Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research

The effects of axial tension on the hogging-moment regions of composite beams

G. Vasdravellis ⁎, B. Uy, E.L. Tan, B. Kirkland
School of Engineering & Civionics Research Centre, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Structural parts commonly comprised of composite members such as bridge approaches, inclined parking
Received 20 December 2010 ramps and stadium beams, can be subjected to a combination of high axial loads and bending moments. Steel–
Accepted 29 June 2011 concrete composite construction is a popular solution for these types of structures due to the numerous
Available online 31 July 2011
advantages that they offer. Although, current design codes (e.g. Eurocode 4, American code AISC, Australian
codes AS2327 and AS5100) provide rules for the design of composite columns subjected to flexure and axial
Keywords:
Composite beams
load, however the design of composite beams, which are asymmetric in nature under the combined effects of
Negative bending tension and bending, is not yet fully addressed. This paper investigates the ultimate strength of composite
Partial interaction beams under the combined effects of axial tension and negative (hogging) bending moment. An experimental
Finite element analysis programme carried out in the laboratory of the University of Western Sydney comprised of a total of six
specimens representing composite beams and subjected to various levels of axial tension and bending
moment. Ultimate failure modes were identified and the resulting interaction diagrams were compared to the
results of sectional rigid plastic analysis. Following the tests, three-dimensional finite element models were
employed using the ABAQUS finite element software to further investigate the nonlinear behaviour of the
composite beams and extend the experimental observations by studying the effects of parameters such as the
span length and the effect of partial shear connection. Finally, simple design rules and formulae are proposed
for use in engineering practice.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Composite steel–concrete beams are used in many types of

The connection of a steel beam to a concrete slab through shear
connectors produces a composite beam that combines the best
attributes of each material. The most efficient use of the material's
strengths occurs when the beam is subjected to positive bending with
the steel section placed below a concrete section. This places the steel
component in tension and the concrete component in compression,
making this type of construction both efficient and economical, while
under positive bending, the concrete slab provides buckling resistance
to the steel in compression. However, at support locations where
negative bending moments are introduced, the concrete component is
subjected to tension and the steel section subjected to compression.
The vulnerability of the steel section to buckling and the relatively low
tensile strength of concrete significantly reduce the moment capacity
of the cross section compared with positive bending. The introduction
of tensile forces to the beam will increase the tensile stress in the
concrete component while reducing the compression in the lower
steel, thus making the beam more prone to cracking but lessening the
probability of buckling as a failure mode.
⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Western Sydney, School of Engineering &
Civionics Research Centre, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith NSW 2751, Australia. Tel.: + 61 2
47360119; fax: + 61 2 4736 0054.
E-mail address: g.vasdravellis@uws.edu.au (G. Vasdravellis).
structures, including steel framed buildings, bridges, stadiums and
car parks. Composite beams are being increasingly used in situations
where combinations of bending, shear and axial force may be
introduced into the beam [1]. This may occur via the installation of
post-tensioning cables; by the inclination of the beam such as in stadia
or bridge approaches; in cable-stayed bridges; or by the necessity to
transfer diaphragm forces from the floor plate into the shear core of a
building. However, modern steel and composite construction codes,
including Eurocode 4 [2], Australian codes AS2327 and AS5100 [3,4]
and American AISC [5], currently do not address the effects of
combined actions in a unified fashion.
There has been significant research into the behaviour of composite
beams under both sagging and hogging bending, and several in-
vestigations into axial compression through both analytical and
experimental investigations. The effect of pre-stressing on composite
beams under positive bending was studied by Uy and Bradford [6] and
Uy [7]. Chen [8] tested four groups of prestressed steel–concrete
composite beams with external tendons in negative moment regions,
and the cracking behaviour and the ultimate moment resistances were
investigated experimentally. Liang et al.[9] studied the ultimate strength
of continuous composite beams in combined bending and shear by
using the finite element analysis method. It was shown that the concrete
slab and composite action significantly increase the ultimate strength of
continuous composite beams. Loh et al.[10,11] conducted an extensive
experimental and analytical study to investigate the behaviour of eight

