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INTRODUCTION TO THE SOIL CHEMISTRY

A Written Report Presented to the Faculty

of the College of Engineering Education
University of Mindanao
Davao City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

By:

Opayla, Jehard
Paro, Chad Wendell
Cuizon, Niel

July 2019
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Table of Contents
Cover Page…………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Contents……………………………………………………………………………………. 2
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………… 3
1. Pedology……………………………………………………………………………. 3

1.1 Pedogenesis…………………………………………………………………….. 3

1.2 Soil Classification……………………………………………………………… 5

1.3 Soil morphology ………………………………………………………………. 5

1.3.1 Soil Horizon…………………………………………………………… 6

2. Soil Composition…………………………………………………………………... 7

2.1 Basic Soil Components………………………………………………………… 7

2.2 Soil Chemical Composition…………………………………………………… 8

3. Soil Properties……………………………………………………………………. 10

3.1 Soil Physical Properties……………………………………………………… 10

3.1.1 Soil Texture…………………………………………………………… 10

3.1.2 Soil colour…………………………………………………………….. 10

3.1.3 Soil Structure………………………………………………………….. 10

3.2 Soil Structure……………………………………………………………….... 10

3.3 COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL……………………………………. .10

4. Ion Exchanged …………………………………………………………………… 12

5. Soil Ph and it’s significance ……………………………………………………. .. 13

6. References ………………………………………………………………………… 15
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Introduction
Soil is an important material in sustaining life on our planet. It is a very special mix
of inorganic and organic material in form of colloids, water and different gases, and
decomposed plant and animal material, all in a variable but balanced proportions (Bear,
1964). This is the reason why soil is very important for the underlying systems that govern
how our environment works, because the soil is the interface between the different spheres of
our planet (i.e. Atmosphere for the air in soil; lithosphere for the weathered rocks and mineral
in soil; hydrosphere for the water content of soil; and the biosphere for the organic matter,
living and dead, in the content of soil). On the soil is where we plant our crops that keeps
most of the living things alive, it is where we build our buildings and houses that shelter and
protect us, and it is where we lived our lives and where we will be living our lives for a very
long time. And, it is evident that we just take for granted the wonders of soil that we depend
on. So now, this report will help us appreciate and understand the important role of soil and
its chemistry.
1. Pedology
Pedology is the study of soil in its natural environment.It has three main branches namely,
Pedogenesis, Soil Classification and Soil morphology.

1.1 Pedogenesis
Pedogenesis explains the origin ,processes and factors of soil formation. Soil develops though
series of changes. Weathering is considered the starting point of soil formation. From
accumulated parent materials such as sedimentary rocks, organic and inorganic material
including those by products of microbial species that lived in the soil. Soil properties and
composition percentage varies depending on its parent material.
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks in the Earth's crust;
igneous rocks crystalline bodies of cooled magma ,
sedimentary rocks layers of consolidated and cemented sediments, mostly formed in bodies
of water (seas, lakes, etc.),
metamorphic rocks formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous
intrusions (e.g. marble, quartzite, hornfels) or pressure due to crustal movement (e.g. slate,
schist, gneiss). 
Soils are the results of geological events (except for the very small amount produced by
man). The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the geological processes that
formed it: 
breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
 transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or
marine.
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 subsequent conditions of loading and drainage - little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due
to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination. 

