INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
Understand complex and evolving relationships
Outline:
A. Introduction
1. Nature and Scope of International Studies
2. Core Principles of International Studies
3. Current Affairs: A Transnational Perspective
B. International Geography
1. South Asia; East Asia; Southeast Asia
2. Middle East; Africa; Americas and Caribbean
3. Western Europe; Eastern Europe and C.I.S.
C. International History
1. The World before the 2oth Century
2. The 20th Century
3. 21st Century Global Connections & Interactions
D. International Sociology / Anthropology
1. Culture: The Human Dimension
2. Culture: The Social Dimension
3. Culture: Religion
E. International Economics
1. Economics and Political Economy
2. Global Economy
F. International Politics
1. Systems of Government
2. International Relations
A.1. NATURE AND SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL
STUDIES
International Studies (IS) generally refers to the
study of ‘the major political, economic, social, and
cultural issues that dominate the international
scene. The term can be more specifically defined as
‘the contemporary and historical understanding of
global societies, cultures, languages and systems of
government and of the complex relationships
between them that shape the world. International
Studies as a separate entity to International
Relations emerged throughout the 20th century, as
an increasingly complex world began to be
influenced by globalization, and a greater number
of issues emerged not only covering inter-country
relations.
The Goal or International Studies:
1. Prepare for students for the multicultural world.
2.
among nations and regions.
3. Enrich knowledge of the world and critically
challenge prior conceptions and foster sophisticated
appreciation of diverse traditions and global
connections.
Objectives and Strategies
1. Increase awareness and sensitivity to the
traditions, values, aspirations and concerns of
people throughout the world.
2. Provide background for professions pursued an
international context.
3. Provide foundations for informed and productive
citizens in the world community.
4. Combine interdisciplinary analysis with different
social sciences.
Scope:
Areas of study which are covered in IS include:
-the political, social, economic and cultural
relationships within the international system
- foreign policy, diplomacy and other modes of
interaction between the countries of the world
- the significance of foreign societies, cultures and
systems of government
- the international movement of people as
immigrants, refugees, workers, students, tourists
and investors
- the role of international organizations
- the globalization of the world economy
- foreign languages
- history and geography
A.2. CORE PRINCIPLES
International Studies (IS) provides an introduction
to the common concerns which affect the people of
the world. The academic disciplines used to achieve
this goal include philosophy, history, anthropology,
sociology economics, political science, geography
and international relations.
The study of IS aims to make students learn how to
think critically, multiculturally (interdisciplinary) and
globally (international).
Critical thinking - the ability to conceptualize
information in the most careful, exact, logical and
analytical manner which involves the application of
science (theory) to back up claims and conclusions.
Multiculturalism - an intellectual method of
understanding reality by studying one’s subject
matter from a wide range of point of views,
including those premises, values, attitudes and
beliefs used by other cultures to explain their
existence and organize their lives.
Globalization - perspective which acknowledges the
worldwide process by which people, markets and
countries are being integrated in an unprecedented
degree in a way that is enabling them to reach
around the world farther, faster, deeper and
cheaper.
Social Sciences
Disciplines that deal with the individuals, groups
and institutions that make up human society and
which attempt a systematic study of the various
aspects of the social relationships of humans. They
are disciplines that study the various aspects of
human behavior and the institutions that mold it.
Economics
The study of how society meets its needs for goods
and services and how they are distributed.
Anthropology
The scientific study of humanity and of human
culture.
Geography
The study of the location and distribution of living
things and of the earth features among which they
live.
Political Science
The systematic study of power relations involved in
the dynamic interaction of people and their
governments.
History
The systematic study of the memory of past
experience of human kind as it has been preserved
in human records.,
Sociology
The study of individuals, groups, and institutions
that make up human society.
A. 3 CURRENT AFFAIRS: A TRANSNATIONAL
PERSPECTIVE
The Middle East and North Africa
- Region is characterized by a predominantly
Muslim population.
- Important geographical location as crossroads of
Asia; Turkey faced with political secularization
issues; Afghanistan still a zone of conflict.
- Iran/Iraq - fundamentalism vs. national self-
interest (return to sharia and anti-Westernism)
- Tense US position in the Middle East - support for
Israel; protection of pro-US and Pro-Western
monarchies; containment of Islamic leaderships;
relations with Syria; peace process between Israel
and Palestinian Arabs; policy to increase its market
for arms exports; preserve US access to oil in the
region.
Sub-Saharan Africa
- Region is often called Black Africa
- Each state has regional groups bearing grievances
against neighbors
- Over 800 languages spoken in the continent
- Persistent problems of human development (both
external and internal factors)
- Unstable governments (authoritarian or 1-party
states)
- Large foreign debts
- Conflicting international power blocs in Africa and
African wars
Anglo-America
- Consists of two states- US and Canada; unfortified
borders
- Strong national identity in both countries
- Canada as largest federalist, multicultural state;
with degrees of instability
- US hegemonic position
Asia
- Largest of all the continents; Southwest Asia
includes Sinai Peninsula, Middle East; South Asia
includes India, Pakistan area; Southeast Asia
includes Thailand, Malaysia, etc.; East Asia includes
China, Japan, Korea; Central Asia includes Mongolia,
Kazakhstan, etc.; North Asia includes Russian region
- China embodies inner war between capitalism and
communism (threats of greater economic
interdependence)
- Questions of democracy in China
- Chinese foreign policy of regional hegemony or
peaceful coexistence
- Taiwan conflict
- Conflict between North and South Korea
- India’s new politics; transition from centralized
economy and elite, monolithic to decentralized,
regional-based coalition government
- Japan’s economic decline; US-Japan relations to
avoid massive Japanese rearmament
- Development issues in Southeast Asia
- Transitional politics and democratization in Central
Asia
Europe
- Western Europe includes UK, France, Ireland;
Central Europe includes Netherlands, Belgium,
Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and Switzerland;
Northern Europe includes Denmark Norway,
Sweden, etc.; East-Central Europe includes Austria,
Liechtenstein, Poland, etc.; Southeast Europe
includes Romania. Greece, etc.
- Transition after the collapse of communism
- Continuous expansion of the EU and emerging
problems of integration
- Transformation of Germany from expansionist to
economic power and integration
- NATO collective defense
Eastern Europe
- East-Central Europe includes Hungary, Poland,
etc.; Southeast Europe includes Serbia, Croatia, etc.;
- People are a mixture of Eastern Orthodox. Roman
Catholic or Moslem
- Transitions to market economy
- Transition to democracy or some kind of pluralism
- Balkan wars and aftermath
- Internal problems in Russia including political
corruption and economic stagnation
- Russian foreign policy of neo-imperialism or
peaceful coexistence
Latin America
- Central America includes Guatemala, El Salvador,
Costa Rica, etc.; Caribbean region includes Cuba,
Jamaica, Puerto Rico; Northern Andes region
includes Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, etc.;
Southern cone includes Chile, Argentina, Uruguay,
Paraguay and the separate region of Brazil
- Densely populated region with numerous states
and dependencies
- Racial mixing between white Spaniards and
Amerindians with large mestizo population; African
descent population
- Stage of neoliberalism and American economic
policies
- Regional integration and free trade experiment
- US dominance in the region; immigration issues
- Democratization in the region
- Cuba as the last dictatorship; Cuban embargo
B. INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHY
Principle:
Specific factors help to define a region by its
characteristics, including:
- its physical geography,
- its economic geography
- its human and cultural geography
Classification of world regions by common
characteristics:
Western Europe. Judaic-Christian religious ethic,
Greco-Roman traditions, industrial economies,
temperate-type climate, Latin and Germanic
languages, members of the European Union.
Central and Eastern Europe. Primarily Slavic
languages. Orthodox Christian religious ethic,
formerly communist/socialist economies,
developing capitalist economies, recently obtained
membership to the EU.
Latin America. Primarily Roman Catholic religion,
Latin-based languages, heritage of European
colonialism, Native American cultural influence.
Sub-Saharan Africa. Tropical or semitropical
climate, multiple religious traditions, strong tribal
identities and ethnic group social organizations,
agricultural.
Middle Eat. Islamic religious ethic, crossroads
location with connecting waterways, Arabic
language and culture, arid climate, abundance of
oil, birthplace of major religious systems,
authoritarian governments.
South Asia and Southeast Asia. Monsoon climate
conditions, Hindu, Buddhist and Islamic religious
traditions, floodplain agriculture, colonial
experiences, transition to more industrial
economies from agricultural economies.
East Asia. Confucian/Taoist/Buddhist traditions and
ethics, hierarchical social systems, character-based
alphabet, developing industrial economies based on
trade priorities.