0143-974X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2011.06.017
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
composite beams subjected to hogging moment. They studied the
effects of various parameters such as the degree of shear connection and
reinforcement ratio on the ultimate capacity and ductility of composite
beams. Elghazouli and Treadway [12] presented results from a series of
tests on partially-encased composite steel–concrete beam–columns.
The experimental inelastic behaviour of the specimens under lateral
loading and axial gravity loads was examined. The specimens in their
study, however, were symmetrical through both their x and y axes as
opposed to a typical composite beam which is only symmetrical about
its y axis. Uy and Tuem [13] were the first to look at the effect of tension
on composite beams. An analytical study on combined axial load and
bending was performed through a cross-sectional analysis and a rigid
plastic analysis. However, the combined effect of composite beams
under tension and bending remained untested.
The ultimate capacity of steel–concrete composite beams under the
combined effects of axial tension and negative bending moment is
investigated in the present study. Firstly, details of an experimental
investigation into composite beams under combined axial tension and
negative bending are provided. Six composite beams of identical cross-
sections were tested in the laboratory of the University of Western
Sydney under different combinations of tension and bending and the
plastic capacities and failure modes were identified. The results were
compared with the capacities provided by rigid plastic analysis through
the composite section and reasonable agreement was found. The
following sections provide details of an extensive numerical study using
the finite element method. The tested beams were modelled by a
nonlinear finite element model in the ABAQUS commercial software.
The three-dimensional model was compared against experimental
results and found to be capable of simulating the inelastic behaviour of
the composite beams with efficiency and to trace the failure modes up to
ultimate load levels. Further parametric studies were conducted on
composite beams with various sections and span-to-depth ratios and
the influence of the partial shear connection was investigated.
2. Experimental study
2.1. Specimen description
A total of six steel–concrete composite beams with identical cross-
section were tested in the Laboratory of the University of Western
120.0
9.6
188.0
9.6
19/95 STUDS
600
100 350 400 400 400
Fig. 1. Composite beam cross-section (dimensions in mm) and plan view of slab reinforcement and shear stud layout.
21
Sydney. All specimens were constructed with a 600 mm wide and
120 mm deep concrete slab connected to a 200UB29.8 steel section.
The beam–slab connection was achieved through 19 mm diameter,
95 mm long headed shear studs welded in a single line along the
centre of the top flange of the steel beam. The number of the shear
studs provided was adequate to ensure full shear connection between
the slab and the beam. The degree of shear connection in hogging
moment regions of composite beams is defined as the ratio of the
shear connection strength provided by the studs to the strength of the
weakest component (steel reinforcement or steel beam), while the
tensile strength of the slab is neglected. That is:
Νss Fstud
β= ð1Þ
minfFr ; Fbeam g
where β is the degree of shear connection, Nss is the number of studs
in the shear span (half span), Fstud is the strength of an individual stud,
Fr is the axial strength of the reinforcement in the slab, and Fbeam is the
axial strength of the steel beam. In the experimental beams Nss = 8,
Fstud = 90 kN [2], and min{Fr, Fbeam} = Fr = 250 kN, thus β = 2.88 N 1;
therefore, a full shear connection was ensured.
A group of 3 studs was welded to the ends of each of the beams to
reduce slip and ensure full utilisation of the reinforcing bars.
Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement was placed in the concrete
slab. The composite cross section for all specimens and a plan view of
a typical specimen showing the shear stud and reinforcement
arrangement are shown in Fig. 1. A detailed list of the dimensions of
the tested specimens is given in Table 1.
The beam section was selected to be a class 1 (or plastic) section in
order to be capable of achieving plastic rotations without being
susceptible to premature local buckling, according to the current
Australian structural code [3]. This was achieved by imposing the code
limits to the slenderness of the steel beam flange and web. Attention
should be paid in a composite section as the depth of the plastic
neutral axis usually is considerably larger than half of the beam depth,
as the steel reinforcement in the slab leads the plastic neutral axis to
move near the top flange of the steel beam. Thus, the steel web should
be classified taking into account the increased portion which is under
compression [14].
As the universal beam bottom flange was subject to compression
forces caused by the negative moment it was susceptible to lateral
600.0
4N12
6.4
134.0
N12 BARS @ 200MM
4N12 BARS @ 120MM
CENTRES
CENTRES
400 400 400 400 400 400 350
4500 100
22 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
Table 1
Specimen details.
Specimens CB1 to CB5 Specimen CB6
Slab size 4500 × 600 × 120 mm 4000 × 600 × 120 mm
Longitudinal 4N12 × 4450 mm 4N12 × 3950 mm
reinforcement
Transversal 550 mm N12 at 400 550 mm N12 at 400
reinforcement
Shear connectors 19 mm headed studs, 95 mm pre-welded length
Number of studs 12 at 400 with end spans 10 at 430 with end spans
per beam of 350 of 395
torsional buckling. Lateral buckling of the steel beam can cause
premature failure of the composite beam and interruption of the test.
As this was not under investigation in the present study, lateral
movement and buckling of the steel beam were minimised by using a
bracing system consisting of five sets of fly bracing located at the ends,
quarter points and at the midspan. The distance of the bracing was
designed according to the current Australian structural code [3],
which gives the maximum distances between two lateral restraints in
order to eliminate the effects of distortional instabilities. The braces
were designed to withstand 5% of the force within the flange of the
beam acting horizontally at a right angle to the beam. Web stiffeners
were welded to each side of the beam and the fly bracing was attached
using grade 8.8 high tensile bolts. The connection to the slab also
utilised grade 8.8 high tensile bolts which were cast in place. This
arrangement can be seen in Fig. 2.
2.2. Fabrication of tested specimens
All specimens were fabricated in the Structures Laboratory of the
University of Western Sydney. All specimens were cast with the steel
beam on the bottom and plywood formwork and shuttering
constructed to ensure stability during the concrete pouring. A
qualified stud fabricator was employed to install the shear connectors
using a stud welding machine. The reinforcing bars were then
positioned using steel chairs and tie wire and the reinforcement
strain gauges were attached. The composite beam formwork setup
can be seen in Fig. 3. Concrete casting was carried out next with the
casting of each beam specimen and the standard cylinders for material
tests at the same time. A standard mix of normal weight concrete with
a specified characteristic strength of 25 MPa at 28 days was used. The
concrete was poured using standard levelling and compaction
techniques. The surface of the wet concrete was then covered with
polythene sheets and cured under wet condition for 14 days. The
beams were then flipped and fly bracing was attached, as were strain
gauges on the universal beam section.
Fig. 2. Fly bracing and web stiffeners in place.
Fig. 3. Steel beam, shear studs, reinforcing steel and formwork.
2.3. Material properties
Material tests were performed prior to the tests in order to
determine the actual strength and stiffness of steel and concrete. All
materials were ordered from the same set, therefore it was assumed
that the properties would be uniform. Tensile tests were performed
on coupons cut from the steel web, flange and the reinforcing bars and
the corresponding stress–strain laws were obtained. The concrete
tests comprised of standard cylinder compression tests and flexural or
splitting tests to determine the tensile strength of concrete according
to Australian Standards [15]. The resulting values of the material tests
and the specified characteristic strengths of each material can be seen
in Table 2.
2.4. Instrumentation
Various measurement devices were employed to record the
relevant parameters and to obtain the experimental behaviour of
the beams. An automatic data acquisition system was employed to
automatically record data from all measuring devices including load
cells, strain gauges and linear potentiometers throughout the test.
Measurements were recorded once every second. Strain gauges were
used to measure strains of the steel beam and reinforcing bars and to
determine at what load the components yield. A total of 21 strain
gauges were used for each beam specimen. Strain gauges were located
in sets of seven through each cross-section with one set at midspan
and one set at each quarter point, as shown in Fig. 4. At each section
there was one strain gauge attached to each longitudinal reinforcing
bar, numbered 1 to 4, one each on the top and bottom flanges and one
at the centre of the web. The strain gauges at midspan were also
intended to establish the position of the neutral axis and the value of
curvature under the application of load.
Linear potentiometers were used for measuring the deflection of
the beam. These were placed at the midspan and at the quarter points.
The connector slip and interface slip were also measured with linear
potentiometers. The slip was measured at the ends, quarter points and
midpoint, as indicated in Fig. 4.
Table 2
Material test results.
Material strength (MPa)
Specified Measured yield Measured ultimate
Concrete compression (28 days) 25 n/a 24.1
Concrete splitting n/a n/a 4.3
Steel web 320 359 510
Steel flange 320 333 499
Reinforcement bars 500 541 652
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
1 2
1000 1000
STRAIN SECTIONS 1, 2, 3
GAUGE
B1
LVDT
B2
B3
C1 C2
Fig. 4. Specimen instrumentation.
2.5. Test setup
A combination of load actuators was used in order to produce axial
tension loads and bending moments in the composite beam
specimens. The UWS testing laboratory has a test bed for testing
specimens in axial compression consisting of two large universal
columns with crossheads. To create the axial load two 800 kN and
160 mm-stroke hydraulic actuators were used, attached to a large
crosshead between the two universal columns.
To apply axial load to the beam a tensile load applicator was
designed. The tensile load applicator was required to withstand a
tensile force of 1600 kN, the maximum capacity of the horizontal
actuators. These load applicators are shown in Fig. 5. A problem
encountered was the need for the connection between the tensile
load applicator and the composite beam to be free to rotate. This is