Now there are 5 factors that involve soil

formation. Parent Material, Climate
,Organisms, Relief and time.
ValsilyDokuchaev(1889), which is regarded
as the father of pedology determined that soil
formation occurs as time passes through the
influence of climate, vegetation ,topography
and parent material. Indeed time is a huge
factor because though time material will
gradually decomposed and will undergo
weathering that will accumulate and forms
layers of soil horizon. Then climate affects the
process of soil formation. When heat and moisture is applied in a specific area of soil it
affects the rates of biological activity. Seasonal patterns of heat flux, water content and water
movement influence the depth and pattern of removal and accumulation of soluble and
colloidal constituents in soil. Organisms take a huge part in the formation of soil each soil
has a unique combination of microbial, plant, animal and human influences acting upon it.
Microorganisms are particularly influential in the mineral transformations critical to the soil
forming process. Additionally, some bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and some fungi
are efficient at extracting deep soil phosphorus and increasing soil carbon levels. Plants hold
soil against erosion, and accumulated plant material build soil humus levels. Plant root
exudation supports microbial activity. Animals serve to decompose plant materials and mix
soil through bioturbation.
The influence of man, and by association, fire, are state factors placed within the organisms
state factor.[8] Man can import, or extract, nutrients and energy in ways that dramatically
change soil formation. Relief or topography which refers to the location of a soil on a
landscape that can affect how the climatic processes impact it. The geomorphic effects of
relief and topography determine how soil is moved, distributed and retained within a
watershed and across the landscape. Soil material is carried to lower elevations by water and
with gravity. Bottom lands and low lands that retain and accumulate deposited soil will be
deeper and richer with organic matter than their comparable uplands. Soils at the bottom of a
hill will get more water than soils on the slopes, and soils on the slopes that face the sun's
path will be drier than soils on slopes that do not. Topography determines exposure to
weather, fire, and other forces of man and nature. Mineral accumulations, plant nutrients,
type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion, and water drainage are dependent on
topographic relief. The primary material from which soil is formed is called parent material.
Soil parent material could be bedrock, organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit from
water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes, or material moving down a slope.
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Very coarse BOULDERS > 200 mm

soils COBBLES 60 - 200 mm
coarse 20 - 60 mm
G
medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
Coarse fine 2 - 6 mm
soils coarse 0.6 - 2.0 mm
S
medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
SAND
fine 0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse 0.02 - 0.06 mm
M
Fine medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm
SILT
soils fine 0.002 - 0.006 mm
C  CLAY < 0.002 mm

1.2 Soil classification

The most common engineering classification system for soils in North America is the Unified
Soil Classification System(USCS). The USCS has three major classification groups: (1)
coarse-grained soils (e.g. sands and gravels); (2) fine-grained soils (e.g. silts and clays); and
(3) highly organic soils (referred to as "peat").

1.3 Soil Morphology

Is the study of observable properties if soil in every layer of soil horizon.The
observations are typically performed on a soil profile. A profile is a vertical cut, two-
dimensional, in the soil and bounds one side of a pedon. The pedon is the smallest
three-dimensional unit, but not less than 1 meter square on top, that captures the
lateral range of variability.
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1.3.1 Soil Horizon

Soil horizon are layers of soils that has deffirent physical and chemical makeup in
each layer. Each horizon also tells a story about the makeup, age, texture and other
characteristics of that layer. The layers are divided as top-soil layer, sub-soil layer,
and the bed rock layers. Most of the soils have four or five major horizons. These are
designated as O, A, B, C, E and R.

The O-Horizon (humus

+litter layer):
*with lots of vegetative cover.
*layer made up of organic
materials such as dead leaves
and surface organisms, twigs
and fallen trees.
*about 20% organic matter
and this horizon is often black
or dark brown in color .
The A-Horizon (top-soil +
root zone):
*usually known as the top
soil.
* this horizon is made of sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic matter.
*most vulnerable to wind and water erosion and it is also known as the root zone.
The E-Horizon:
*is usually lighter in color,
*rich in nutrients that are leached from A and O horizons.
*has a lower clay content(common in forested lands or areas with high quality O and A
horizons)

The B-Horizon (Mineral Dominated Zone):

*contains high concentrations of silicate clay, iron, aluminum and carbonates

*also called the illuviation zone because of the accumulation of minerals and in this layer
where roots of big trees exist.
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The C-Horizon (Saprolite layer):

*mineral layer that is different from bedrock.
*is affected pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons.
*mainly made up of broken bedrock and no organic material.

