB,
Nemo bis, Shannahanbury, Million Moments, Zakuragi, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, JohnBlackburne, Dougie monty, Philip True-
man, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Vipinhari, Rei-bot, Vttale, Record307, Martin451, JhsBot, Tean Butcher, Gibson Flying V, Luuva, Wenli,
Dirkbb, Synthebot, Sue Rangell, AlleborgoBot, Angelastic, Steven Weston, Murkee, SieBot, PlanetStar, BotMultichill, Oldag07, Angle-
hence, Arda Xi, Tiptoety, Brian R Hunter, Byrialbot, Tomdaartichoke, Fratrep, Knodeltheory, Felizdenovo, Denisarona, QWIES, Escape
Orbit, ClueBot, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Scartboy, Meekywiki, Wildbird30, Alexbot, Abrech, Bercant, Jjforau, Jonverve,
Urakanine, Qwfp, SoxBot III, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, Spitfire, Sakura Cartelet, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Penale52, Tyguy997, King
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Warrior and Anonymous: 422
• 7 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_(number)?oldid=758575753 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Wesley, Amillar, XJaM, Chris-

tian List, William Avery, Heron, Olivier, Patrick, Michael Hardy, SGBailey, Ixfd64, Karada, Paul A, Alfio, Tregoweth, Egil, Bdonlan,
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• 8 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8_(number)?oldid=754627926 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kowloonese, William Avery,
SimonP, Heron, Hephaestos, Olivier, Patrick, D, Michael Hardy, Mahjongg, SGBailey, Zanimum, Minesweeper, Egil, Ahoerstemeier,
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perToMe, Sabbut, Dmetric, Wiwaxia, Wolfram~enwiki, Jeffq, Wst~enwiki, RadicalBender, Denelson83, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Fredrik,
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Bot and Anonymous: 527
• 9 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9_(number)?oldid=760482022 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Zundark, The
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• 10 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_(number)?oldid=759154832 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, XJaM,
William Avery, Heron, Olivier, BrianHansen~enwiki, MartinHarper, SGBailey, SebastianHelm, Egil, Docu, Samuelsen, TUF-KAT, Suisui,
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• 11 (number) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11_(number)?oldid=760400769 Contributors: The Epopt, XJaM, Christian List,
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Pauciloquence, Islamiccoolguy and Anonymous: 361
• 0 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0?oldid=760310939 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, The Epopt, Calypso, Sodium,
Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Manning Bartlett, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Josh Grosse, Jrincayc, XJaM, Arvindn, Christian
List, Toby Bartels, William Avery, Heron, Camembert, Montrealais, Patrick, Infrogmation, D, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Llywrch, Lexor,
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The Eleven Set

7.9.1 Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

15 Digital root 101

15.2 Abstract multiplication of digital roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

1 (one, also called unit, unity, and (multiplicative)

addition and 0 are also present. When such a ring has

• Group 1 of the periodic table consists of the alkali

• Period 1 of the periodic table consists of just two

• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which

• The dwarf planet Ceres has the minor planet desig-

• M1 is the Messier designation of the Crab Nebula.

• NGC 1 is the New General Catalogue designation of

• The Roman numeral I stands for supergiant in the

• the ITU country code for the North American Num-

• In gridiron football codes, one point is awarded un-

• In almost all leagues, for a successful place

• In rugby league: • The Seattle SuperSonics, for Gus

1.11 In other ﬁelds

1.12 See also

[2] Skoog, Douglas. Principles of Instrumental Analysis.

[3] Ifrah, Georges; et al. (1998). The Universal History of

[4] “Plastic Packaging Resins”(PDF). American Chemistry

[5] Woodford, Chris (2006), Digital Technology, Evans

[6] Godbole, Achyut S. (1 September 2002), Data Comms

[7] “Saros Series 1”. Saros Series Catalog of Solar Eclipses.

1.14 External links

The square root of 2 was the ﬁrst known irrational num-

Two also has the unique property such that

and also • The number of polynucleotide strands in a DNA

for a not equal to zero • The atomic mass of deuterium, an isotope of

2 as a resin identiﬁcation code, used in recycling.

The number 2 is important in Judaism, with one of the

• In Association football, the scoring of two goals by

• In standard basketball, the value of any made shot

Football: • #2 Pencils mean that the pencil point will make a

2.9 See also

[2] Bryan Bunch, The Kingdom of Inﬁnite Number. New

[3] John Horton Conway & Richard K. Guy, The Book of

[4] “Sloane's A104272 : Ramanujan primes”. The On-

[5] “Sloane's A042978 : Stern primes”. The On-Line En-

[6] “Sloane's A000129 : Pell numbers”. The On-Line En-

[7] “Sloane's A001608 : Perrin sequence”. The On-Line En-

[8]“Sloane's A002201 : Superior highly composite numbers”

[9] “Sloane's A001006 : Motzkin numbers”. The On-

[10] “Sloane's A000110 : Bell or exponential numbers”. The

3.1 Evolution of the glyph 3.2 In mathematics

• a rough approximation of π (3.1415...) and a very

• the ﬁrst odd prime number,* [2] and the second

• Vulgar fractions with 3 in the denominator have

• Three of the ﬁve regular polyhedra have triangu- 3.3 In science

3.3.1 In protoscience • the Christian Holy Trinity

prima) were salt ( ), sulfur ( ) and mercury

• The three doshas (weaknesses) and their antidotes

• The Saros number of the lunar eclipse series which

• The Magi - Zoroaster priests as-

3.5.2 In Judaism 3.5.4 In Shinto

• The prophet Balaam beat his donkey three times.

• The Wiccan Rule of Three.

[16] “The Basics of the Upsherin: A Boy's First Haircut”.

[19] See "bad" in the Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,

[1] Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: From

3.9 External links