necessary since, as the beam is simply supported, rotation at the
supports is inevitable and resistance to rotation would affect results
by causing semi rigid supports, making moment within the beam
very difficult to calculate. To prevent rigidity in the beam to load
applicator connection one large greased pin was used to connect the
tensile load applicators to either end of the composite beam
specimen, as shown in Fig. 5. The web of the universal beam section
of the composite beams was reinforced by welding two 10 mm thick
plates to each side of the web in order to prevent any undesired web
yielding. These plates increase the bearing and tear out capacity of
Fig. 5. Load applicator used to apply the axial force.
23
3
1000 1000
C3 C4
the beam. An overview of the test setup in the laboratory is shown in
Fig. 6.
In order to prevent any induced moment created by the
eccentricity of the axial load the centre of the pin had to be located
at the plastic centroid. Restrictions such as the size of the pin distance
between beam flanges meant that the pin had to be located at the
centre of the Universal Beam section. The centre of the Universal
Beam section has an eccentricity, e, of approximately 30 mm below
the plastic centroid. This eccentricity imposes initial second order
positive moments in the beam. Furthermore, the second order
moments are increased as the eccentricity is increased due to the
beam vertical deflection. This created a problem as the moment
within the beams caused by the point load would be opposed by the
axial load. However this problem was overcome by using further
calculations to find the actual moment caused by the forces on the
beam. The following formula was used to calculate the actual moment
in the beam:
PL
M= −Pa ðe + ed Þ ð2Þ
4
Fig. 6. General view of the test setup.
24 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
where M is the moment in the beam, P is the vertical applied point
load, L is the beam span, Pa is the axial point load, e is the eccentricity
of axial point load, and ed is the eccentricity of axial load due to beam
midspan deflection.
2.6. Loading procedure
Composite beam specimen CB1 was only loaded in bending
therefore a vertical load was applied at a constant rate to produce a
bending moment. The load was increased until failure or until
maximum stroke of the actuator. Specimens CB2 to CB5 were tested
in combined bending and tension therefore the vertical force and the
tensile force were applied in steps of approximately 10% of design
strength. Both loads were increased separately until failure or
maximum stroke of the actuator. Specimen CB6 was only loaded in
tension and in order to reduce the moment created by eccentricity of
the applied axial load the vertical actuator was set up to just touch the
beam. This beam was loaded at a constant rate until failure. During
loading a complete set of readings, including the jack force, strains,
and deflections, were recorded by the data acquisition system and
simultaneously stored in the computer once every second. Cracking of
the slab was monitored from the sides and the load at which they
occurred was noted.
3. Experimental results
3.1. Observations and failure modes
The six composite beams were tested under combined bending
moment and axial tension and the ultimate strength achieved by each
specimen was determined. The main objective of the tests was to load
the composite beams until collapse is reached by failure of one or
more components. The lateral torsional buckling of the compressive
flange was prevented by the use of lateral restraints, as described in
Section 2.1, thus the ultimate capacity of each beam was determined
by one of the four possible failure conditions: 1) excessive yielding or
fracture of the reinforcement, 2) local buckling of the compressive
flange, 3) failure of the shear connection, or 4) ductile failure. The
ductile failure mode is defined as the failure mode of a composite
beam when none of the first three conditions is met and the beam
deformations are excessive, while load applicators reach their
maximum strokes.
The vertical load–deflection curves for the specimens CB1 to CB5
are drawn in Fig. 7. As it can be seen in the figure, the load–deflection
curve for specimen CB1 is almost perfectly plastic in the post-elastic
range, while the curves for the rest of the specimens show a hardening
behaviour which increases as the axial load level increases. This
behaviour is due to the axial loading plates which are connected on
Fig. 7. Vertical load–deflection curves for all tested beams.
Fig. 8. Local buckling initiation in the compressive flange of specimen CB1.
the beam through the pin, as shown in Fig. 5, and they impose
additional resistance to the vertical load as the beam deflects. Beams
CB2 and CB3 have similar load–deflection curves up to the point
where CB3 fails, although specimen CB2 has a considerably higher
ductility. Specimen CB4 has a slightly lower initial stiffness and it
arrives at the same ductility levels as CB3, whereas CB5 has a
considerably lower initial stiffness compared to CB1, but it possesses a
ductility similar to the beam CB2. The implications of the tensile axial
load level acting in the beam together with the negative bending
moment on the failure behaviour of the composite beams are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Composite beam CB1 was tested in pure negative bending. There
was no failure of the shear connection and interface slip was very
small, not exceeding 0.5 mm. In the final stage of loading, there was
only a small amount of visible local buckling present in the top flange,
which can be seen in Fig. 8, indicating that both the shear connection
and the fly bracing system performed well. The first cracking of the
concrete slab occurred at a load approaching 60 kN, which is about
38% of the ultimate load, and cracking continued to enlarge until the
ultimate load, as seen in Fig. 9. The beam specimen behaved linearly
up to a load of approximately 130 kN with a deflection of 23 mm, at
which point the force deflection curve began to plateau to a peak of
around 157 kN, as can be seen in Fig. 7. Thus the failure mode of the
composite beam was the local buckling of the compressive flange,
although this was met at the final stages of loading and after the beam
has reached its plastic moment capacity.
Composite beam CB2 was subjected to negative bending while a
mild axial tension was applied. The measured interface slip has not
exceeded 1 mm in this case. As in the case of beam CB1, there was a
small amount of local buckling in the compression flange, however
this was reduced compared to CB1 as the applied tensile force resisted
the buckling forces caused by compression within the top flange. The
first cracking of the concrete slab occurred at a point load approaching
30 kN, with an axial load of 200 kN, and continued to enlarge until the
Fig. 9. Cracking in the slab of specimen CB1.
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
Fig. 10. Steel flange fouling on the load applicator.
ultimate load. The beam specimen behaved linearly up to a load of
approximately 150 kN with a deflection of 26 mm at which point the
force deflection curve began to harden, as shown in Fig. 7.
Composite beam CB3 was tested under a combination of high
negative bending and moderate axial tension. There was no failure of
the shear connection and the maximum measured interface slip was
2 mm at the ends of the beam. No buckling indication was observed in
the compressive flange, implying that the tensile force counteracted
the buckling forces caused by compression within the compression
flange. The first cracking of the slab was noticed at a point load of
50 kN and a horizontal load of 75 kN. When the vertical point load was
being raised past 160 kN it began to increase the axial tension load
and when raised from 180 to 195 kN the horizontal load increased by
approximately 25 kN from 300 to 325kN. This was due to the beam
bending thereby bringing the ends closer together. The test was
discontinued at the maximum deflection as the steel beam flange
fouled on the load applicator (Fig. 10).
Specimens CB4 and CB5 were tested under the effect of a moderate
and a high tensile axial load, respectively. There was no evidence of
local buckling or shear connection failure after the completion of the
tests. In fact, the failure mode of the beams was the excessive
reinforcement strain which caused the fracture of the rebars in the
slab. Very severe cracking was observed in the slab of both specimens,
as shown in Fig. 11 for specimen CB5. The reinforcement fracturing
occurred for the specimen CB4 at a combination of 700 kN axial tensile
load and 226 kN vertical load and a midspan deflection of about
113 mm, while for specimen CB5 the failure combination was
1200 kN axial force and 330 kN vertical load at a midspan deflection
of 165 mm. Upon inspection a crack which had formed through the
midspan had increased and opened up to around 20 mm on the south
side. The slip observed was minimal not exceeding 2 mm except for
the slip at the midspan which measured 10.5 mm; this was due to the
severity of the cracks in this area. After the composite beam specimen
Fig. 11. Cracking in the slab of specimen CB5.
25
Fig. 12. Axial load–axial displacement diagram for specimen CB6.
was removed from the test rig it was evident that the holes for point
load application had elongated due to bearing.
Finally, specimen CB6 was loaded in pure axial tension; however
the eccentricity of the tensile load applicators would cause a positive
moment which would result in an upward deflection. To oppose this
moment and the associated upward deflection, the vertical load
actuator was used. The vertical load actuator was positioned to just
touch the composite beam specimen and the horizontal load was then
increased and both the horizontal and vertical load cells were
monitored. The axial load–axial deformation diagram for specimen
CB6 is plotted in Fig. 12, from which it can be stated that the
composite section exhibited high ductility levels up to an elongation
of 100 mm. Cracking appeared at a force of 450 kN axial tension and
an elongation of 13.5 mm, and cracks continued to appear throughout
the length. Compared to CB4 and CB5 the cracks which formed around
the midspan were much less severe as there was no negative moment
and midspan deflection. At axial loads approaching 1400 kN cracks at
either end were forming around the shear stud location as seen in
Fig. 13. Interface slip at the east end was highest, measuring 20 mm,
followed by the west end which had a slip of 12 mm, although the
splitting of the slab at the ends may have affected these two results. At
maximum load these cracks opened up considerably, as can be seen in
Fig. 13, indicating shear connection failure accompanied by drops in
load.
3.2. Experimental strength and rigid plastic analysis
The maximum values of vertical and axial loads achieved at the
failure point of each specimen were recorded and the ultimate
moment capacity of the beams under the given axial tension level was
then calculated using Eq. (2). Table 3 presents a summary of the
Fig. 13. Shear stud failure at the end of specimen CB6.
26 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33

