Resource Material On Maintenance & Rehabilitation of Structure Grade XII

Resource Material
on
Maintenance & Rehabilitation of Structure
Grade XII
1
Table of Content
Unit Page
1. Introduction 2-4
2. Painting of Buildings 5-8
3. Causes & detection of damages 9 -11
4. Materials for repairs 12-14
5. Masonry walls 15-18
6. Repairs to foundation 19-22
7. Water proofing 23-25
8. Concept of repairs & strengthening of RCC structures 26-27
9. Damage due to fire 28-30
10. Advanced damage detection techniques 31-37
11. Strengthening RC beams, columns & slabs 38-41
12. Evaluation of strength, economic & age of building 42-44
13. Maintenance of life lines 45-49
14. Estimates & tendering 50-52
15. Construction and repair of Underground Water Tanks with Weld Mesh &
Overhead Water Tanks with Ferrocement 53-55
16. Construction of Rain Water Harvesting System 56-57
17. Construction of Compound Walls and Barbed Wire Fences 58-62
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Title: Unit-1 Introduction
1. Objective:
a) To define maintenance
b) To list out the necessity of maintenance
c) To identify the classification of maintenance
d) To compare rehabilitation (restoration), strengthening, retrofitting
e) To familiar methodical approach to repairs
f) To familiar keeping records of maintenance
2. Content
1.1 Necessity, operation, maintenance & repairs of structures
Maintenance:
Building maintenance is the work to be undertaken (after the construction of the building has been completed)
to keep, restore or improve every facility that has been provided in the building. It is possible only after
inspection & accessibility to the point that needs maintenance & repair.
Necessity of Maintenance:
 Prevention of damages.
 To keep them in good appearance & working condition.
 To reduce the causes against building.
 To repair the defects occurred in the structure.
 To reduce the risk of occupants.
 To maintain the value of building.
 To save the building at all weathering actions.
 To increase the life of building.
 Day to day maintenance: The aim of this facility is to ensure satisfactory & continuous functioning
of the various services provided in the building. Emergency works also comes in this group. E.g.:
 repairing of faulty switches, removing chokes of drainage pipes, etc.
 Annual or periodical maintenance: This work is generally carried out regularly at definite periods
 like painting the building in every 2 to 7 years.
 Preventive maintenance: This work consists of periodic inspection of the various items that may
affect & carries out lasting. Works like checking the handrails of staircase comes in this category,
especially when children use the staircase.
  Special repairs: As the building ages, many parts have to be repaired & after carrying out no.
of repairs, it is better to replace them. E.g.: Remove the existing paints from the various members
completely & repair them, introduction of earth leaked circuit breaker, repair or replacement of doors,
windows, etc.
1.3 Rehabilitation (restoration), strengthening, retrofitting

Rehabilitation:
The process of returning a building or structure to a useful state by means of repair, modification or
alternation is known as rehabilitation. It is process through which the actual or original properties of the
structure can be gained.
Strengthening:
The process of upgrading the structural system of an existing building to improve performance under existing
loads or to increase the structural components to carry additional loads. In general, structural strengthening
may become necessary because of code changes, seismic upgrade, change in service loads, or deficiencies
within the structure caused by errors in design or construction.
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Retrofitting:
Retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make more resistant to seismic activity, ground
motion or soil failure due to earthquakes. It proves to be a better economic consideration & immediate shelter
to problems rather than replacement of building.
1.4 Methodical approach to repairs, inspection-annual, emergency, special, repairs-minor, special