The R-Horizon:
It contains materials that are compacted and cemented by the weight of the overlying
horizons. It is the hard layer of unweathered parent material and all kinds are rock types exist
as basement

2 Soil Composition

2.1Basic Soil Components:

Soil is composed of Mineral Material, Water, Organic Matter, Gases, and

Microorganisms.
1. Mineral Material
Largest component of soil is the mineral portion. Soils mineral have two types, the primary
minerals and secondary minerals.
-----Primary minerals
*Are those soil materials that are the same to the parent material from which they formed,
such as those found in sand and silt
*Are formed at high temperature and pressure or formed with chemical weathering of parent
material.
Secondary minerals.
are result from the weathering of the primary minerals, which releases important ions and
form more stable mineral forms such as silicate clay.
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2. Water
 It is important for transporting nutrients to growing plants, soil organisms and
facilitating chemical decomposition.
 he capacity of soil to hold water is dependent on soil texture.
3. Organic Matter
 Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at level of
approximately 1% to 5%
 This include Humus a combination of decomposition of leaves and other plant
material by soil microorganisms.
 Plant residues contain 60 – 90 percent moisture. The remaining dry matter
consists of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and small amounts of Sulphur, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
4. Gases
Air is the next basic component of soil because air can occupy the same space as
water. Oxygen is essential for root and microbe respiration which helps support plant
growth, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also important for belowground plant
function
5. Microorganisms
-microorganism are very small forms of life that can sometimes live as single cells. Many
more microorganisms exist in topsoil because it has more food supplies, than the sub soil.
They are specially existing in the area next to plant roots, which called rhizosphere.

2.3 Soil Chemical Composition

The soil is composed, in the mineralogical sense, of mostly minerals from rocks
found in the crust of the Earth. The rocks found in the surface of the Earth are formed
due to the cooling of magma; these rocks go through the rock cycle, and they
transform and weather physically, chemically, and biologically. This process of
weathering is a key factor in the formation of soil. The most abundant type of rock
found in the Earth’s crust is the igneous rocks since the other types of rocks (the
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks) are derived from the igneous rocks. Since
igneous rocks are the most abundant type of rock it is the major contributor of the
soil’s mineralogical content; simply put the mineralogical content of an igneous rock
is closely related to the mineralogical content of the average soil. The minerals that
consist the average igneous rocks and intensively weathered soil are as follows:
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The minerals in the soil from the rocks are divided into two groups: Primary minerals and
Secondary minerals. The primary minerals comprise and provides all the chemical elements
in soils in the form of minerals. These minerals react with other substances creating cations
and anions, or they maybe cations and anions themselves. The most common type of primary
minerals are the silicates and oxides of different metals (Karthanasis, 2006). And, it is evident
in the Table 1.2 that the abundance of these minerals greatly affects the chemical elements
found in the soil.

From the Table 1.2, we can see that oxygen constitutes almost half of the elements in
the soil, this is because of the oxygen bonded with different metal ions (or oxides)
and most of the elemental composition of most minerals have oxygen in them (e.g.
silicates, aluminosilicates, hydroxides, etc.). Silicon is the second most abundant in
the composition of Earth’s crust, because most of the minerals are composed with a
silicon tetrahedra, and since silicon is very much like carbon (they both have 4
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valence electron) and is very abundant in the Earth’s mantle most of the rocks and
minerals that are formed here in the crust will most likely be silicon based.