Table 3 with the experimental values, no partial safety factors have been used
Experimental failure modes. and the average yield strength resulted from the material tests was
Specimen Loading Failure mode assumed for the steel parts. The resulting moment–axial load
combinations from the RPA together with the experimental ultimate
CB1 Pure negative bending Buckling of compressive
flange strengths are summarised in Table 4.
CB2 Negative bending and mild axial tension Buckling of compressive The values obtained by the tests and those calculated by the RPA
flange are plotted in the same graph in the interaction diagram of Fig. 15.
CB3 Negative bending and moderate axial tension Ductile failure
This is the lower left quadrant of the complete moment–axial force
CB4 Negative bending and high axial tension Reinforcement fracture
CB5 Negative bending and very high axial Reinforcement fracture interaction diagram of a composite section. It is observed from the
tension same graph that the experimental data points follow the same basic
CB6 Axial tension only Shear connection failure shape as the theoretical interaction diagram, but are greater in most
cases including negative bending, combined negative bending and
tension, and less than for the case of pure axial tension. The increase
various failure modes observed in each test. It is concluded that, while can partially be explained by the strain hardening of the steel
at low axial tensile load levels the failure mode is primarily the local components and ultimate strengths found to be greater than yield
buckling of the compression flange, at moderate and high axial loads strengths in the tests. The decrease can be explained by premature
acting in the section the failure mode becomes the ductile failure failure of the shear connection during the test of beam CB6 which is
mode by excessive elongation of rebars. not considered in the sectional analysis.
An analytical calculation of the composite beam capacities was From the interaction diagram and the values of Table 4 it can be
also conducted by means of rigid plastic analysis (R.P.A.) within the concluded that the flexural strength of a composite section is not
section. In this analysis only the steel parts (reinforcement bars and affected or is even slightly increased under the simultaneous action of
steel beam section) of the composite section are considered to a relatively low axial tensile force. More specifically, the experimental
contribute to the section capacity, while the concrete in tension is bending capacity of beam CB2 is increased by 6% over the capacity of
neglected. Fig. 14a shows the stress distribution through the beam CB1 (from 157 kN m to 166 kN m in Table 4), when an axial
composite section as it is assumed by the R.P.A. for the case of force equal to 460 kN (about 30% of the plastic axial capacity, Nu) was
negative bending without axial force. For the case of axial force the applied. A similar behaviour is observed in the RPA results: the
plastic neutral axis is assumed to lie in several points within the negative bending strength was not reduced under the simultaneous
section height and the resulting moment and axial tension are action of axial forces equal to 116 and 242 kN (8 and 16% of Nu,
summed taking as centre of rotation the plastic centroid of the respectively, Table 4). As the axial load level applied in the section is
composite section, as shown in Fig. 14b. For comparison purposes increased, the flexural capacity reduces significantly, as can be verified
from inspection of the interaction diagram.
Furthermore, experimental study has confirmed that sectional
a) rigid plastic analysis is a reasonable assumption for the ultimate
design strength of composite beams under the effects of combined
Tr
negative bending and axial tension. A rigid plastic analysis could be
Dpna used for design of composite beams subject to these forces since it is
Ts fairly accurate and will produce a fairly conservative figure for
Mpl
P.N.A. P.N.A.