West Asia. Former republics of the USSR, Islamic
religious ethic, authoritarian secular governments,
mineral resources including oil.
B.1. GEOGRAPHY: SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA,
SOUTHEAST ASIA
South Asia
1. Physical Geography
- Himalaya mountains acted as natural barriers
separating the sun-continent from the rest of Asia
- Khyber Pass in the northwest allowed movement
- Hindustan Plain south of Himalayas very fertile
and most inhabited area
- Deccan Plateau at the far south rich in minerals
- Thar Desert in the western part
- Three river systems (Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra)
sites of early civilizations
- Heavy monsoon rains as blessing or curse
2. Economic Geography
- Increased self-sufficiency but still import
dependence
- Resistance to new farming methods
- High financial costs, no infrastructure
- Largest steel mills in India
- Basic economic decisions made by British during
colonial period; dependency and exploitation
- Foreign debt because of attempts to raise
standards of living
- Poverty, ethnic conflict, environmental
degradation
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Very large population (2nde most; largest
democracy)
- Pakistan, Bangladesh are 2nd and 3rd largest
Muslim nations
- 1.8% population growth rate (US is 0.7%)
- Great diversity of languages (16 languages
recognized); foster local ties vs. national ties
- Village is main social structure (with council of
elders, designated household roles for women)
- Hinduism is main religion with beliefs affecting
way of life;
- Buddhism grew out of Hinduism, Sikhism in the
Punjab area (2%), Jainism (1%)
- Islam as major religion in Pakistan and Bangladesh
East Asia
China
1. Physical Geography
- China isolated by the ocean, desert and mountain
in its borders allowing Chinese civilization to
develop independent of external influences;
developed strong ethnocentric attitude
- Third largest country in physical size; largest
population
- Five major geographic/climatic regions: a. south-
warm and moist, rice-growing; b. north- cold and
dry, Yellow river, wheat region; c. northeast
(Manchuria)- lowland plains with mineral resources;
d. Inner Mongolia- desert and dry steppe; e. Tibet-
vast cold plateau
- Gobi Desert stretches north central China
- Himalaya mountains serve as cultural dividing line
- River valleys house heaviest concentrations of
population- Hwang-ho (major farming region),
Yangtze (longest, farmlands) Hsi (irrigation source,
Hong Kong)
2. Economic Geography
- Very rich resource potentials, enormous
hydroelectric-power potential, petroleum reserves
- Agriculture is still main source of income
- Industrialization on the way
- Changing economic system (from Mao to Deng);
shared responsibility system after dismantling of
communes; private enterprises encouraged; joint
ventures between Chinese and foreign businesses;
opening up to trade and foreign investments
- New educational and cultural policies
- Questions regarding the extent in allowing
capitalism
- Chinese type communism
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Confucianism as foundation of Chinese civilization
- Imperial dynasties backed up by Confucian beliefs
- Traditional Chinese family system (extended,
patriarchal, dominance of the male and the elders)
- Four social classes: scholars, peasants, artisans,
merchants
- Taoism, Buddhism, Legalism as alternative ethic
- Chinese influence upon peoples in Asia
Japan and Korea
1. Physical Geography
- No land borders with the rest of Asia allowed
Japan to maintain its insular (separate) quality
- Cultural borrowing, adaptation and assimilation
created a uniquely Japanese society
- 85% mountainous with only 11% arable land
necessitated intensive agriculture
- Many rivers open for hydroelectric power and
irrigation
- Four seasons; northern edge of monsoon Asia; fire
rim of the Pacific and earthquake zone
- Limited resource base forcing Japan to import raw
materials for industrial production
- Important role of the sea as source of livelihood,
food and transportation
- Korea in strategic location between three regions
of China, Japan and Russia- served as cultural bridge
- North and South Korea became battleground
during the cold war
- Arable land in the South while extensive natural
resources in the North
2. Economic Geography
- Economic recovery after WWII; Westernization
and retention of zaibatsus (monopolies)
- Full industrialization: leading shipbuilding nation,
manufacturing, electronics, auto, computers
- Disciplined work force, new technology after
WWII, US assistance, restrictions on the military,
government support for businesses
- Pressure from scarce raw materials, dependence
on foreign oil, need for high exports to pay for
imports
- US-Japan relations: 27% of exports
- Economic power gives Japan international power
- Korea traditionally agricultural; rapid
industrialization
- Concentrated on development of heavy industry
rather than consumer products
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Strong sense of cultural unity resulting from
relative isolation
- Shintoism: emperor worship; no moral precepts
and no ethical code; ease in accepting other regions
- Buddhism modified according to Japanese ways as
in Zen’s individual enlightenment through
meditation
- Chinese culture adapted to suit Japanese needs
- Traditional Japanese family much like Chinese
family function as basic social and economic unit
with individual seen only as member of social
group- intense loyalty to group interests
- Japanese nationalism: own writing system,
decrease foreign contact, own arts, own
educational system, maintain identity through
traditional values
- High pollution rate; overcrowding of urban areas
- Korean people come from mingling of peoples in
surrounding regions
- Strong influence from Chinese culture
- Shamanism: strong belief on intermediaries with
the spiritual world; Buddhism, Christianity
- Delicate relations with regional neighbors and
between North and South Korea
Southeast Asia
1. Physical Geography
- Located in two peninsulas: Indochina and Malay
plus island or archipelagic nations
- Mountain chains in the mainland divide the land
area into river populated valleys; with many tropical
jungles and swamps
- Along edges of tectonic plates, regions of frequent
volcanic and earthquake activity
- Water bodies: Indian and Pacific Oceans acted as
highways bringing foreigners to the region,
numerous rivers, lakes, and other bodies all over
the region- water bodies have enormous effects on
the diet, commerce, transportation and history of
the region
2. Economic Geography
- Rice is the major crop in the region due to amount
of rainfall and kind of soil
- Projects focus on construction of dams and
irrigation systems
- Industrial production: manufacturing, traditional
industries based on renewable resources in
agriculture (e.g., rubber, sugarcane, lumber),
aquaculture enhanced regional economic standing
- Expansion of tourism capitalizing on natural
features and historic sites
- Rapidly growing industrial an export sector among
“Economic Tigers” while some nations depend on
only a few export products making them vulnerable
to changes in global demand, overuse of agricultural
land and careless industrial development causing
environmental degradation
- ASEAN economic cooperation seeks to increase
exports
- Different economic system found in the region:
capitalist features (Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei,
Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines) as well as
centralized economic control (Vietnam, Myanmar,
Laos, Cambodia)
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Striking variety in Southeast Asia’s population:
different languages, religions and ethnic groups
- People live in the villages and the mountains with
several large cities- but population density is
uneven
- Many languages spoken are primarily a reflection
of the area’s history; some languages from outside
the region (French, English, Spanish, Dutch); some
resulting from migrations from India (Tamil), China
(Chinese); some languages native to the region
- Diversity of religions as a result of the same
historical reasons: Animism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, Christianity, Hindu, Islam; Indonesia
is largest Islamic nation
- Variety of ethnic groups including those native to
the region and those that have ancestral ties to
foreign areas. Settlements in urban areas differ
from rural areas and minority or indigenous groups
- Adaptation of traditional customs to
modernization and Westernization with different
degrees of tolerance
B.2 MIDDLE EAST, AFRICA, AMERICAS &
CARIBBEAN
Middle East
1. Physical Geography
- Includes parts of three continents: North African
portion, Southwest Asian portion (also referred to
as Asia Minor), European portion (Turkey)
- Desert is most common land form
- Struggle for access to and control of water
- Topographical variety in mountain ranges
- Largest water bodies are the five surrounding seas
- Four major rivers (Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Jordan)
have greatly affected patterns of settlement
- Uneven population distribution because of deserts
2. Economic Geography
- Barely 15% of the land is arable; inadequate
rainfalls, large desert areas, scarcity of water are
obstacles to agriculture
- Still 75% of people in Arab countries are farmers
leasing land from wealthy landowners
- Israeli’s kibbutz allowed collective cultivation
- Major natural resource of the region is oil,
particularly countries in Persian Gulf; oil exports
main industry of oil-rich nations
- Up to 1970s, oil production was dominated by
foreigners; OPEC countries took control oil
production by 1990s
- Impact of wealth gained by oil: rapid increase in
modernization but clashing with traditional values;
Petro-dollars have gained power in international
affairs for the region
- Middle East countries are large recipients of aid
(esp. Egypt and Israel)
- Rising expectations placing demands on the
government
- Large amounts spent on militarization
- Greater regional cooperation sought
- Changes in petroleum demand result in tensions
- Tourism in religious and historic sites also cause of
tension
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Arabic and Hebrew ethnic groups; Islam, Judaism
and Christianity religions
- Nomadic lifestyle putting emphasis on group
values
- Harsh natural conditions leading to heightened
religious devotion
Africa
1. Physical Geography
- Mediterranean side serve as link with Europe;
Eastern side (Indian Ocean) serve as trade route
with the East, Red Sea coast serve as trade route
between Africa and Arabia, Northeast (Suez Canal)
serve as major route between Persian Gulf and
Europe
- Much of the region is great plateau interspersed
with many river basins and interrupted by mountain
ranges
- To the East of the plateau is the Great Rift Valley
which influenced migration to the north-south
- Rivers (Nile, Congo, Niger. Zambezi) influenced spirituality (including in land ownership), animism,
settlements divine kingship
- Deserts (Sahara) served as barrier to migration and
trade, though caravan routes were set up
- Climate and vegetation zones: From top to
bottom: Mediterranean, Desert, Steppe (plain
grassland), Savanna (grasslands with scattered
trees), tropical rain forests, Savanna again, Steppe
and rainforest in west, Humid subtropical in the
bottom.