3 Soil Physical Properties:

Soil Texture
According to Moody (2008), that the soil texture is depends on the balance of sand,
silt, and clay in soil. Texture is significant since it will affect the soil’s waterholding
capacity, porosity and aeration, hydraulic conductivity, compatibility, resistance to
root penetration, nutrient-holding capacity and resistance to acidification
Soil colour
Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate the
composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected to.
Soil can exhibit a wide range of colour; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows and
under the right conditions green. Soil color has been found to be the property of soil
that most reflects its pedogenic environment and history. Soil organic matter and iron
oxides contribute most to soil color. Organic matter darkens soil, while iron oxides
produce a range of soil colors that are dependent on the oxidation state of the iron

Soil Structure
According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger sized
aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of aggregation
and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that the soil
structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major
effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of
seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration
51428
3.3 COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
According to Tan (2010), a colloid is defined in the textbook term as a state of matter
consisting of very fine particles that approach, but never reach molecular sizes. And,
according to Bear (1964), a colloidal system is a dispersion of finely divided particles
distributed in a continuous phase.
This means that colloids are the particles that have the upper size limit of 0.2µm, and a
lower sized limit of approximately 0.005µm or 50Å (the size of a molecule). Many chemical
and biological properties and reactions happen in the colloidal state of matter, and these
reactions are: adsorption, absorption, desorption. Sorption in general is “a physical and
chemical process by which one substance becomes attached to the other”
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(http://Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorption). Adsorption is “the uptake and retention of one material

within another” (Tan, 2010), this process only refers to the accumulation of the molecules or
substances in the surface of the adsorbing substance. Whereas absorption is the process where
a fluid will be dissolved in solid or a liquid throughout their entire
bulk(http://Wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption).

These two sorption processes are often confused with one another. To avoid confusion,
we must keep in mind that absorption involves the entire bulk of the absorbing material to
assimilate and dissolve the molecules or substances, while adsorption only involves the
surface of the adsorbing material to accumulate the molecules or substances. Desorption is
the removal of molecules or substances that was either absorbed or adsorbed. The inorganic
constituents in the soil are the sand (2 - 0.1mm), silt (0.1 - 0.002mm), and clay (< 0.002mm).
Since sand and silt are too big to be classified as a colloid, only fine clay particles are
considered as soil colloids. These clay particles can structurally be crystalline, disordered, or
amorphous (Tan, 2010). The organic constituents in the soil or the Soil Organic Matter
(SOM) are composed of Liable SOM and Stable SOM (Foth, 1991).
The liable SOM is composed of the readily decomposable plant or animal material in
the soil, while the stable SOM is the fully decomposed animal or plant material also called
humus. Soil humus or humus particles are the organic colloid particles in the soil. These
organic matters in the soil is mostly composed of carbohydrates, amino acids, peptides,
proteins, nucleic acid, lipids, and lignins. These particles have their own colloidal properties
and affects the soil structure and chemistry in slightly different ways (Tan, 2010). Because of
the clay particles and humus particles being small, its surface area increases as its size
decreases (as to most other materials). This increase in surface area drives the clay particle’s
and humus particle’s adsorption properties and is responsible for the cation exchange
happening in the soil and plants. This increase in surface area also makes the clay particle and
humus particle carry an electronegative charge, due to isomorphous substitution and the
dissociation of hydroxyl groups. Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of an ion in the
silicate structure of clay by another ion that has the same size, this type of process is not
affected by soil pH level thus dubbed as a permanent structural charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan,
2010). While the other cause of the electronegative charge of soil particles is the dissociation
of OH groups on the crystal edges or exposed planes in clay and humic substances when the
pH level is high, this process is affected by the pH thus dubbed as variable charge (Sposito,
1989) (Tan, 2010).
Alkaline medium: –Al–OH + OH– ↔ –Al–O– + H2O
Acid medium: –Al–OH + H+ ↔ –Al–OH2+

Soil particles can also carry positive charges when an H+ ion is added to the hydroxyl
group of the minerals and compounds in the soil particles; this process is dependent on the
pH level and the valence electron of the metal in the soil particle. This property allows the
anion exchanges in some tropical soils
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Ion Exchanged

Ion exchange in soil is very

important for every terrestrial and non-terrestrial organism, since it is how most of the
producers of the ecosystem get the nutrients they need to live, reproduce, and keep the
ecosystem fed. According to Foth (1991), “ion exchange involves cations and anions
adsorbed from the solution onto negatively or positively charged surfaces.” Basically, ion
exchange is a process of taking and replacing ions from an adsorbent material. There are two
types of ion exchange: cation exchange and anion exchange. But, because of the tendency of
the soil to be more negatively charged the cationic exchange is observed more in the soil
compared to anion exchange.