composite beam strength under the combination of negative bending

and axial forces. When under pure tension rigid plastic analysis will
Cs produce a value which is slightly greater than that found by practical
testing.

b)
Tr
4. Finite element analysis
Dpc
4.1. Finite element model description
Plastic N
centroid
The experimental programme described in the previous sections
P.N.A.

M provided data on the ultimate strength of composite beams under the

Ts
P.N.A. Cs combined effects of negative bending and various levels of axial
tensile forces. Nevertheless, the test results regard only one specific
Fig. 14. Stress distribution according to R.P.A. in a) pure bending and b) assumed stress
composite section. In order to generalise the results and to study a
distribution resulting to axial tension and negative moment in the section (P.N.A. = broader range of sections, the finite element method has been
plastic neutral axis). employed. For this purpose, a three-dimensional finite element model

Table 4
Experimental ultimate strengths of composite beams.

Specimen Experimental results Rigid plastic analysis

Ultimate vertical load (kN) Ultimate moment (kNm) Axial Force (kN) Moment (kNm) Axial Force (kN)

CB1 157 − 157 0 − 145 0

CB2 263 − 166 − 460 (30%)a − 147 − 116 (8%)a
CB3 214 − 130 − 556 (37%)a − 145 − 242 (16%)a
CB4 226 − 126 − 703 (47%)a − 114 − 652 (42%)a
CB5 371 − 84 − 1418 (94%)a − 58 − 1097 (71%)a
CB6 46 −2 − 1497 0 − 1542
a
Percentage of applied axial force to the plastic axial capacity of the composite section.
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
Fig. 15. Interaction diagram and comparison between experimental and analytical
values.
was constructed in order to reproduce the tests on the composite
beams. The model is relying on the use of the commercial software
ABAQUS [16]. A detailed description of the model geometry, element
types, materials and solution method is given in the following
sections.
4.1.1. Geometry and element types
The concrete slab and the steel beam were modelled using eight-
node linear hexahedral solid elements with reduced integration,
namely C3D8R in Abaqus. The reinforcing rebars were modelled as
two-node three-dimensional linear truss elements, T3D2. An over-
view of the finite element discretization is shown in Fig. 16. The fly
bracing was modelled indirectly by applying boundary conditions
which prevent lateral displacement at the same points on the beam
compression flange as the fly bracings were located in the tests. Due to
the symmetrical geometry and loading, only half of the beam was
modelled, while appropriate boundary conditions were applied on the
plane of symmetry. A schematic representation of the various
modelling assumptions is depicted in Fig. 17.
4.1.2. Interactions
For modelling the reinforcement in the slab the embedded
element technique was employed. The embedded element technique
in Abaqus is used to specify an element or a group of elements that lie
embedded in a group of host elements whose response will be used to
constrain the translational degrees of freedom of the embedded
nodes. In the present case, the truss elements representing the
reinforcement are the embedded region while the concrete slab is the
host region. Using this technique, it is assumed that perfect bond
Fig. 16. An overall view of the finite element model used for the experimental
simulation.
27
exists between the rebars and the surrounding concrete. In addition, a
contact interaction was applied in the beam–slab interface which did
not allow separation of the surfaces after contact in order to prevent
uplift. The node-to-surface contact with small sliding was used while
the hard contact without friction was specified as the contact
property.
4.1.3. Materials
The stress–strain relations obtained from material tests were
converted to piecewise linear curves and used for the modelling of the
steel material for the beam and the reinforcing bars, as shown in Fig.
18b and c. A plastic material with isotropic hardening law was used as
the constitutive law for all the steel parts of the model.
The concrete material stress–strain relationship was calibrated
according to the values obtained from the concrete cylinder and
splitting tests. The stress–strain curve for compression follow the
formula proposed by Carreira and Chu [17], while the tensile
behaviour is assumed to be linear up to the uniaxial tensile stress
provided by the material test. The stress–strain law used is plotted in
Fig. 18a. The post-failure behaviour for direct straining across cracks is
modelled using the tension-stiffening option and determining a linear
relation until stress is zero at a strain value of 0.05. This value is used
for avoiding numerical problems in the computational procedure
while accuracy is not affected considerably. There are two plastic
models available in Abaqus/Standard for modelling the concrete
behaviour. In the present analysis the damaged plasticity model was
preferred over the smeared cracked model. This model provides a
general capability for the analysis of concrete structures under static
or dynamic and monotonic or cyclic loading based on a damaged
plasticity algorithm. Compared to the companion model (smeared
crack model), it models concrete behaviour more realistically but it is
computationally more expensive. Although, this model was chosen
for monotonic loading due to its numerical efficiency when full
inelastic response has to be captured.
The shear connection modelling in a composite beam is probably
the most complicated task due to the complex interactions between
the studs and the concrete slab. The most accurate way is to model the
studs using solid elements and applying contact interactions with the
elements of the slab. Although this technique is quite cumbersome
both in terms of geometry construction and computational time,
while convergence problems during the solution are likely to arise
due to the severe immediate cracking of concrete in the region
surrounding the studs. A spring model representation of shear studs is
chosen to simulate the interface slip in the present study. The
nonlinear spring element SPRING2 was adopted to connect a beam
flange node with a slab node in the interface at the same positions
where studs were welded on the specimen, as schematically shown in
Fig. 17. The force slip law for the spring element is derived by the
standard push-out tests on 19 mm-diameter shear studs. A piecewise
linear curve was fitted to the experimental diagram and defined as the
force-slip law for the springs, as shown in Fig. 18d.
4.1.4. Loading and solution method
The vertical load was applied by a concentrated force on the top of
the beam web, while the axial load was applied as an edge pressure on
the steel beam section. The analysis consisted of two steps. In the first
step the contact was established, ensuring that numerical problems
due to contact formulation will not be encountered during the next
steps, while in the second step the vertical and the axial loads were
applied simultaneously as in the experimental specimens. The
modified Riks solution algorithm was employed to solve for the
nonlinear response of the composite beams and to capture any
possible local instabilities. Finite element analysis with concrete
elements mainly in tension may give convergence problems. To avoid
these, the discontinuous analysis option was used in the general
solution control options.
28 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33