- Uneven development in different regions, many
suffer water shortage

2. Economic geography
- Resources: soil generally poor even in the
rainforest, rich in mineral resources, 80% of world’s
diamonds, oil in Sahara countries
- Barriers to development: geographic and climactic
conditions, shortage of water, distance of resources
from markets, lack of technology and capital, attack
on livestock (e.g., tsetse fly), traditional methods of
agriculture
- Colonial policy of mercantilism caused
dependency
- Accumulation of debt after independence
- Current economic problems: ecological balance
ruined by lack of planning in development,
investments on industries bring no benefits to rural
sector, lack of skilled workers because of bad
colonial policies before, inadequate infrastructure,
ethnic rivalries affect labor cooperation,
international loans wasted or stolen, instability
because of introduction of alternative economic
systems
- Food production is inadequate because:
agriculture caters to demand for cash crops,
deforestation and erosion, lack of government
assistance, desertification (overgrazing and over
cultivation), scarcity of water and erratic rainfall,
failure to fertilize the land, civil wars, droughts
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- People of Africa more diverse than the people in
any other continent; differ both physically and
culturally- geography made ethic groups develop in
isolation; though belonging to the Negroid race,
physical characteristics vary among groups
- Over 2,000 African languages are spoken in the
African continent (800 major ones)
- Traditional beliefs: traditional regions as varied as
the ethnic groups which provide group identity,
strong clan or tribe membership, ancestral
- Islam spread in Africa via trade carried out along
the trans-Saharan trade route; Islam provided focus
of unity and rallying point for independence
movements
- Christianity established during colonial period;
training in mission schools led to political and
economic competence
- African cultural and social institutions and art:
diffusion of Western ideas and institutions resulted
in significant changes in African lifestyle and world
view; may cause conflict (e.g., extended families
and clans, rights of women- matrilineal descent in
inheritance, traditional values, attitudes and
practices) between rural and urban dwellers
Latin America and the Caribbean Basin
1. Physical Geography
- Region divided to three geopolitical sub regions:
South, Middle (Meso), Caribbean islands
- Two major physical; characteristics: enormous
mountain ranges (Andes, Sierra Madre) and vast
river systems (Amazon, Orinoco, Rio de la Plata)
influenced settlements and movement of people
- Nations of the region all have European colonial
heritage
- Christianity is the major region
- Five climactic regions: high mountains, tropical
jungles, deserts, temperate coastal plains,
temperate highlands; first three areas are not very
populated; most people live in temperate coastal
plains and highlands where cultivation is easier
2. Economic Geography
- History of economic dependence dating from the
colonial period; the region primarily seen as
exporter of raw materials
- Economies continued to have colonial character
after independence
- Regional trade now being fostered through
regional cooperation (e.g., NAFTA)
Industry: Industrialization started after
independence and continues with mixed results;
jobs generated; national pride forwarded;
manufacturing centers developed; new wealth
generated but neglect of agriculture because of
emphasis on manufacturing; drain on the national
budget; indebtedness; volatile economic growth
following economic cycles; lack of export
diversification
- Agriculture was most important economic activity
with half of the population employed by the sector
although agriculture accounts for very small portion
of national income
- Colonial land ownership patterns still preserve
absentee landlordism
- Commercial agriculture increasing throughout the
region but generally needs increase in agricultural
production
- Mineral resources exploited during the colonial
period; many nations became increasingly
dependent on their mineral wealth; some oil as in
Mexico
-Few areas in the region have the proper
combination of industrial capacity, capital for
investment, raw materials, energy resources and
technology needed for development; Brazil is
closest
Modernization and industrialization lead to other
problems: migration to urban areas or other
nations, multinational corporations seek cheap
labor and take out capital
- Increasing global trading relationships
- More economic stability being achieved
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Very uneven distribution of population
(overpopulated urban areas)
- Colonials mixing with indigenous peoples led to
development of new groups of people who share
heritage of different peoples and cultures
- Latin American societies are very hierarchal in
structure: wealthy landowners (descendants of
colonialists), middle class (professionals,
government workers, military), lower class (majority
of people, native Americans, African mulatos)-
uneven privileges and opportunities
- European languages spoken along with Native
American languages
- Christianity practiced alongside indigenous
religions
B.3 WESTERN EUROPE, EASTERN EUROPE & C.I.S.
Western Europe
1. Physical Geography
- Consists of 20 nations; Northwestern, Southern,
Middle, Scandinavia
- Major mountains (Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees)
restricted movements; mountainous terrain in
Greece responsible for separate city-states
- Lowlands in Netherlands area concerned about
flooding
- Low plains in Benelux nations have been sites o
invasions and battlegrounds
- Water bodies (Baltic and North Sea, Atlantic
Ocean, Mediterranean Sea) served as highways of
commerce and building of warm water ports;
caused build-up of fishing fleets and naval powers
which led to colonial empires
- Main rivers served as transportation routes (Rhine,
Thames, Danube, etc.)
