Advanced Beam Dynamics & Hamiltonian

Formalism

D
2. Introduction

Rick Baartman, TRIUMF

February 3, 2015

R. Baartman, TRIUMF 2015

 Introduction
Exercise 3: In the thin-lens approximation, find the focal length of a circular
aperture with asymptotic electric fields in the particle’s direction of zero on one
side and constant E0 on the other.

Excursion: What is the ‘thin lens approximation’?

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Can we reach any voltage we like by cascading this type of accelerator?

Answer: No (Why not? How do we get around this difficulty?)

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 Axially Symmetric Lenses – Einzel

Einzel lens is typically 3 electrodes, of which outer 2 are ground:

We can construct such an axially symmetric lens, using the solution of

previous lecture, adding 4 circular apertures:

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R. Baartman, TRIUMF 2015 4
 Axially Symmetric Lenses – Solenoid

Let us try to find the motion equations

for this case starting from the Lorentz
force equation F~ = e~v × B.
~ A constant
magnetic field B in the direction z of the
particle motion. Paraxial particles have
components of momentum in the x and
y, and px, py  pz .
Also, assume the solenoid field B is flat
constant and particles are “suddenly” in
side it.

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Then

dpx
= evy B (1)
dt
dpy
= −evxB (2)
dt
dpz
= 0 (3)
dt

We set p~ = m~v , (come back to this later). Then we find vz is constant and
vx2 + vy2 is constant, and each varies harmonically. Thus particles execute
helical orbits.

For a finite length solenoid, this analysis is actually INCORRECT. Can you
think of a conservation law that it violates?

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 Hamiltonian Dynamics
Two problems encountered so far:

• How to incorporate relativistic effects?

• How to make sure the fields follow from Maxwell equations?

Both of these can be answered by going to the Hamiltonian formalism:

• Relativity is no big deal: but not an extension of Newtonian.

• Uses Nature’s symmetries. Promotes deeper understanding.
• Uses potentials, not fields. So Maxwell equations automatically followed.

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 Contents (∼ lectures)

1. Relativistic equations of motion. Time t as independent variable. Emittance.

2. Curved coordinate system and distance s as independent variable.

3. Some standard beamline elements: solenoids, bends (dipoles),

quadrupoles, multipoles.

4. Transfer matrices and σ-matrix formalism.

5. Space charge and envelope equation.

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 Reference material

• E.D. Courant and H.S. Snyder: THEORY OF THE

ALTERNATING-GRADIENT SYNCHROTRON. Originally published 1958.
Available open access (CLICK ME: magenta are links).
• H. Goldstein, Safko and Poole: CLASSICAL MECHANICS. You don’t have
to read the whole 636 pages text, only Chapter 9.
• R.D. Ruth: SINGLE PARTICLE DYNAMICS AND NONLINEAR
RESONANCES IN CIRCULAR ACCELERATORS. Lecture notes in
Physics, published by Springer, 1986. open access (Be careful, though his
momenta p and P are interchanged compared with mine.)

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 Relativity

E0 = m0c2, E = mc2 = γm0c2

2 2 −1/2
1


where E is energy , γ = 1 − v /c , m0 is rest mass and m = γm0 is
taken to be “relativistic mass”. These are formulas that (a) simplify to the point
of removing the essential Hamiltonian physics, and (b) mislead. Lev Okun,
2006 (CLICK ME: magenta are links) calls it a “pedagogical virus”. For good
reason. The way it’s generally taught has made it on one hand overly
simplified, and on the other hand useless for making even simple calculations.

Hereafter in these lectures, the symbol m is always the rest mass, and
sometimes denoted as m0, but the subscript 0 is redundant, and I’ll often
forget it and drop it.
1 ~ to distinguish it from energy E .
Notation: electric field will be denoted E

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So let’s work backwards from there.

E = γm0c2

This is better written as

E 2 = (m0c2)2 + (pc)2
(where p2 = p2x + p2y + p2z , the square of the momentum magnitude). It’s better
because we want to track the positions and momenta of our accelerated
particles. We need functional, not just numerical formulas. Excursion: What
exactly is E ? There is a tendency to subtract rest mass from E and call this the “kinetic”
energy. E − m0c2 = (γ − 1)m0c2. One is tempted to think of m0c2 as potential energy. But
this is wrong; it is a holdover from Newtonian mechanics. There actually are two parts, but
they are not potential and kinetic, rather rest and dynamic, and add together in quadrature.