STEEL BEAM
C3D8R elements
Lateral restraints Symmetry axis
Steel Beam

Contact
Interface
RC slab
Shear connection V

CONCRETE SLAB
C3D8R elements
"zero"
Nonlinear spring

Fig. 17. Finite element model details.

4.1.5. Failure criteria
In order to monitor the behaviour of the finite element model and
to identify the modes of failure at ultimate loading, specific failure
criteria were defined corresponding to the ultimate strength of the
various section components. In fact, failure of the composite beam in
the simulation was identified by one of the following situations: a)
flange or web buckling, b) reinforcement fracture, and c) shear
connection failure. While local instabilities can be captured accurately
by Abaqus using the modified RIKS method of solution, the second and
third conditions should be identified by monitoring some specific
response quantities. To this end, the strain of the reinforcing bars and
the relative displacements in the nonlinear springs representing the
studs were monitored during the analysis. An excessive strain in the
rebars reaching the experimental rapture values should indicate a
reinforcement fracture, while e measured slip near or above the
failure slip of the push-out tests was a criterion for shear connection
failure. Finally, a ductile failure mode was defined when none of the
above criteria was met and the analysis was ended by numerical
problems due to excessive distortion of concrete in tension, while the
ultimate load achieved was easily identified by the load–deflection
curve.
4.2. Model validation
In order to validate the accuracy of the finite element model the
experimental loading of the beams was reproduced in Abaqus. In the
pure moment case the FE model stiffness and ultimate moment
capacity are in very good agreement with the experimental curve, as it
can be seen from Fig. 19. The FE model reached an ultimate moment of
160 kN m, which is only 1.9% greater than the experimental value of
157 kN m. The numerical response is ductile up to failure with an
indication of local buckling in the compression flange, as can be seen
from Fig. 20. The yielding sequence of the basic components of the
composite section and the load level where yielding occurs in the test
and in the numerical analysis was also compared and is shown in
Fig. 19. The yielding sequence in the experiment is labelled as A, B, and
C on the diagram and corresponds to yielding of compressive flange,
reinforcement and tension flange, respectively, while the respective

Fig. 18. Material stress–strain laws adopted in the finite element model a) concrete, b) structural steel parts, c) reinforcement, and d) shear stud force-slip law.
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
Fig. 19. Moment deflection curves for specimen CB1.
yielding sequence in the FEM is labelled as 1, 2, and 3 on the diagram.
It is observed that, as in the experiment, yielding of the compressive
flange occurs first at a similar load level, followed by yielding of
reinforcing rebars and tension flange, which occur almost simulta-
neously. In the same diagram, the point at which initiation of local
buckling has occurred is labelled as “LB”. Fig. 21 presents a plot of the
slip distribution along the beam length at ultimate load. It is in good
agreement with the experimentally measured values, which are about
0.5 mm along the beam length.
The pure axial tension test of specimen CB6 is compared with the
FE result in terms of axial load–axial displacement curve in Fig. 22. The
numerical response is considerably stiffer initially than the experi-
mental one, while the ultimate axial strength values are in good
agreement. The greater numerical stiffness can be explained by noting
that the experimental horizontal frame which supported the
horizontal load applicators had a limited stiffness and due to the
very high axial loads exhibited a minimum deflection which in turn
has softened the initial stiffness of the load–deflection curve. The
numerical axial capacity is 1590 kN which is 3% higher than the
experimental value of 1542 kN. This over-estimation of the FE model
can be partly attributed to the introduction of a rather increased value
of tension stiffening in the concrete model, which is necessary for
avoiding convergence problems.
Fig. 23 illustrates the resulting data in the M–N interaction
diagram resulting from the tests, the RPA and the FE model. The FE
points follow the same trend as the RPA analysis with a small over-
prediction, which is expected mainly due to the strain hardening
effects which are not present in the RPA. For intermediate axial load
levels, as for specimens CB3 and CB4, the resulting points are in very
good agreement, whereas there is some discrepancy observed for the
CB5 and CB2 case. Nevertheless, considering the complexity of the
experimental setup it can be stated that the FE model can capture the
Fig. 20. Deformed shape of FE model at ultimate load (equivalent plastic strain, PEEQ,
contour plot).
29
Fig. 21. Slip distribution along the beam length in the FE model.
actual behaviour with fairly good accuracy and can be used for further
studies on the behaviour of this kind of structures.
5. Parametric studies
The finite element model presented in the previous section was
validated against experimental data and was proved to be reliable and
accurate to capture the ultimate strength of composite sections under
the combined effects of axial tension and negative bending. In order to
generalise the results and to specify a reliable M–N interaction
equation for design, a parametric study was conducted using a series
of beams with different design parameters. More specifically, the span
length was varied and accordingly the slab effective width and
reinforcement ratio were designed for each parametric case according
to current codes. Furthermore, the effect of partial shear connection
on the interaction diagram was also evaluated. Details and results of
the parametric study are presented within the next sections.
5.1. Parametric beam designs
The design example is taken as an inclined continuous composite
ramp consisting of beams in 2 m distance to each other and with
simple supports at three equally-spaced internal points. A 120 mm
slab is assumed to act compositely with the steel sections, thus the
beams to be designed are four-span continuous composite beams. It is
assumed that the dead load of the ramp is DL = 4.0 kN/m 2 and the live
load is LL = 5.0 kN/m 2. The design load combination is taken
according to Eurocode 1 as qdes = 1.35*DL + 1.5*LL, giving a design
load of 25.8 kN/m on each internal beam. The moment in the middle
support is equal to Mdes = −0.071qdesL 2 while the shear force is equal
to Vdes = 0.464qdesL, where L is the span length. The composite beam
section under consideration is the section under negative moment at
the middle support and is shown in Fig. 24. By varying the span length,
the effective width of the slab is also affected, ranging from 1 m for the
8 m span length and assuming a maximum value of 2 m. The
reinforcement in the slab consists of 12 mm-diameter bars at
150 mm distance to each other. A summary of the parametric beam
Fig. 22. Axial load versus axial displacement for specimen CB6.
30 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33