- English Channel separated Britain
- North Atlantic drift brings moderate temperature
patterns in the north; Mediterranean climate in the
south
growing number of Muslims and Hindus in nations
which had colonies
- Ethnic groups from outside Europe as well as from
inside Europe have brought problems rooted in
issues of race as well as competition for
employment (including riots)

2. Economic Geography
- Farmers declining in number but produce large
amounts of food through careful use of land and
modern technology leading to food surpluses
- The region is world’s leader in manufacturing and
industrial development since 19th C. industrial
revolution; has resulted in high standard of living
- Marshall Plan shaped economic development after
WWII (as against Mutual Economic Assistance from
USSR in the East)
-Mixed economies predominate in the region
(capitalist system with socialist features); different
degrees of government ownership (nationalization)
of industries and social welfare programs paid by
taxes
- Communist parties allowed but have continued to
be weak
- Economic rivalry as well as cooperation growing
among European nations
- European nation: started as Common Market
(ECSC) in 1951 for coal and steel industry, inner six
countries (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands) changed name to EEC (Economic
Community) in 1957, 12 countries agreed to closer
economic cooperation in 1987 and frontier-free
Europe forming a single economic unit with
common tariffs in 1992, Maastricht Treaty formed
European Union by 1994 with 16 member nations, Eastern Europe and Russian Commonwealth
single European currency established in 2002
- Post-industrial bring more people to work in 1. Physical Geography
service industries than in production industries - Located between Western Europe and Russian
- Economic issues: inflation, high taxation levels, Commonwealth with common religious, ethnic and
migration, economic trade relations outside of cultural ties despite diverse mixture of peoples and
Europe influences; similar historical roots and experiences
- Eastern countries include: Albania, Bulgaria, Czech
3. Human and Cultural Geography Republic and Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania,
- Variety of religious, ethnic and language groups Serbia & Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia,
- Population growth rates are lowest in the world; Macedonia
seen as reason for higher standard of living - Topography and location have made the region an
(tendency to live longer, marry later, have smaller invasion route througout history; resulted in mixing
families) of peoples
- Christianity is predominant religion, Orthodox in - Mountains in the region are low and relatively
Greece, Catholic in south, protestant in north; with accessible and have acted as barriers as well as
trade routes- both protecting and unifying people
- Plains have effect on history as major invasion
routes for armies from both east and west; Great
Hungarian plain for agricultur and horse—breeding
- Rivers served as trade routes linking Eastern
Europe to the rest of Europe (esp. Danube);
irrigation and hydroelectric power
- Vegetation belts in Serbia, Montenegro, Hungary,
Danube Valley, Czech, Slovakia, Bulgaria
- Region has the harshestclimates in Czech, Poland
area (very cold winters and cool summers which
shorten growing seasons); kless severe in the other
parts
- C.I.S. is a federation of countries from the former
USSR, inclusing Russia, Baltic nations and Georgia;
multi-ethnic group with more than 100 languages
spoken
- Landlocked Russia gave it impetus to expand
territory in order to gain access to the sea and
establish warm water ports
- Siberian plain also made Russia open to invasion
- Russian winters are the coldest in the populated
world; harsh climate and short growing seasons
developed enduring Russian people
2. Economic Geography
- Region was completely agricultural until 20th C.;
large growing areas have more agricltual ourput
than other parts
- Industrialization not even; most industrialized in
Czech area
- Guns vs. Butter controversy raged in Eastern
Europe; especially after fall of USSR
- Russian vast size make transportation of crops
difficiult
- CIS is major source industrial production
ressources includng oil, coal and mineral resources;
major industries have been established
- Perestroika was used to restructure Russian
economy but still problematic: state-dependency
among its people, high consumer demand over
burdening the state, opposition from communist
conservatives
3. Human and Cultural Geography
- Largest and most dominat ethnic group are the
Slavs extending to almost all nations; each nation
divided linguistically
- Religion: Eastern Orthodox in countries influenced
by the Byzantine Empire, Roman Catholic in
countries who came under Austrian rule or through
Catholic missionaries, Muslim in countries who
came under Turkish rule
- CIS ethnic groups include Russian (52%),
Ukranians, Uzbeks, Belarussiabs, Kazakhs, Tartars,
and other smalle groupngs
- Russian orthodox church is an independent
institution, historically controlled by the tsars and
persecuted under the Soviets
- Russian culture is a mixture of Byzantium and
Western European culture; it served as main
cultural influence in Easern Europe
C. INTERNATIONAL HISTORY
C.1. The World before 20th Century
1. States, Nations, Nation-States, Nationalism
- Useful for analyzing world politics to distinguish
between: (1) states- as sovereign and independent
units of political organization with permanent
borders, stable population, and (2) nations- as
groups of people united by common bonds of
geography, religion, language, race, customs and
traditions and by shared experiences and political
aspirations
- National identity is key force in world’s political
geography; state organization is the medium
through which it operates. The modern
arrangement is the nation-state
- Hallmark of modern nations is the quest for the
political recognition of their distinctive identities
(nationalism)
- Modern nation-states are essentially a product of
the past two centuries; before French revolution of
1789, most states could be viewed as personal
property of their rulers
- Loyalty to local nobles and religious leaders begun
to weaken in the late Middle Ages (1500s) and
allegiance to kings grew stronger
Nationalism grew as people begun to lose such
traditional attachments; nationalism was also a
result of change in political beliefs
- Nationalism has been used to unite people to
create a larger group or to break up a larger state
into smaller units and states
- Integral nationalism is an intolerant ethnocentric
form of nationalism that glorifies the state as the
highest focus of individual loyalties.
2. The Evolution of Nations
- Agricultural Revolution. Population increase led to
the creation of the first villages beginning probably
in Iraq or Jericho in the West Bank of the Jordan
River (after 8,000 BC)
- Civilization. First civilizations developed in the Age
of Copper (4,000-2,500 BC) starting with the
Sumerians of Mesopotamia, the Semites of Arabian
peninsula, Semitic groups of Mesopotamia , Indo-
Europeans including the Greeks and Romans
- The Africans. Africa was probably the home of the
first humans; groups populated the continent and
migrated; groups included the Negroes, Saharans,
Pigmies, San or Bushmen, Hamites, Berbers,
Egyptians.
- The Egyptians. In 2020 to 1350 BC, three
superpowers in the world were Egyptians,
Babylonians and Hittites (Turkey); the Egyptians
entered the age of empire (1575-1087) under a
military society that conquered other territories and
became sole superpower
- Negro Kingdoms of Africa. Impressive Negro
kingdoms in West, Center and South Africa which
existed until the Muslim invasions
- The Hindus of South Asia. After Sumer and Egypt,
the third earliest world civilization was probably
that of the agricultural communities of the Indus
Valley (2,500-1,500 BC)
- The Chinese. The fourth oldest civilization
probably begun in the Yellow River around 1,800
BC; series of dynasties ruled China
- The Hellenes, Persians and Macedonians. The
Greek civilization contributed a lot to world culture
but was unable to create a large politically unified
state.
-The Romans/Latins. The Roman civilization
expanded its influence to Europe and elsewhere but
the empire became too large; Rome was a great
intermediary over which the Near East came to
form the basis of Western civilization.
- The Germans. Barbaric German tribes swept over
Western Europe. Power shifts led to a new
civilization, the Romano-Germanic-Catholic-
Christian.
- The Christians. The Catholic Church became the
dominant culture and material institution since the
medieval period.
- Arabs and Muslims. Islam began with the Arabs.
Many Greco-Roman-Christian-Jewish areas fell
before the Islamic onslaught allowing the Muslims
to build an Islamic empire.
- The Turks. Ottoman Turks defeated the Arabs but
converted to the Islamic religion, cementing their
presence in Europe.
- The Mongols. Mongol-Turkish conquest of the
traditional eastern trade routes established the
greatest land empire in history.
- The Slavs and Russians. Slavs populated Eastern
Europe and continually held that area. The Russians
are great Slavs who controlled the vast Russian
region.
- The Europeans. The Europeans became the most
dynamic civilization in history. The Europeans
became the most developed economically, militarily
and politically. States of Europe took centuries to
develop and consolidate through many wars
occurring between families and aristocratic groups.
3. The European Inter-State System
- Thirty Years War and Peace of Westphalia. The
Thirty Years War (1618-48) was the first European
continental war in modern history. It was a religious
and political struggle. The war ended with the
treaty which started the modern European system
of fully sovereign and independent states and the
forming of alliances transcending religious
affiliations.
- People increasingly identified with their particular
countries more than they did with their families,
clans, feudal overlords, or religions
- Portugal and Spain. Portugal and Spain began
European voyages of discovery and had the
objective of retaining its colonies. Spain’s major
interests included the defeat of protestant
countries.
- Holland. Its commercial success and in-migration
of Protestants led to growth in manufacturing. Its
long term objective was to deny power control in
the Benelux area.
- France. France became the major European power
after Westphalia. It forwarded then notion of
national interest as being higher than the medieval
notion of universal morality. It pursued the goal of
extending its influence over Europe (e.g., Napoleon
in 1799-1815).
- England. England became known as Great Britain.
Its goal was to prevent France from becoming a
dominant power in Europe, North America and
India as well as keeping watch of the Russians and
Ottoman-Turks.
- Russia. Russia increased power and had ambitions
of gaining access to the Baltic and spread its
influence to the Pacific, Central Asia and Balkans.
- Austria. As Germans in Central Europe, the
Austrians aimed to unify all Germans and expand to
the Balkans.
- Germany. Germany became a state in 1871 and
aimed at unifying Germans by defeating Denmark,
Austria and France, thus becoming the most
powerful state in continental Europe and upsetting
the balance in Europe.
C.2. The 20th Century
1. New Western Imperialism
- Liberalism. Revolutionary movement with an
inspiration summarized as hostility to concentration
of power in cultural, economic, political institutions
that threaten the freedom of individuals.
- Industrial Revolution. Development which
depicted breakthrough in industrial productivity
under the mechanical factory system; stimulated
population growth, urbanization, prosperity,
consumerism, military technology, wars and
imperialism.
- Socialism. Doctrine which advocated economic
collectivism through government or industrial group
ownership of the means of production and
distribution of goods.
- New Imperialism. New imperialism imposed
European economic, political and cultural
institutions over large parts of Asia and Africa. Six
European states divided Africa in the Berlin
Conference. Principal colonial powers established
rules in different countries of Asia.
2. World Wars and the Cold War
- World WAR I. The war included 30 states and
lasted for four years under two competing forces in
European diplomacy (Triple Entente of France,
Britain and Russia and the German-Austrian
alliance). The war undermined Europe’s global
political and economic leadership, and begun the
emancipation process of the colonials living under
European empires in Africa and Asia. The Paris
Peace Conference brought together only the
winners of the war and forced the loser (Germany)
to indemnify the victors.