For particles of charge q, this is in fact only correct in absence of electric field.
The canonical coordinate E is the total energy, while what appears in the
above equation is only the dynamical (kinetic) part. The electric potential Φ

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must be subtracted:
(E − qΦ)2 = (m0c2)2 + p2c2 (4)

For cases with magnetic field, the canonical momentum is P~ = p~ + q A,

~ where
~ is the vector potential.
A

(E − qΦ)2 = (m0c2)2 + |P~ − q A|

~ 2c2 (5)

We can write more explicitly in a form that exhibits the symmetry:

m20c2 = (E − qΦ)2/c2 − (Px − qAx)2 − (Py − qAy )2 − (Pz − qAz )2 (6)

This equation plus the fact that −E, Px, Py , Pz are canonical and conjugate to
t, x, y, z can be used to derive all of the relativistic dynamics of charged
particles.

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Recall Hamilton’s variational principle (or Principle of least action):
Z
δ (Pxdx + Py dy + Pz dz − Edt) = 0 (7)

R P
(Maybe you recall this as: δ ( i Piq˙i − H)dt.)

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 4-vectors
We can make these even more elegant by defining 4-vectors:
Position qµ x y z ict
Momentum Pµ Px Py Pz iE/c
Potential Aµ Ax Ay Az iΦ/c
“Energy equation”:
|Pµ − qAµ|2 = −m20c2 (8)

Equations are often very elegantly written in “summation convention” where

repeated index (µ here) implies summation over all values of index.
Principle of least action: Z
δ Pµ · dqµ = 0

Far from messing up Newtonian mechanics, relativity restores a pleasing

symmetry.

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 “Quantity of Motion”
Historical controversy: Newton: “It’s mv” (momentum). Leibniz: “It’s mv 2”
(energy).

Look again at 7. It’s true even in Newtonian mechanics and was known far
before Einstein.

It must have been a puzzle why E and P~ played similar roles when the central
equation was 2
1  ~ ~  + qΦ.
E= P − q A (9)
2m
E and P in this non-relativistic limit look like completely different concepts. But
in relativity they’re just different components of the 4-vector.

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 Equations of motion

If we want to use t as independent variable, then E is the Hamiltonian:

H(x, Px, y, Py , z, Pz ; t) =
q
qΦ + m20c4 + c2(Px − qAx)2 + c2(Py − qAy )2 + c2(Pz − qAz )2 (10)

Reminder: Ax, Ay , Az , Φ all are functions of x, y, z, t.

We can use the Principle of Least Action to derive the usual equations of
motion:

Use the calculus of variations on the integrand

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 d ∂L
− ∂L
P
L= i Pi q˙i − H =⇒ dt ∂ q˙i ∂q = 0 =⇒

dx ∂H dPx ∂H
= , =− ,
dt ∂Px dt ∂x
dy ∂H dPy ∂H
= , =− ,
dt ∂Py dt ∂y
dz ∂H dPz ∂H
= , =− ,
dt ∂Pz dt ∂z
dE ∂H
= . (11)
dt ∂t

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 Homework
Exercise 4: Use eqns. 11 along with the “Energy equation” (6) to derive the
Lorentz equation:
d~
p
= q(E~ + ~v × B)
~ (12)
dt
where E~ = −∇Φ − ∂A
∂t , and ~ = ∇ × A.
B ~ Notice that this equation is unchanged
compared with the non-relativistic case.

Exercise 5: Expand the “Energy equation” 6 to the non-relativistic limit

E − m0c2  m0c2 to confirm the “Newtonian” Hamiltonian

1  ~ 2
H= P − q ~
A  + qΦ,

(13)
2m


and also find the next-higher-order relativistic correction term.

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 Relation between Momentum and Velocity
We can write for H:
2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2
(H − qΦ) = m0c + c (Px − qAx) + c (Py − qAy ) + c (Pz − qAz ) (14)

Find
∂H ∂(H − qΦ)
(H − qΦ)vx = (H − qΦ) = (H − qΦ) =
∂Px ∂Px
1 ∂(H − qΦ)2 2 2
= = c (Px − qAx) = c px (15)
2 ∂Px
E−qΦ
But H is the energy E. So px = c2
vx and similar for py and pz , therefore

E − qΦ
p~ = ~v . (16)
c2

Compare: p~ = m~v .

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 What are E and P~ ?
Once again: E is total energy, qΦ is electrostatic (“potential”) energy, so
E − qΦ can be called “kinetic” energy (call it Ek ), but it includes the rest mass.