and renovation
Methodical approach to repairs:
a. Inspection: A building inspection is an inspection performed by a building inspector to make them
professional judgement about whether a building meets building code requirement.
b. Annual Inspection: Regularly scheduled reviews or observations that are carried out annually to
determine the physical & functional condition of the structure, to identify any changes from initial or
previously recorded condition & to ensure that building continues to satisfy present service
requirement is known as annual inspection.
c. Emergency Inspection: The observation that is carried out in emergency stages such as earthquakes,
landslides, floods, etc. to determine the physical & functional workability of the structures is known
as emergency inspection.
d. Special Inspection: These are the inspections carried out in addition to other inspections that are out
regularly. It evaluates the aspects of construction that are critical to structural safety, site stability &
environmental condition. Similarly, it firms that the structure is building accordance to the plans.
e. Minor Repairment: It is defined as the small scale maintenance work that aims to facilitate building
owners & occupants in carrying out small scale building works safely & lawfully through simplified
requirements. E.g. Re-plastering of minor cracks, repairment of electric wires, etc.
f. Renovation: It is process of improving a broken, damaged or outdated structure.
1.5 Keeping Records of maintenance:

It is advisable for a building owner to keep a book indicating the works to be done along with dates of doing
these works in order to maintain the building. The book should have the date of maintenance work & a short
description of maintenance work along with its cost & performance.
For example, while painting, it is advisable to keep a record of the area covered for each part, the amount of
paint that is used to paint each place, its cost & the name of the painter who does the work.
3. Learning process and support materials

Following are the learning process of this unit: -
Lecture
-Discussion
4. Assessment
A. Very Short Questions
1. Define the term ‘maintenance’.
2. What are the necessities of maintenance?
3. What is building inspection?
B. Short Questions
1. What are the different classifications of maintenance?
2. Differentiate between rehabilitation and retrofitting.
3. Write notes on keeping records of maintenance.
C. Long Question(Analytical)
1. What are the methodical approaches to repairs? Describe them.
Glossary:
Occupant- the owner or tenant of a property
Weathering- mechanical or chemical breaking down of rocks in situ by weather or other causes
Reference materials:
Suggested texts and references:
 P.K. Guha, Maintenance and Repairs Of Buildings New Central Book Agencies
4

 P.C. Varghese, Maintenance, Repair and Rehabilitation and Minor Works of Buildings, PHI
Learning Private Limited
5
Title: Unit-2 Painting Of Buildings
1. Objective:
a) To explain painting
b) To describe different paintwork of walls in building
c) To familiar painting of iron
2. Content
2.1 Introduction
Paint:
Paint is a substance used as the final finish to all surfaces & as a coating to protect or decorate the surface. It is
a pigmented opaque material that completely covers & hides the surface to which it is applied.
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface.
Constituent of paint:
The essential constituents of paints are:
i. Base: It is a principal constituent of paint. It forms an opaque coating. E.g.: white lead, red lead, zinc
lead, etc.
ii. Vehicles: The vehicles are the liquid substances which hold the ingredients of paint in liquid
suspension & allow them to be applied on the surface to be painted. E.g.: linseed oil, tung oil, etc.
iii. Pigment: Pigments give required color for paints. They are fine particles & have a reinforcing effect
on thin film of the paint. The common pigments for different colours are :
 Black - lamp black, suit & charcoal black.
  Red – venedion red, red lead & indian red.
iv. Drier: These are the compounds of metal like lead, cobalt, etc. The function of a drier is to absorb
oxygen from the air & supply it to the vehicle for hardening.
v. Thinner: It is known as solvent also. It makes paint thinner & hence increases the coverage.
It helps spreading paint uniformly over the surfaces. E.g. : Turpentine
Properties of an ideal paint:

 It should be possible to apply easily & freely.
 It should dry in reasonable time.
 It should form hard & durable surface.
 It should not be harmful to the health of workers.
 It should not be easily affected by atmosphere.
 It should possess attractive & pleasing appearance.
 It should form a thin film of uniform nature i.e., it should not crack.
 It should possess good spreading power.
 It should be cheap.
Depending upon their constituents, there are various types of paints which are described below:
i. Oil Paint: These are the paints applied in three coat – primer, undercoat & finishing coat. This paint
is cheap & easy to apply.
ii. Enamel Paint: It contains white lead, oil, petroleum spirit & resinous material. The surface provided
by it resists acids, alkalies & water very well. It can be used for both external & internal walls.
iii. Emulsion Paint: It contains binding materials like polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins etc.. It dries in
1.5 to 2 hrs. & it is easy to apply. It is more durable & can be cleaned with water.
iv. Cement Paint: It is available in powder form. It consists of white cement, pigment & other additives.
It is durable & exhibits excellent decorative appearance. It should be applied on rough surface than
on smooth surfaces.
v. Bituminous Paint: This type of paint is manufactured by dissolving asphalt or bitumen in oil or
petroleum. It is black in colour. It is used for painting iron works under water.
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vi. Synthetic Rubber Paint: This paint is prepared from resins. It dries quickly & little affected by
weather & sunlight. It resists chemical attack well.
2.2 General Considerations
2.2.1 Positioning of Windows in Modern Tall Building

In olden days when the buildings were generally not more than three storeys high, the positioning of the
windows were more or less in line with the walls and the windows usually opened outside the walls. The
works on the windows like cleaning, painting of the external parts were done from the outside. With the
advent of the tall buildings, it has become a common practice to position the windows in such a way so as to
ensure that all the works on the windows (like cleaning) can be done from inside of the building. Many
modern, tall, commercial, fully air-conditioned buildings may have no windows but only special external
glassy coverings which need no painting but only cleaning.
2.2.2 Types of Paints

Wall paints can be classified into breathing and non-breathing types depending on their ability to let moisture
pass through the painted surfaces. Oil-based paints leave an impermeable film on the surface after drying.
Hence, if the moisture is entrapped behind the film, the surface blisters, as the moisture has to escape. This is
the non- breathing type of paint. On the other hand, cement paint after drying allows moisture to pass through
the painted surface. They are the breathing type of paints. In places where moisture tends to accumulate under
RC slabs (like those under bathrooms and wet areas of upper floors), it is preferable to use the breathing type
of paints like cement paints. Before we go into the details of these works, we should remember the following
general precautions to be taken:
1. Cement paint has to be applied to the wet surfaces. Lime wash and colour wash can also be applied to
the wet surfaces but other superior paints such as OBD and plastic emulsion paints should be applied
only after the moisture in the wall has dried out.
2. In case of newly plastered walls, these special paints should be applied only after three to six months
when plastering has been completed and the moisture in the wall has completed dried out. (In many
cases, cement paint is used initially and after a period of time, the final superior paint is applied.)
3. At least three coatings of paint should be given to the new surfaces.
i. the first coat is the priming coat with a suitable primer. There are different primers for wood,
plaster and metal.
ii. the second coat, called undercoat, covers the primer coat and acts as bond to subsequent coats. In
many cases, this coat is only a thinned paint of the finishing or third coat.
iii. the third coat is the final finishing coat. The final finish can be given as follows in order of
smoothness:
a. Mat finish or flat finish
b. Eggshell
c. Oil gloss
d. High gloss such as enamel
However, a high gloss finish highlights the irregularity of the surface and is generally not
preferred except in high class works.
4. While painting the outside walls, it is advisable to choose colours that do not fade when exposed to
direct sunlight.
Procedure for painting in new building:

It is preferable to paint the surfaces of new building only after 3 to 6 months when the plaster work is
completed. Even then for new works, it is considered better to use a primer paint to start with.
In additional, there may be pores to be filled. Hence, we use a filling in compound or a filler coat.
Thus, in all new painting works, we have the following five operations:
a. Cleaning the surface by proper sand papering (The sand paper we use for different surfaces are
different.
b. Application of primer coat
c. Filling the small dents by a filler coat
d. Application of first undercoat of the paint
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e. Application of finishing coats.
Thus, in addition to the main paint, we have to use the primer coat and the filler coat in the new works.
2.3 Description of paintwork of walls in Buildings:

The paints used for the walls & below roofs & floors of flat roofs are as follows:
i. White washing & colour washing using lime mixed with water: As these paints are used for low
cost buildings, preparation of wall surface is not given much importance. White-washing is carried
out using fat lime & colour-washing is done by adding approved pigments to the fat lime.
ii. Painting with Cement Paint: The cement paint comes in powder form & is available in many
colours. It is manufactured from white cement with pigments using special additives. It has water
proofing qualities too. It can be applied to concrete, plaster, etc. but it cannot be applied to gypsum
plaster, metal, wood surfaces, etc.
iii. Painting with Dry Distemper: Distempers are water paints with powdered chalk in which glue,
resin, etc. are added as a binder. The surface to be painted should be dry. It contains a glue-like
vehicle & looks like tinted powdered chalk.
iv. Painting with Oil Bound Washable Distemper (OBD): OBD comes as a thick paste. It is used as an
intermediate costly paint for interior walls & ceiling where moisture is not present. It wears itself to a
smooth, durable & finish that can be wiped clean with water & soap.
v. Painting with Plastic Emulsion Paint: Cemented plastered walls & concrete surfaces in high
buildings are nowadays commonly painted with emulsion paints. It is luxury flat finish paint for
interiors & exteriors of plastered walls. It is washable after one month of self curing.
vi. Painting of Iron & Steel with Enamel Paint: For iron & steel surfaces, we generally use enamel
paints. They are available in interior & special especial exterior grades. In buildings, these paints are
mainly used for painting iron & steel items such as iron grills, steel windows, etc. They are available
as ready mixed paints.
vii. Painting of Woodwork with Enamel Paint: Woodwork such as doors & windows can be painted or
polished for durability. These paints are applied to woodwork only after the application of wood
primer.
2.4 Painting of Iron:

For iron & steel surfaces, we generally use enamel paints. They are available in interior & special especial
exterior grades. In buildings, these paints are mainly used for painting iron & steel items such as iron grills,
steel windows, etc. They are available as ready mixed paints. Turpentine is added to ready mixed paint for
thinning the enamel paints.
Method of painting of iron & steel with enamel paints:

a. Cleaning & Sandpapering: The surface is thoroughly cleaned by mechanical means of scraping,
brushing with wire brushes. It is then smoothened with sandpaper.
b. Application of Primer: The 1st prime coat is applied by brushes. After the first coat has completely
dried, a second coat is applied so that a film fully covering the metal is obtained.
c. Stopping & Filling: Rough surfaces are filled with material like putty & are allowed to make smooth
surface.
d. Application of First Undercoat: Undercoat is applied to the surfaces with minimum brush marks. It
is first applied in vertical strokes until the surface is covered & then, is applied crosswise with light
strokes. Finally it is laid off with vertical strokes. This continues one coat.
e. Application of finishing coat: The first finishing coating is applied & is allowed to dry. We then
gently remove the gloss for the entire surface. When the surface becomes dry & free from dust, we
apply the second coat.
The following points are to be noted:
1) For repainting of old iron surfaces, cleaning of the surface with turpentine oil should be done
first to remove grease and perspiration of handmarks etc. The surface is allowed to dry and
then repainted.
2) If exterior surfaces of iron have fungi developed on them, then it should be removed by
ammoniacal copper solution or 2.5% magnesium silicon fluoride and allowed to dry.
3) The covering capacity of enamel paints is 18 2/l per coat to 20 2/l per coat.
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3. Learning process and support materials Following
are the learning process of this unit: -Lecture
-Practical
-Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. What is paint?
2. What is vehicle of paint?
3. List out the different types of paint.
B. Short Questions
1. Describe the procedure of painting in new building?
2. Describe the procedure of painting in iron works?
1. Write about ‘Description of paintwork of walls in building’.
Glossary:
Advent- coming, arrival
Opaque- neither reflecting nor emitting light
Pleasing- giving pleasure, cheer
Synthetic- produced by synthesis instead of being isolated from a natural source (but may be
identical to a product so obtained)
Exhibit- to display or show something
Dent- a shallow deformation in the surface of an object, produced by an impact
Tinted- slightly colored
Stroke- to move one’s hand or an object over the surface of Gloss-
shine, luster
  P.K. Guha, Maintenance and Repairs Of Buildings New Central Book Agencies
Learning Private Limited.
9
Title: Unit-3 Causes & Detection of Damages
1. Objective:
a) To identify causes of damages
b) To list out basic equipments for investigation
2. Contents
3.1 Causes of damages, damages due to earthquakes, fire hazards, flood, hazards, dilapidation
Causes of damage:
Damage is the consequence of defect or decay existing in structure. It may be visible on the structure or may
be hidden within. The causes of damage in the structures are described below:
 Earthquake: Earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of
energy in the Earth’s lithosphere that creates seismic waves. It manifests themselves by shaking &
sometimes displacement of the ground. It tends to twist the structure
& affects the components of the structure.
Earthquake constitutes one of the greatest natural hazards to life and property. Earthquakes have
caused destruction of villages, towns and cities. Due to suddenness of their occurrence, they are the
least understood and most dreaded agency of destruction.
The disastrous effects of earthquake cause destruction of man-made structures, like buildings small
and tall, bridges dams, etc. The collapse of residential buildings, schools, colleges, hospitals, etc are
most significant direct effects of earthquake disaster, and most of the loss of during earthquake can be
attributed to their destruction.
The severity of earthquake depends on its intensity. The accepted method of measuring the intensity
is by ‘Richter Scale’ I.S. 1893-1984 contains the description of the scale.
The intensity of earthquake is not uniform throughout the country. In places its effect is severe while
it is mild in other places For the purpose of determining the seismic forces the country has been
divided into five zones. Seismic force is mild in Zone I, while its intensity is highest in Zone V.
Structures can be made earthquake-proof by adopting preventive measures; but cost of constructing
all the structures to a damage-proof standard is prohibitive. In the circumstances, the structures have
been classified according to their importance. Some of them are most essential and damage of these
structures due to earthquake would not only be limited to the damage of the structures, but would
cause other problems also. The structures can be made fully damage-proof. Some are built in such a
way that probable damage would not cause loss of life, but would require repairs or replacement, cost
of which would be less than making that damage-proof. Some of the structures are left without any
damage-proof arrangement against probable earthquake.
One of the major factors in seismic success or failure is architectural configuration of the building.
Attention in this respect during planning may save a large number of non-engineered buildings from
earthquake disaster.
 Fire Hazards: A fire hazard can be defined as an accidental fire that can happen due to carelessness
such as improper storage or transport of fuels & expose to combustible gas. It
reduces water content & the strength of concrete structure. It causes damage to woodworks like doors
& windows & other materials like plastic, glass, etc. Resistance to fire hazard has two distinct
functions:
i. Preventive measures, and
ii. Fire fighting

The vulnerable points or the source of creation of fire need be identified for taking proper preventive
measures against fire in a building.
In a building the most probable sources of the outbreak of fire are:
i. Electrical installations, and
ii. Timber works
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In spite of taking all possible preventive measures, if a fire breaks out the same has to be
contained and extinguished at the earliest before any damage is done or the damage need be limited to a
minimum. This requires fire fighting installations in the buildings.
The three basic essentials required before any fire can start are:
a. Fuel, i.e., something to burn,
b. Air, i.e., oxygen to sustain combustion, and
c. Heat
The process of combustion or burning requires all three to be present.