- United States. The US rise to power came after
WWI. Changing its policy of unilateralism, the US
shifted from expanding its territory in North
America to the formation of alliances with
Europeans. The US, being a main player at the
Peace of Paris, replaced Great Britain as the major
financial and political influence in the world. It
proposed the League of Nations.
- The Japanese. By defeating China and Russia,
Japan became the leading Asian power. It was the
only non-European country to industrialize by 1915.
- World War II. The war was the result of the failure
to resolve the problems of WWI. The war extended
to the whole world under the main conflict
between the Allies and Axis powers. The war
destroyed the multi-national balance of power and
led to the rise of a bi-polar international system
with only two major powers: US and USSR.
- End of empires. Ninety-six countries won their
independence from 1944 to 1985.
- The Cold War. The situation called for the building
of alliances and the establishment of institutions
under either American or Soviet influence. The cold
war ended in 1991 with the fall of USSR.
- Post Cold War international system. New political
matters which call for attention include: (a)
presence of only one military power, (b)
establishment of economic markets and unions, (c)
the EU and Euro land, (d) the rise of violent
nationalist movements, (e) the growth of terrorist
movements, (f) the rise of China as a regional
superpower, (g) political and economic
disintegration of several countries in Africa, (h)
political implications of the deterioration of
ecological resources, (i) increasing use of the UN for
peacekeeping, (j) struggles in the developing world
and the former USSR, among others.
C. 3 21st Century Global Connections and
Interactions
1. Nation-States in Practice Today: Issues and
Evaluation
1. Nation-States- more myth than reality-
actually there is prevailing lack of fit
between nations and states in the world
system - this is significant source of
international and domestic tension.
2. 5 basic patterns:
- One nation-one state – the ideal (10% of
countries)
 - One state-multiple nations – called
multinational state (30% of countries) e.g.,
Canada, Switzerland
- One nation-multiple states – called
multiple nation – national sentiments
create strong pressures to join the
politically separate nation within one state.
Sub-patterns include:
a. one nation dominates 2 or more states
(e.g., N/S Vietnam; Ireland and
Northern Ireland; N/S Korea
b. Nation is a majority in one state and a
minority on another or more states
e.g., Albanian nation (5.7 m total= 3.6m
in Albania, while 1.6 in Kosovo (90% of
Kosovo, then a province of Serbia)
Irredentism – drive to bring outlying members of a
nation and their territory into the main nation-state
- One nation-no state – called stateless
nation – nation group is minority on one or
more states and wants a separate state
(e.g., Zionism-Israel Palestine
- Multiple nation-multiple states – several
states and several nations overlap
e.g., Afghanistan – ethnonational
complexity with Pashtuns – 38%; Tajiks-
25%; Hazaras-17%; Uzbeks-6%; smaller
groups-12%,plus Pashtuns who identify w/
Punjabi-dominated Pakistan where the
Pashtuns are also stateless, Uzbeks, Tajiks
and Turkmen linked to Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan and Russians.
.2.States and World Issues
- While all regions are challenged by several major
issues, the globalized world is united by the need to
address common problems and concerns. The UN
mentions the following: - War and peace, -
Population, - Hunger and poverty, - Political and
economic refugees, - Environmental concerns, -
Economic growth and development, - World trade
and finance, - Energy resources and allocation, -
Human rights and terrorism (UN. 2012)
- Population Issues and their impact: population
growth in developed and developing nations, world
hunger, growing gap in education
- Economic development and world trade: global
power and the gap between rich and poor, resource
and energy management, globalization, balancing
tradition and modernization
- Changing political power structures: the
superpowers, the developing world, arms control,
terrorism as a political weapon
- Other Issues: environmental concerns, human
rights, technology, transportation and
communication, space exploration, mutual impact
and influence between Euro-America and Africa-
Asia.
D. INTERNATIONAL SOCIOLOGY / ANTHROPOLOGY
Outline:
D.1. Culture: The Human Dimension
1. Man’s Place in the World
2. Culture
D.2. Culture: The Structural Dimension
1. Social groups and social control
2. Social inequality
3. Social institutions
4. Social change
D.3. Culture: Sociology of Religion
D. 1 Culture: The Human Dimension
1. Man’s Place in the World
- What distinguished man from other animals is that
man is the only animal that completely relies on
learned behavioral patterns to survive.
-Micro evolution. In the light of what is known
about evolution genetics, evolution occurs when
natural selection acts upon genetic variations to
produce differential reproduction.
- In general, primates (including man), may be
characterized by the lack of common specialization
accounting for adaptation in many environments
and situations as well as increased brain size
accounting for greater mental ability
- Macro evolution. While man has a common
remote ancestor with all animals, similarities he
shares with animals are less; the differences are not
anatomical or genetically determined but are
behavioral or learned in social interaction.
- What differentiates man is a wide range of his
adaptive behavior is learned in
social interaction and not genetically determined.
- Biocultural evolution. Different from other
animals, man’s adaptability depended on the
flexibility and appropriateness of the shared
learning (i.e., culture) he developed, and not his
physical make-up.

2. Culture
- Culture is a term used to define the total way of
life of a group of people. It includes: (a) ideas and
beliefs, (b) norms, actions and behaviors and (c)
material things including tools and techniques.
- Culture is preserved by the group, is taught to and
learned by the young and provides a pattern of
relationships for the group as well as a way for
them to use the natural environment.
- Culture has varied elements as depicted in the
following diagram:
- Cultural diffusion. Ideas, norms and technologies
have spread from one culture to another
throughout human history; global interdependence
has increased speed and extent of cultural diffusion,
thus, it is now common to refer to a global culture.
- Trade, aid, migration, conquest, entertainment,
war, etc. promote cultural diffusion.
- Culture and language. Culture is learned by
observation and imitation. Language allows the
human group to summarize and transmit to new
generations the traditional ways of behaving of the
group, as well as new ways.
- Words are symbols to which meaning is arbitrarily
bestowed; communicators may change meanings
whenever they agree to.
- Selectivity. Societies may build its culture isolated
from others but patterns are developed and
transmitted among different groups; some patterns
are selected while others are discarded.
- Individuals behave as his particular society
expects; he thinks that is the natural way for doing
things, without realizing that other societies have
found other ways of din g the same thing.
- Cultures are selective because social behavior has
to be predictable so that social interaction may
occur.
- Integration. Cultures are integrated in a
wholesome and meaningful fashion. Culture has a
personality, core or ethos made up of its elements.
– Cultures may be characterized by a preference for
given solutions to human concerns; this choice is
known as the dominant value orientation. Universal
concerns of culture include: (a) time orientation, (b)
relation of man to nature and supernature, (c)
man’s relation to other men, (d) modality of human
activity, the innate character of human nature.
- Time orientation. Looking at the temporal focus of
human life, societies appraise the importance of
behavior in terms of maintaining the past, attending
to the present or emphasizing the future.
- Relation of man to nature and supernature.
Different societies perceive man’s confrontation
with nature and supernature according to different
orientations: as subjugated orientation
(helplessness), as mastery over nature, or as
harmony with nature.
- Man’s relation to other men. Referring to
relational orientation, societies can develop a lineal
orientation (authority is highly valued), collateral
orientation (interdependency / cooperation is
valued), individualistic orientation (autonomous
action is valued).
- Modality of human activity. Referring to activity
orientation, it reflects how a culture evaluates
human activity according to a “doing orientation”
(whether it is engaged on measurable outcomes) or
a “being orientation” (whether it is engaged in
existential yearnings); this orientation strongly
influences economic culture of working, spending,
saving and investing.
- Innate character of human nature. This
orientation deals with how a society perceives
innate human qualities in terms of their essential
goodness or evil, as good but corruptible, as evil but
redeemable or as both good and evil (neutral),
according to responses to influences.
- Importance of understanding culture in a
multicultural community and global society.
A good grasping of the concept of culture allows for
a better assessment of the behavior and
expectations of people of other cultures.
D.2. Culture: The Social Dimension
1. Social groups and social control
- Social groups. Groups (people who have
something in common) are essence of social life.
Society is the largest and most complex group.
Societies have been transformed from: hunting and
gathering to horticultural and pastoral, agricultural,
industrial, postindustrial. Societal groups include:
primary groups (intimate, long term, face-to-face),
secondary (larger, more anonymous and
temporary), in-group/out-group (loyalty as against
antagonism), reference group (groups used as
standards to evaluate a self), social networks (social
ties that link people). Group dynamics determine
effect of groups on individuals and vice versa, as
determined by: group size, leadership, conformity
to peer pressure, obedience to authority, group
think and decision-making.