Cation exchange
Cation exchange is the exchange of cations from the surface of a soil colloid to another
material. It may take place between (Balasubramanian, 2017): (1) the cations in the surface of
soil colloids and the cations in the soil solution, (2) the cations in the surface of a soil colloid
and cations released by plants, and (3) cations in the surface of two clay crystals, or two clay
colloids, or two organic colloids, or an organic and clay colloid. When cations are added to
the soil (e.g. K+ , NH+ , Ca+ ) the adsorption of cations will take place depending on several
different factors: the surface potential, valence, and hydrodynamic radius.
Surface potential refers to the electric potential difference of the inner and outer surface of a
colloid (http://Wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_charge). Cations have different valence electrons,
some are monovalent or having only one valence electron, and some are divalent or having
two valence electrons, etc. But, as the surface potential of the soil colloid increases it would
adsorb more cations with higher valence electron; for example, in conditions of high surface
potential in a colloid it divalent cations are preferred to be adsorbed more than monovalent
ones. Adsorption of cations is also determined by the hydrodynamic radius, or the radius of
the hydration sphere that is surrounding a cation; every cation is surrounded with a blanket of
water called the “hydration sphere”, and as this blanket of water thickens the cation is less
likely to be adsorbed by a colloid.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC).
CEC is “the capacity of soil to adsorb and exchange cations” (Tan, 2010). It is defined as
directly proportional to the surface area and the surface charge of the clay. Organic matter
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also contributes to the CEC, but it depends on the level of decomposition that the organic
matter has undergo. CEC is very important in the process of plant growth and scientists
determine the CEC of the soil so that farmers will know how frequently they should apply
fertilizers in the soil. When the soil has low CEC this means that it could only hold little
nutrients at a time and the soil should be fertilized frequently but in small amounts of
fertilizers; soils with high CEC on the other hand only needs to be fertilized less often but in
higher dosages of fertilizer, because soils with high CEC can adsorb more nutrients than soils
with low CEC (scienceofagriculture.org, 2018).
SOIL pH
Soil pH is an important property of soil involved in the growth of plants, mainly because it
affects the nutrient content and the CEC of the soil. Soil pH can also be called the master
determinant (Tan, 2010), because most of the properties of the soil is dependent on the pH,
namely: rate of decomposition, plant growth, concentration of micronutrients, weathering of
primary minerals, and the formation of clay minerals. These properties of soil are all
somewhat dependent on the pH of the soil, this shows the importance of determining the
soil’s pH level. For example, the solubility of iron compounds decreases if the soil pH
increases, thus an alkaline soil tends to be deficient in iron (Foth, 1991). The common range
of soil pH is 4-10, higher or lower than that pH would be described as very strongly acidic or
alkaline soil, as described in the diagram below (Foth 1991) (Tan, 2010).
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Source of alkalinity
According to Foth (1991), there are two main contributors for the alkalinity of the soil and
these are the carbonate hydrolysis and mineral weathering. Most soils in the world are rich in
calcium carbonate, these soils are called calcareous, this abundance in CaCO3 is due to the
parent material’s abundance in CaCO3. The hydrolysis of calcium produces OHions, as
described below, resulting to alkalinity in the soil solution.
CaCO3 + H2O → Ca2+ + HCO3 - + OH
Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble; thus, this reaction can only produce a pH level as
high as 8.3 when there is an equilibrium with the atmospheric carbon dioxide. Mineral
weathering can also contribute to the soil’s alkalinity, specifically the weathering of primary