Fig. 23. Comparison of M–N interaction diagrams resulting from experimental and Fig. 25. Comparison of FE results with RPA analysis for IPE240 and IPE300 beams.
numerical data.

Composite
beam design
L
[M]
Le
L the same trend in both analyses, although the bending strength
[N]
Fig. 24. The design example.
designs is given in Table 5. For comparison reasons, the steel sections
are given in both European shapes (IPE) and Universal Beam shapes
(UB), although the IPE sections are used in the finite element analyses.
Also presented in Table 5 are the moment-to-shear ratio, m/q, and the
shear stud number and spacing needed to achieve a full shear
connection degree employing 19 mm-diameter studs. It has to be
noted that the moment-to-shear ratio is large for all beams, ranging
from 1.22 to 3.67, which means that the shear–moment interaction
effects are neglected in the present study [9].
5.2. Parametric beam results
All the parametric beams were subjected to combined negative
bending and axial tension. First, a pure moment and a pure axial
analyses were performed in order to specify the ultimate resistances
of the sections. After that, the model was subjected to a constant
vertical load at the midspan and various levels of axial tension acting
simultaneously, ranging from 0.1 to 0.8 of the ultimate axial
resistance. The analysis was continued until one of the failure criteria
described in Section 4.1.5 was met or until the ultimate load level
reached was obvious by the curve shape.
Fig. 25 presents a comparison of the negative moment–tensile
axial force interaction diagrams between the results of the finite
element analyses and the RPA for beams IPE240 and IPE300 and
Fig. 26 compares the same results for the beams IPE360, IPE450 and
IPE500. The main observation is that the interaction diagram follows
resulting from the model is greater than the bending resistance
predicted by the RPA, while the corresponding axial strengths have
similar values. This outcome was expected for the bending case due to
the hardening behaviour introduced in the material constitutive
model of the steel material and the increased tension stiffening effect
introduced in the concrete material model. In fact, the stresses in the
steel flanges at the end of the analyses have values larger than the
initial yield strength, while the initial yield value is assumed along the
composite section height in a RPA. Furthermore, in the axial tension
case the above behaviour does not occur and the results of the model
are in most cases slightly smaller than those from the RPA. This is
mainly attributed to the fact that in axial loading the numerical model
stops earlier than in a bending analysis due to excessive distortions
and numerical problems involved in the axial force transfer and
concrete in tension. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the RPA
gives fairly accurate results for composite beams and can be safely
used in design practice.
Fig. 27 plots the interaction data points resulting from the FE
analyses of the five parametric beams with full shear connection in
the same graph. The parametric analyses verify the shape of the
interaction diagram for the fourth quadrant observed in the
experimental study. The main outcome is that the bending strength
of a composite beam is not affected or is slightly increased in the
presence of an axial tensile force up to 20% of the tensile strength of
the composite section. The above result is more obvious if the
interaction curves are plotted in non-dimensional form by dividing
the x and y values by the ultimate bending and axial strengths,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 28. For tensile axial loads greater than
20% of the plastic axial resistance the negative moment capacity is
reduced almost linearly by increasing the axial tension in the beam.

Table 5
Details of the parametric beam designs.

L (m) qdes (kN/m) Mdes (kNm) Vdes (kN) m/q beff (mm) As (mm2) Beam section Shear studs (no/spacing in mm)