- Bureaucracy and formal organization. A formal
organization is a secondary group designed to
achieve explicit objectives. A bureaucracy is a
formal organization with a hierarchy of authority,
division of labor, written rules, communications,
records and impersonality of positions. A voluntary
association is a group made up of volunteers who
have organized on the basis of some mutual
interest. Formal organizations in the international
context are characterized by: corporate culture
(reinventing bureaucracy), humanizing work setting,
information and communication-orientation.
- Deviance and social control. Deviance refers to
the violation of rules; deviants are people who
violate rules making other react negatively towards
them. Social control utilizes formal and informal
means of enforcing norms (e.g., sanction). Different
human groups react differently to similar behaviors.
Deviance and social control in the international
context are characterized by: politcalization,
internationalization, multiculturalization and
medicalization of deviance, and focus on a more
human approach.
2. Social inequality
- Stratification in global perspective. Social
stratification is the division into layers of nations or
people according to their relative power, property
and prestige. Systems of social stratification include:
slavery (ownership of people, caste (individual
status determined by birth and is lifelong), class
(based on money or material possessions), clan
(standing through belonging to an extended
network of relatives). Every society is stratified
although type of stratification varies in different
societies. Social stratification in the international
context is characterized by: national, economic,
developmental, political and cultural stratification.
-Social class. A social class is a large group of people
who rank close to one another in wealth, power and
prestige. Social class bears consequences on the
family life, values and attitudes, political
involvement, religion, and education. Social class in
the international context is characterized by:
multidimensional mobility (generational, race,
poverty, age, sex, short or long term, individual vs.
structural).
- Inequalities. Gender inequality results from
gender stratification or men’s and women’s
unequal access on the basis of their sex (noting the
societal determination of gender roles). Inequalities
of race and ethnicity result from inherited physical
characteristics or from distinctive cultural
characteristics. Age inequalities result from
relativity of aging.
3. Social institutions
- The Economy, money and work. Economy refers
to the system of distribution of goods and services.
Market refers to any process of buying and selling
and formally to the mechanism that establishes
values for the exchange of goods and services. The
economic systems are now worldwide (capitalist vs.
socialist). Sociology of economics looks into the
social character of money and work.
- Politics, power and authority. Power pertains to
the possession of enough authority to carry out
one’s will, even over the resistance of others.
Sociology of politics covers micropolitics (exercise of
power in everyday life, e.g., household work) and
macropolitics (exercise of large-scale power, e.g.,
government). Authority pertains to the power that
people accept as rightly exercised over them; also
called legitimate power.
- The family. A family is a group of people who
consider themselves related by blood, marriage or
adoption and usually live together. Family life varies
across cultures in terms of marriage, sexual
relations, child rearing and divorce. Common
cultural themes include patterns of mate selection,
descent, inheritance, and authority.
4. Social Change
- Population and urbanization. Demography refers
to the study of the size, composition, growth and
distribution of human populations. Urbanization is
the process by which an increasing proportion of a
population lives in cities.
- Collective behavior and social movements.
Collective behavior pertains to extraordinary
activities carried out by groups of people. Social
movements pertain to unusual behavior that
involves more people, and is prolonged, organized
and focused on social change.
- Social change, technology and environment.
Social change refers to the alteration of culture and
societies over time. Technology pertains to the
application of science, tools and items used to
accomplish tasks affecting change. All changes in
societies affect the natural environment.
D.3. Sociology of Religion
- Religion is defined sociologically as beliefs and
practices that separate the profane (mundane
everyday life) from the sacred (set apart) and unite
its adherents to a moral community. Thus religion is
defined by beliefs, practices and moral community.
- Functionalist perspective. Religion meets basic
needs questions about ultimate meaning, emotional
comfort, social solidarity, guidelines for everyday
life, social control, adaptation, support for
government, social change; dysfunctions include
wars and religious persecution.
- Symbolic interaction perspective. Religion gives
meaning to people’s livers through shared
meanings embodied in symbols as in: rituals, beliefs
(values, cosmology of the world), religious
experience, community.
- Conflict perspective. Religion supports existing
status quo and helps maintain social inequalities
and the established order of power and politics as:
opium of the people, reflection of social
inequalities, legitimation of social inequalities, spirit
of capitalism.
- Types of religious organizations. A cult is a new
religion whose teachings and practices are at odds
with dominant religion; a sect is larger than a cult
but still feels tension and hostility with the
prevailing beliefs and values of its society; a church
religious group which is highly bureaucratized
(national or international) that gives directions to its
congregations; ecclesia (or state religion) is a
religion so integrated with the dominant culture
that government and religion work together to
shape society.
- Secularization of religion refers to the
replacement of the spiritual or the concerns for the
“other life” with concerns about this world (e.g.,
US). Secularization of culture refers to the process
by which culture becomes less influenced by
religion (Iran under the Shah).
- Characteristics of religion in the international
context. Sociological interest on religion rests on
the relationship between society and religion.
Major characteristics of religion today include:
diversity, pluralism and freedom, competition,
commitment, privacy, toleration, fundamentalist
survival, electronic church, commercialization,
membership based on social class, race and
ethnicity, age.
E. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS
E.1 The Economy
- Economics deals with the use of scarce resources
to obtain the maximum satisfaction of society’s
wants
- Three main types of economic system are: (a)
traditional economy in which production methods,
exchange of goods and distribution of income are
sanctioned by custom (e.g., caste, heredity); (b)
command economy in which the government
exercises absolute control over means of
production, distribution and consumption; (c)
market economy in which the government does not
exercise much control over production, distribution
and allocation of goods. – Profit motive and supply
and demand determine prices, production and
wages.
- Inputs or factors of production include natural
resources, human resources, capital,
entrepreneurship,
- Economic outputs include: consumer goods,
capital goods, services.
- Major economic problems include: (a) inflation
(i.e., reduction of the purchasing power of money
which manifests itself in persistent increase in
general level of prices; (b) depression and recession
(i.e., period of dramatic decline in economy
characterized by reduction in business activity,
falling prices and unemployment, (c)
unemployment (i.e., failure of the economy to fully
employ its labor force whether frictional, structural
or cyclical).
- Major economic indicators are: (a) GNP (i.e.,
representing the total value of all final goods and
services produced by an economy, including those
earned abroad, within a period of one year, (b) GDP
(i.e., measuring the total market value of goods and
services only in the particular country for a period),
(c) NNP (i.e., derived by subtracting depreciation
from the GNP), (d) National Income (i.e., total
income earned by individuals and corporations in
society), (e) Disposable Income (i.e., what is left to
individuals after subtracting taxes and adding
welfare payments, (f) other indicators useful for
comparing economies (like life expectancy, infant
mortality, per capita income).
- Most western countries today are mixed-market
economies (i.e., one in which both the government
and the market decide how goods and services will
be produced & delivered.
- Market depicts the interaction between supply
and demand at a govern price and time. The
principal role of governments in a market economy
is not to produce but to regulate private businesses.
Government can use its: (a) fiscal policies (e.g., take
taxes and redistribute through government
spending), or (b) monetary policies (e.g., adjusting
the money supply to influence economic
expansion).
- In Communism, the government makes all
decisions regarding the production, distribution and
allocation of all goods and services.
E.2. The Global Economy
- The global economy consists of all interactions
among people, businesses, governments and other
institutions that cross international borders,
whether in the form of goods, services, transfer of
funds or migratory movements.
- Trade. Trade involves exchange of merchandise
and services because of comparative advantage.
Trade benefits consumers and producers as well as
the economy as a whole.
Types of foreign transactions include: merchandise
trade (i.e., buying and selling of tangible goods),
services ((i.e., intangible non-transferrable goods),
investments abroad (i.e., real capital formation)
and unilateral transfers (i.e., payments abroad for
which nothing was received such as grants).
- Money and exchange rates. Money is an asset
that is generally accepted in exchange for other
goods. Money has 3 basic purposes: it serves as
medium of exchange, as a unit which can be stored
to accumulate value and as a unit of account. The
money of another i called foreign exchange.
Exchange rate is the free market price of another
country’s money in terms of one’s own money.
Price of money is based on its supply and demand.
- Budget and trade deficits. Budget deficit is the
amount by which the expenditures of a government
exceed its revenues. A trade deficit is the amount
by which the imports of a country exceed its
exports. Countries are concerned about these in
their international transactions.
- Mobility of resources. Labor and capital mobility
refers to any movement of labor, capital and
technology across national boundaries motivated by
political, socio-economic or cultural reasons.