minerals. This weathering of primary minerals uses H+ and produces OH- , reducing the
soil’s probability of becoming acidic while increasing its alkalinity.
Sources for acidity
There are three main processes that contribute to the soil’s acidity: respiration of plants and
soil organisms, mineralization of organic matter, natural precipitation (Foth, 1991). The
respiration of plants and other soil organism releases carbon dioxide in the soil which reacts
with water forming carbonic acid (H2CO3), this weak acid contributes H+ to the soil
solution. The mineralization of organic matter also contributes to the acidity of the soil,
because organic matter mineralization produces organic acids and the mineralized nitrogen
and sulfur form the organic matter will oxidize to nitric and sulfuric acids increasing the
soil’s acidity. The normal process of precipitation also slowly contributes to the soils acidity
over the course of time, because when precipitation occurs the atmospheric carbon dioxide
will react with the precipitate forming carbonic acid and gives the natural precipitation a
slightly acidic pH level (Foth, 1991).
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References
1. Ronald Amundsen.’’Soil Preservation and the future of Pedology. Retrieved
2019-07-01
2.  Buol, S. W.; Hole, F. D. & McCracken, R. J. (1973). Soil Genesis and
Classification  (First ed.). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. ISBN 978-0-
8138-1460-5.
3. ^ Jenny, Hans (1994). Factors of soil formation: A System of Quantitative
Pedology (PDF). New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-68128-3. Retrieved 4
September  2014.
4. ^ Scalenghe, R., Territo, C., Petit, S., Terribile, F., Righi, D. (2016). "The role of
pedogenic overprinting in the obliteration of parent material in some polygenetic
landscapes of Sicily (Italy)". Geoderma Regional.  7: 49–
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5. ^ Wilkinson, M.T., Humpreys, G.S. (2005). "Exploring pedogenesis via nuclide-
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6. ^ Dokuchaev, V.V.,  Russian Chernozem
7. ^ Jenny, Hans (1980), The Soil Resource - Origin and Behavior, Ecological
Studies,  37, New York: Springer-Verlag,  ISBN 978-1461261148, The idea that
climate, vegetation, topography, parent material, and time control soils occurs in
the writings of early naturalists. An explicit formulation was performed by
Dokuchaev in 1898 in an obscure Russian journal unknown to western writers. He
set down: soil = f(cl, o, p) tr
8. ^ Johnson; et al. (March 2005). "Reflections on the Nature of Soil and Its
Biomantle".  Annals of the Association of American Geographers.  95: 11–
31.  doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00448.x.
9. ^ Amundson, Jenny (January 1991). "The Place Of Humans in the State Factor
Theory of Ecosystems and their Soils". Soil Science: An Interdisciplinary
Approach to Soil Research. Retrieved 30 November  2015.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Odling-Smee F. J., Laland K. N. & Feldman M. W. (2003). "Niche
Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution (MPB-37)". Princeton
University Press. 468 pp. HTM Archived 17 June 2006 at the Wayback
Machine, PDF. Chapter 1. page 7-8.
11. ^ Ponomarenko, E.V.; Anderson, D.W. (2001), "Importance of charred organic
matter in Black Chernozem soils of Saskatchewan", Canadian Journal of Soil
Science,  81 (3): 285–297, doi:10.4141/S00-075,  The present paradigm views
humus as a system of heteropolycondensates, largely produced by the soil
microflora, in varying associations with clay (Anderson 1979). Because this
conceptual model, and simulation models rooted within the concept, do not
accommodate a large char component, a considerable change in conceptual
understanding (a paradigm shift) appears imminent.
12. ^ Huggett, R.J (1998). "Soil chronosequences, soil development, and soil
evolution: a critical review". Catena.  32(3–4): 155–172. doi:10.1016/S0341-
8162(98)00053-8.
13. ^ Pidwirny, M. (2006), Soil Pedogenesis, Fundamentals of Physical Geography (2
ed.)
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14. ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2008