P~ is the total (or canonical) momentum containing both the dynamic part and
the spatial (magnetic field) part; p~ = P~ − q A
~ is the “kinetic part” of the
momentum.

If we use these in eqn. 6, we find Ek2 = (m0c2)2 + p2c2 = (m0c2)2 + Ek2β 2.

Solving,
m0c2
Ek = p ≡ γm0c2,
1 − β2
which is where we started.

However, this last is not the fundamental equation. Equation 8 (or 14) is the
fundamental equation; it gives ALL the dynamics.

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 Vernacular Energy
Sloppily, we use the word “energy” without qualification to mean the amount of
energy added to the rest energy. IOW,

“Energy” = E − m0c2 = (γ − 1)m0c2 (17)

For a particle of charge q, this “energy” is q times the voltage, V0, needed to
bring the particle exactly to rest.

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 Why bother with H?
Since eqn. 12 appears to be a simple equation, why bother with Hamiltonians
and canonical momenta etc?

The Canonical approach gives deeper insights, makes symmetries more

obvious, allows easier coordinate transformations, is more amenable to
numerical calculation, provides relations among seemingly-independent
dynamic parameters, etc. State vector, motion, flow in phase space.

Conservation laws are built into the Hamiltonian approach, making

computation optimally efficient. For example, one can numerically
(inefficiently) solve the Lorentz equation without knowing or using
conservation of energy. Or angular momentum, etc. One conservation law not
at all obvious from the force equation is Liouville’s theorem.

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 Liouville’s Theorem
∂ dx ∂ dPx
Look again at eqns. 11. Take partial derivatives ∂x dt ∂Px dt ,
, etc. Note that

∂ dx ∂ dPx ∂ dy ∂ dPy ∂ dz ∂ dPz

+ = + = + = 0.
∂x dt ∂Px dt ∂y dt ∂Py dt ∂z dt ∂Pz dt

A weaker condition is that the sum of these 3 is zero:

∂ dx ∂ dPx ∂ dy ∂ dPy ∂ dz ∂ dPz

+ + + + + = 0.
∂x dt ∂Px dt ∂y dt ∂Py dt ∂z dt ∂Pz dt

But this can be written as a 6-dimensional divergence of the 6-dimensional

state vector r~6 = (x, Px, y, Py , z, Pz ):

dr~6
∇6 · =0 (18)
dt
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So the flow of points in phase space is divergenceless and therefore the 6-D volume of a set
of points is conserved. This is Liouville’s theorem.

Stated in mathematical form, let f (x, Px, y, Py , z, Pz ) be the distribution function in phase
space, then
df
= 0. (19)
dt
The total derivative can be expanded:
df = ∂f
∂t dt + ∂f
∂x dx + ∂f
∂y dy + ∂f
∂z dz + ∂f
∂Px dP x + ∂f
∂Py dP y + ∂f
∂Pz dPz , which we can write more
compactly as (~ ~ = (Px, Py , Pz ))
r = (x, y, z), P

∂f ~
df = r + ∇P f · dP
dt + ∇f · d~
∂t
into which we can substitute the equations of motion 11, so finally the differential equation 19
is:
∂f ∂H ∂H
+ ∇f · − ∇P f · = 0. (20)
∂t ∂P~ ∂~r
This is in fact the collisionless Boltzmann equation.

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 Poincaré-Cartan integral invariant
Clearly, if H can be separated into Hx(x, Px) + Hy (y, Py ) + Hz (z, Pz ), then
each subspace area is conserved. But what about if the motion is coupled?
The stronger form of phase space conservation is that even with coupling, the
sum of the subspace areas is conserved. In particular, (in 4-vector,
summation convention form)
I
Pµ dqµ = constant

where the closed path is arbitrary but moves with the motion of the phase
space points. This is called the Poincaré-Cartan integral invariant. Click here
for a proof. For the case of time-independent H, simply
I
P~ · d~q = constant.

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That is to say, the sum of the signed projections onto the 3 (qi, Pi)-planes is
preserved.

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 Emittance
H
If there are no coupling terms, then each of these, e.g. Py dy, is conserved.
This is proportional to what we call the normalized emittance ny . Specifically,
if the loop is elliptical,
I I
constant = Py dy = Po y 0dy = βγm0cπy ≡ m0cπny .

So the normalized emittance ny = βγy is a constant.

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