Immigration affects labor mobility. Official capital
(e.g., IMF) combines with private capital in
international transactions. Multinationals are now
major actors in capital mobility. Protectionism is
used by governments to restrict imports through
imposition of restrictions to influence inflow of
inputs. International development banks (e.g.,
World Bank) channel funds from rich countries.
- Trade liberalization and regional trade blocks.
Trade liberalization (e.g., GATT) aims to increase
trade by reducing tariffs and other trade barriers.
Regional trade blocks try to achieve free trade areas in
an association of a number of countries through
appropriate agreements (e.g., EU).
F. INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
F.1 Systems of Government
1. Politics, State and Government
- Politics is social relations of power; a political act is
one performed in power perspective (who gets
what, when, how). It is any persistent pattern of
human relationships that involves to a significant
extent control, influence, authority or power.
Necessity of politics stems from collective (social)
character of human life.
- Power pertains to the capacity to produce
intended effects;
“Power to” is ability to achieve goals; “power over”
is ability to overcome opposition; “incentive
shaping” is use of inducements and threats;
“preference-shaping” is influence through control of
thought/opinion. Authority is the right to rule; right
to act rather than the power to do so. Authority
creates its own power, as long as people accept
(political obligation) giving right to make decisions
or have a monopoly use of force.
- Domain of politics today involves states (self-
contained, representative, democratic,
constitutional nation states or federations of free,
equal citizens, political parties and social
movements in an international system of states).
- State has 4 elements (people, territory,
government sovereignty) plus recognition of
community of nations.
Sovereignty refers to ultimate source of authority in
society. Sovereign is the highest decision maker in a
community.
(Internal sovereignty refers to law making power
w/in a territory; external refers to independence
and recognition).
- Government consists of institutions responsible
for making collective decisions for society. More
narrowly, it refers to top political level within such
institutions.
- Typologies of governments seen according to:
a. Number of rulers: one, few many
b. Centralization of powers: unitary vs. federal
c. Separation of functions: presidential vs.
parliamentary
d. Subs-system autonomy: democratic vs.
totalitarian
e. Ideology: Communist, Socialist, Liberalist,
Conservative, Fascist
f. Three Worlds: 1st, 2nd, 3rd World
g. Regime types: Asian, African, Islamic, Western
polyarchy
2. Systems of rule in the World
- There are presently 195 states in the world, 192
are members of the United Nations (except Taiwan,
Kosovo Vatican).
- Monarchial Rule pertains to one person rules for
life; usually by inheritance. Different title: king,
prince emperor, czar, sultan, queen. In early history,
hereditary monarchy was the norm (all powers
vested on the monarch until death; rules alone or
with chosen advisers. Constitutional monarchy with
elected officials making policy decisions
predominate today. There are now 15 monarchies
in the world: Morocco, Nepal, Saudi Arabia,
Cambodia, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Oman,
Lesotho (S.Africa), Bhutan, Kuwait, Swaziland
(S.Africa), Qatar, Brunei, Tonga (Polynesia), Monaco
(near France)
- Theocratic Rule pertains to a system of
government where the role of priest and ruler are
combined (e.g., ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, Tibet,
Aztecs, Roman emperor, China, middle Ages). Only
two today: Iran, Vatican City.
- Military Rule pertains to rule of military
strongman or junta often associated with single
party rule; sometimes a temporary rule
(transitional). This should not be confused with
militarism (i.e., use of military power to resolve
disputes though not ruled by the military
Because of tendency to overthrow governments via
coups, 3rd World nations are militaristic. Some
governments held by senior military officials and
order maintained by martial law. Disputed as
military rule today are: Pakistan, Congo Democratic
Republic, Myanmar, Sudan (Africa).
- Democratic Rule pertains basically to governments
put to power through regular and competitive
elections.
Modern democratic rule take on different forms: (1)
parliamentary (69 states), (2) presidential (56
states), (3) multiparty democracy (mixed-
presidential role balanced by a prime minister e.g.,
France, 35 states), (4) presidential-non-party
democracy (elections occur on individual merits not
party platforms, e.g., Peru, 7 states), (5) dictatorial
democracy even (a president elected democratically
but assumes dictatorial power).
- Single-Party Rule pertains to a case where one
single party is constitutionally allowed to govern.
Elections occur with candidates all from one party.
Dictators may arise from the single party while
declaring themselves democratic. Disputed today
are seven countries: China, Vietnam, Syria, North
Korea, Cuba, Libya, Laos
- Transitional Rule describes a temporary regime in
a nation undergoing governmental crisis (war, civil
unrest, governmental corruption, disaster, and
invasion) Transitional government rules during
transition. Examples today include: Iraq after US
intervention
Afghanistan under continuous military conflict,
Somalia (ethnic and Islamic wars), Rwanda and
Burundi (ethnic wars), Eritrea (border disputes),
Liberia (internal security and insurgency), Bahrain
(Shia workers, against dominant family), Maldives
(Islamic transition to democratic), Kosovo (disputed
w/ Serbia; partially recognized).
3. Comparative Politics in regional perspective
- Three sets of factors affect politics: political
setting, patterns of rule, problems and prospects.
- Political setting pertains to how the
environmental factors (geography, climate, natural
resources) affect political values, perceptions,
traditions and institutions.
This is called political ecology or the relationship
between political institutions and the natural
environment. Religious, ethnic, linguistic
characteristics affect political culture and political
sociology. Historical experience highlights any
particularly determining, traumatic, tragic events in
history (e.g., colonial rule, revolution).
- In the study of politics, political setting includes: pollution, natural habitat, and depletion of the
Political Culture, Political Communication, Political ozone layer.
Participation, Elections and Voters, Interest Groups
and Political Parties - High Politics vs. Low Politics
- Patterns of Rule pertain to how and why political
patterns and trends vary from one region to High Politics Low Politics
another. (focus of IP) (focus of TR)
Main concerns Power, influence, Cooperation, trade,
In varying degrees some uniformity may be
conflict environment,
observed. West and Europe – democratic republics; population, welfare
Middle East – wide range of authoritarian rule Actors State actors Non-state actors
(theocratic Iran, feudal monarchies of Arabic
peninsula, modern monarchies in Jordan and - IR makes use of 3 levels of analysis:
morocco, personal dictatorships of Syria, Iraq, Libya, 1. System level analysis – the nature of the
mixed regime of Egypt); Africa – authoritarianism world
predominates; Asia – variety of regimes; Latin
2. State-level analysis – how countries make
America – democratization.
- In the study of politics, patterns of rule include the foreign policy
following building blocks: Constitutions and the 3. Individual level analysis – people as
legal framework, Legislatures, Executives, individuals or as a species
Bureaucracies, Policy Process.
- Problems and Prospects pertain to issues that - Power relations in IR are determined by the
point to the human consequences of different number of system poles defined by how many
political traditions, processes and systems. This power actors there are. Thus, it is possible to
includes: security and order, economic identify: (1) patterns of rule of the game for a type
development, function of equality, pursuit of of polar system and (2) propensity of a system to
happiness, tangible and intangible goods, and stability or war (e.g., a unipolar world will be
poverty. All these fall under three dimensions: peaceful?)
security, development and participation.

F.2. International Relations

1. International Relations

- International politics (IP) means political

interactions between sovereign states. It involves
bilateral actions between two or more states.
- Foreign policy relates to state A's objectives and
actions toward state B. In other words, it involves a
unilateral action by state A toward state B.
- International relations (IR), refer to all forms of
interaction between the members of separate
societies involving governmental and non-
governmental interactions.
Transnational relations (TR) are defined as the
movement of tangible and intangible items across
state boundaries when at least one actor is not an
agent of a government or an intergovernmental
organization.
- Global politics deals with global issues and - Theories of IR
problems, and views the world as a single village. It A. Realist Political Economy:
deals with quality of life, rather than with peace and
war or economic equality. It focuses on global 1. Realism: Self-help, Statism, Survival
problems such as population growth, air and ocean 2. Neo-Realism: Hegemonic Stability
3. Inter-governmentalism: Domestic Politics and
State Interests
B. Liberalist Political Economy
4. Liberal Internationalism: Free Trade and
Democratic Peace
5. Neo-liberal Institutionalism: Complex
Interdependence
C. Critical Political Economy in IPE
6. Marxism: Critical Political Economy
7. Dependency Theory: Development and
Underdevelopment
8. World System Theory: Core and Periphery in
the World Economy
9. Neo-Gramscian World Order Theory: Social
Forces, States and World Order
10. Statist-Institutionalism: Embedded
Autonomy of Developmental States
2. International Orientations: Nationalism vs.
Transnationalism
- Political division (based on political identity- how
people connect politically to others) is key
characteristic of traditional global politics.