8 25.8 − 117 96 1.22 1000 791 IPE240 (UB254 × 102 × 28) 14/307
12 25.8 − 264 144 1.84 1500 1130 IPE300 (UB305 × 165 × 40) 20/315
16 25.8 − 469 192 2.45 2000 1469 IPE360 (UB356 × 171 × 57) 24/347
20 25.8 − 733 239 3.06 2000 1469 IPE450 (UB457 × 152 × 82) 24/434
24 25.8 − 1055 287 3.67 2000 1808 IPE500 (UB457 × 191 × 98) 24/521
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
Fig. 26. Comparison of FE results with RPA analysis for IPE360, IPE450 and IPE500
beams.
Fig. 27. Interaction curves for the parametric beams.
Fig. 28. Non-dimensional interaction curves for the parametric beams.
Fig. 29. Load–deflection curves for parametric beams with full and partial interaction.
31
5.3. Effect of partial shear connection
As mentioned before, spring elements were used in place of studs
to control the relative movement in the beam–slab interface. In order
to account for a partial shear connection (PSC), the spring force-slip
law was modified by reducing the stud ultimate capacity. By defining
a shear stud strength of 55 kN and maintaining the same number of
studs, shear connection degrees between 0.5 and 0.6 were achieved
and the analyses were repeated on the parametric beams.
Fig. 29 compares the ultimate load–deflection curves of the
parametric beams with full and partial shear connection for the case
of pure negative bending. It can be seen that partial interaction results
in a reduction of the yielding point, although the ultimate load
compromise is smaller. This is attributed to a hardening of the
behaviour after the onset of yielding in the case of partial shear
connection. Furthermore, the present analyses have confirmed the
results from numerous relative studies [e.g. 18,19] that the ductility of
the beam is considerably increased when partial shear connection is
used. In addition, it is concluded that partial shear connection
prevents local buckling of the compressive flange. This is more
obvious from the load deflection curves of beams IPE300, IPE360 and
IPE450. For these beams, a drop in the load at the end of the curve
indicates a local buckling initiation, while this behaviour is absent in
the PSC case, where the behaviour is continuously hardening.
The axial capacity of a composite beam is not seriously affected by
the use of partial shear connection, as it is seen in Fig. 30. The steel
beam is still capable of transferring the axial tension to the
reinforcement in the slab, although this may happen at later loading
stages. The shear connection is always the failure mode and the
reason that the numerical analysis ends, as the studs which are
located near the beam ends exhibit excessive slip values.
The shape of the negative moment–axial tension interaction
diagram does not seem to be affected by the use of lower degrees of
shear connection. This can be verified by studying Fig. 31, where the
interaction curves for the case of partial and full shear connection are
plotted together. The axial tension resistance is slightly lower in the
PSC case, as the studs are not able to transmit efficiently all the axial
load to the reinforcing bars at the ultimate loading levels.
5.4. Proposed design equations for composite beams under hogging
moment and axial tension
Current structural codes do not provide explicit methodologies for
the design of composite beams, which are asymmetric in nature,
under the interaction of bending and axial load. In the present section,
a design formula is proposed for the design of composite beams under
the combined effects of negative bending moment and axial tension
acting in the steel section. The design formula is based on the results
of the experimental study presented in the previous sections and the
32 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33
Fig. 30. Axial load–axial displacement curves for parametric beams with full and partial shear connection.
finite element analysis, which is considered by the authors as a
reasonable and accurate prediction of the composite beam section up
to ultimate loads.
The non-dimensional moment–axial force interaction data points
for all parametric beams are plotted in Fig. 32, both for full and partial
shear connection. A design curve is superimposed on the analysis data
points. Taking into account the various safety factors that are
introduced in the practical design by all structural codes, the following
design equation is proposed for the design of a composite beam under
the combined effects of negative (hogging) bending and axial tension:
N 8 M
+ = 1; for N N 0:20 × NU ðaÞ
NU 10 MU
M = MU ; for N ≤ 0:20 × NU ðbÞ
where N and M are the design axial force and bending moment and Nu
and Mu are the plastic axial and bending capacities of the composite
beam, which can be calculated by means of the rigid plastic analysis
method, as described in various structural codes and is proven to be a
reasonably conservative method. According to this formula, the
bending capacity at the hogging moment regions of composite
beams is not reduced when an axial tensile force up to 20% of the
axial strength is applied in the beam, but it reduces linearly to zero
when larger values of axial force are present. Table 6 presents a
comparison between the bending strength predicted by the FEM
results and the design moment capacity calculated by Eq. (3). The
associated error is also reported. It can be seen that the proposed
equation is fairly conservative for the design of composite beams in
hogging moment regions under the effects of axial tension. The error
is small for low axial loads and becomes larger as the axial load
increases. Finally, it has to be pointed out that the proposed design
Fig. 31. Moment–axial load interaction curves for the cases of full and partial shear
connection.
formula is valid for composite beams with full shear connection and
partial shear connection not less than 0.5, provided that premature
shear connection failure is avoided by using ductile shear connectors.
6. Conclusions
The ultimate capacity of composite beams under the combined
effects of negative (or hogging) bending moment and axial tension
was investigated by means of an experimental programme, a rigid-
plastic cross-sectional analysis and nonlinear finite element models. It
was assumed that adequate lateral restraints are provided to the
compression flange so that the beam is not susceptible to lateral
ð3Þ torsional buckling.
The experimental study has demonstrated that the negative
moment capacity of composite beams is not affected or is even slightly
increased when a relatively low axial tension force is simultaneously
acting in the composite section. For higher values of axial tension, the
moment capacity is reduced significantly by increasing the tension
level.
Sectional rigid plastic analysis in accordance to current design
codes has been proven to be reasonably accurate and to provide with
plastic capacities which can be used in the design practice safely. The
general shape of the moment–axial force interaction curves resulting
from the experiments and from the rigid plastic analysis are in good
agreement.
The finite element model developed has been validated against the
experimental results and the very good agreement between the tests
and the numerical outcome has proved the efficiency of the finite
element model to capture the nonlinear behaviour of the composite
Fig. 32. Non-dimensional interaction diagram and proposed design equation.
 G. Vasdravellis et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 68 (2012) 20–33 33

Table 6 the design resistances are computed according to rigid plastic theory,
Formula error on the prediction of moment capacity. in accordance to current structural codes.
Beam N/Nu M (FEM) M (equation) Error (%)

IPE240 0.00 − 208 − 208 0.00 Acknowledgements

0.13 − 212 − 208 − 1.89
0.19 − 213 − 208 − 2.35 The experimental research presented in this paper was funded by
0.38 − 192 − 160 − 16.67
the Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Project DP0879734.
0.54 − 157 − 120 − 23.39
0.64 − 127 − 92 − 27.32 The authors would also like to thank Dr Mithra Fernando and all the
1.00 0 0 0.00 technical staff of the Structures Laboratory at University of Western
IPE300 0.00 − 378 − 378 0.00 Sydney for their valuable assistance with the experimental work.
0.14 − 379 − 378 − 0.26
0.31 − 350 − 325 − 7.24
0.47 − 296 − 250 − 15.70 References
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