- Political segmentation of the world rests on three
concepts: nation, nationalism; nation-state.
- New realities represent an alternative to the
inward focus of nationalism (i.e., interaction in IR
taken beyond national boundaries). Globalization
is understood as a multi-faceted concept that
represents increasing integration; fact that
geographical, state boundaries are receding and the
general acceptance of such receding (thus takes the
form of a value shared).
- Why globalization? 1. global transportation and
communication; 2. economic globalization; 3.
cultural globalization (common culture or way of
life- language, consumer products;
Thus, globalization basically means
“homogenization of way of life.”
- The shared value is transnationalism which is
attitudinal and includes a range of political
identities and interactions that connect humans
across nations and national boundaries.
Substantially, it is counternationalist undermining
nationalism and its manifestation, the nation-state
while promoting cross-national activity and political
loyalties.
- Transnational relations are shown by: 1.
transnational organizations; 2. regional
transnationalism; 3. cultural transnationalism; 4.
transnational religion; 5. Transnational movements.
3. International Structures: Nation-States vs.
International Organizations
- The state is held as the accepted structure for the
world which is taken to be an anarchic because of
the absence of a world government. The security
dilemma shapes decisions of states.
- International Organizations provide the
alternative structure which base global relations not
on self-interested states in anarchic world but in
regulating behavior of states to better address
world problems. IGOs hold membership of national
government (as distinguished from transnational /
NG0s).
- Types of IGOs:
Geography General Purpose Specialized
Global UN WTO
Regional EU Arab Monetary
Fund
- IGOs function as: 1.interactive arena (i.e., place
for members to pursue individual national
interests); 2. center of cooperation (i.e., promote
and facilitate cooperation among states.
- Regime theory- narrow cooperation expands into
more complex forms of interdependence. A regime
is not a single organization. Regime is collective
noun to designate complex of norms, rules,
processes and organizations that have evolved to
help govern behavior of states and other actors in
an area of international concern.
- Supranational organizations are moving to a
more established form of international government;
one which has legal authority over its members
- Structuring a World or Regional Government in 3
possible forms of global government: 1. centralized
government (i.e., countries become non-sovereign
units); 2. Federal (i.e., central and units share
powers); 3. Confederation (i.e., members retain
sovereignty bur highly interdependent; join
together in a weak directorate organization)
4. International Conduct: National Power and
diplomacy vs. International
- National power is seen as the foundation of
national diplomacy. This means power as asset (i.e.,
as national capability- power as money, as
resources, as wealth)
- Elements of power include: 1. the National core
(i.e., Geography, People, Government including
administrative competence, foreign policy); 2.
National Infrastructure (i.e., Technology,
Transportation system, Information and
Communication systems)
- Diplomacy is the main tool used by international
actors to achieve ends. Conduct of diplomacy is
basically a communications process with 3 main
elements: 1. negotiating through direct or indirect
discussions, 2. signaling (sending a message through
action or statement), 3. public diplomacy
(propaganda). Options for conducting diplomacy
include: 1. direct or indirect negotiations; 2. high-
level or low-level diplomacy; 3. coercion or rewards
to gain agreement; 4. being precise or intentionally
vague; 5. linking issues or treating them separately;
6. maximizing or minimizing disputes
- The alternative to power-based diplomatic pursuit
of self-interest is international law. Like domestic
law, the aim is to put greater constraints on self-
interest through a legal system.
- Sources of international law include: 1. treaties, 2.
customs, 3. principles of law recognized by civilized
nations, 4. judicial decisions and scholarly writings,
5. international representative assemblies
- Adherence to the international law is still
developing (i.e., what makes law effective is
compliance and enforcement). Compliance or
obedience is mixture of voluntary compliance and
coercion
- Enforcement of international law relies on a
combination of enforcement through self-help and
enforcement of central authority; global system
continues to rely on self-help for enforcement.
- Adjudication of the Law evolves from primary
reliance on bargaining between adversaries
through, mediation and conciliation to adjudication.
But jurisdiction of International Courts is still
limited.
5. International Peace: National Security vs.
International Security
- Traditional path in IR emphasized national self-
defense by amassing arms to deter aggression.
“Wars occur because people prepare for conflict
rather than for peace (Tygve Lie).” The decisive
means for politics is violence.
- Causes of war:
1. System level causes – factors related to
general nature of the world; a. distribution
of power. b. anarchical nature of the
system, c. system-level economic factors, d.
system-level biosphere stress (over
consumption, resources)
2. State level causes – a. militarism (fascism, b.
externalization of internal conflict (Muslim
world aid), c. type of country
(authoritarian?), d. political culture
(repeated experience with violence, e.g.,
Israel)
3. Individual level: a. human characteristic
(territoriality has primal origin), b. individual
leader’s characteristics.
- Changing nature of war is being determined by
three factors: 1.Technology, 2.Nationalism, 3.
Strategy (e.g., power to defeat vs. power to hurt).
Aside from conventional war, new classifications of
war have developed to include: 1. offensive vs.
defensive war; 2. mutual responsibility war (all
countries involved bear some responsibility,
preemptive warfare; humanitarian intervention.
- Security from other means is argued by the
alternative path of international security (e.g.,
limiting or abandoning weapons, international
security force, adapting standards of pacifism).
- Four alternative security approaches include:1.
Unlimited self-defense (war); 2. Limited self-
defense (numerical restriction, categorical
restrictions, development/testing/ deployment
restrictions); 3. International security force
(collective security, peace keeping); 4. Abolition of
war (general and complete disarmament, pacifism).
6. International Economy: National Economic
Competition vs. International Economic
Cooperation
- Economic nationalism believes that state should
use its economic strength to further national
interests while economic internationalism believes
that international economic relations should be and
can be conducted cooperatively because the
international economy is a non-zero sum game in
which property is available to all. Economic
structuralism believes that economic structures
determine politics. The conduct of world politics is
based on the way the world is organized
economically. Contend that the world is divided into
have and have-not countries and the haves work to
keep the have=-not weak and poor in order to
exploit them.
- State centric economics represent the traditional South. GATT-WTO focuses on trade cooperation.
way (economic nationalism) where: 1. states The IMF focuses on monetary cooperation. The
remain the principal actors, 2. States use economic WORLD BANK GROUP focuses on development
tools and formulate economic policy to benefit cooperation.
themselves even in a global community - Regional cooperation is being achieved through:
- National economic power is the main finance through regional banks, regional trade
preoccupation is to build up economic power. organizations.
Political power is used to achieve national - Economic cooperation enacts a process where
economic goals and economic power is used to gain states cooperate with each other or multilaterally
national political goals. National economic power is through IGOs or other processes.
determined by financial position, natural resources, - Economic integration goes for closer degrees of
industrial output, agricultural output economic intertwining by formal agreement or
- Methods of manipulating economic interchange informal circumstance. The countries begin to
involve harnessing all aspects of government’s surrender some degree of sovereignty and begin to
economic policy including foreign economic act as one unit under free trade area (no barriers),
relations to enhance state power. Included are: 1. customs union (common tariffs), economic union
Use of barriers to merchandise trade (tariffs as well (harmonize economic policies such as taxation),
as non –tariff); 2. Barriers to trade in services and monetary union.
investments
(e.g., licensing requirements, prohibitions of foreign
workers); 3. Domestic support of trade (e.g.,
economic espionage, domestic subsidies,
dumping or the selling of products lower priced
than in the domestic market)
- Politico-economic power is applied to influence
states, such as: 1. Economic incentives (e.g., foreign
aid, direct loans or credit, tax relief); 2. Economic
sanctions (e.g., stop trade not to supply in order to
make the country change in its behavior).
- The alternative way of economic cooperation
believes that economic future will be better if
countries cooperate economically or even integrate
their economies. Two orders explored are: global
cooperation & regional cooperation
- Global Economic cooperation puts the burden on
North-South relations or EDC prosperity vs. LDC
development. While the main goal of the EDCs is to
renew and maintain prosperity, the main goal of the
LDCs is to explore to e economic gap and its
associated political and social consequences in
order to stage development.
- Incentives to assist development of the South
include: Humanitarian compassion, Decrease
international violence, Increase economic
prosperity. Resistance to Development include:
Economic nationalism, International pressures to
keep advantage, Political nationalism: that EDC are
not responsible for causing, continuing and closing
the gap.
- Institutions of Global Economic Cooperation
have developed, such as the UN, WTO, IMF, WB.
Focus of the UN may be divided into: Economic
regulation and Economic development of the