Removal of any one of the three will result in extinguishment of the fire and this is the principle on
which all forms of fire extinguishment are based.
In a building, the fuel for burning is always present, oxygen is available from the air, and only heat is
required to start fire. An electric spark or a careless action of any person- throwing a piece of burning
particle – may provide heat for starting of fire.
Fire prevention and fire fighting arrangement shall be kept in the building to prevent disastrous fire. If
fire actually breaks out, arrangement for fighting it against spreading and ultimately extinguishing it in
the shortest possible time shall be kept.
In tall buildings of height exceeding 18.28 m, dry or wet riser shall be installed solely for use by the
Fire Service Personnel.
 Flood: A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. It often causes damage
to structure if they are in natural flood plains of rivers. A high discharge of water sweeps away the
 structure or may causes drastic disaster to the structures.
Houses may have to be built in flood-prone areas. Especially in rural areas these houses are generally
built with earthen plinth. The plinth height of the houses are higher, might be up to 2.0 m or more
with a sub-plinth, like sub-bank of road embankment. The houses need some special preventive
measures for their protection against flood. If the proposed house is of masonry or of concrete or
timber, the ground floor height could be increased for keeping it above the highest flood level
observed in the area. The plinth may be kept void. In other times of the year, the covered space below
the ground floor could be conveniently used as working place.

 Dilapidation: dilapidation is the term used to denote decay/damage or waste, state/condition of a
premises or building. It means decay/waste state of disrepair caused due to continuous neglect in
 maintenance and repair willfully or otherwise.
Now, dilapidation of building means that the physical life of a building is tending to be expired. i.e.,
the building is approaching a condition which would render it unfit for use. Such condition of a
building may occur due to various reasons.

The physical causes which reduce a building to the dilapidated condition are:
i. Natural decay and ageing
ii. Inadequate or no maintenance
iii. Bad use of building
iv. Use of underspecified materials
v. Bad workmanship
vi. Physical influence
vii. Effect of aggressive environment
viii. Force majeure
3.2 List of basic equipments for investigation:

 Rebound Hammer test (Schmidt Hammer): It is used to provide a convenient & rapid indication of the
compressive strength of concrete. It is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
 depends on the hardness of the concrete surface against which the mass strikes.
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 Concrete Ultrasonic Testing Equipment (CUTE 102): It is used to assess the homogeneity & integrity
 of concrete quality by Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) measurement method.
 Covermaster and Profometer: It is used to find out the diameter & position of the rebars in a structure
so that we can decide where a drilling can be carried out to take a core of the concrete without cutting
 a rebar in the structure.
  Half-cell potential: It is used for measuring the status of corrosion activity in the embedded steel.
 Rapid Chloride test Kit-4: It is used to determine chloride content from broken samples or core
samples of concrete.

Following are the learning process of this unit:
-Lecture
-Practical
-Discussion
-Group work
4. Assessment
1. What is damage?
B. Short Questions
1. What are the causes of damage in the structures? Explain any two.
1. Explain the basic equipments for investigation.
Glossary:
Lithosphere- the rigid, mechanically strong, outer layer of the Earth Manifest- to
show plainly; to make to appear distinctly; to display; to exhibit Drastic- extreme,
severe, acting rapidly or violently Render- to cause to become
Homogeneity- the state or quality of being homogeneous
Integrity- the state of being wholesome; unimpaired, the quality or condition of being complete
  P.K. Guha Maintenance and Repairs Of Buildings New Central Book Agencies
12
Title: Unit-4 Materials for repairs
1. Objective:
a) To list out common concrete repair chemicals
b) To describe application of repair chemicals
c) To list out some examples of concrete chemicals for repair
d) To familiar shot-creting and mechanical anchors
2. Contents
4.1 Introduction:
Proper maintenance of a concrete structure is essential in order to guarantee the designed lifetime, since there
can be many causes of concrete deterioration. Therefore, concrete repair is a specialist activity requiring fully
trained & competent personnel at all stages of the process.
Concrete Repair Chemicals are those chemicals that are used to repair damaged sections or members of any
concrete structure. They are used for increasing bond strength between old concrete & new concrete, water
repellant, corrosion resistance purpose etc.
4.2 Most Common Concrete Repair Chemicals:

Depending upon the materials from which they are produced, they can be grouped into following three
primary groups.
i. Epoxy resin based: This group of chemical consists of two components: Resin & Hardener. Resins are
the product of plants or it can be manufactured in factory. Hardener is mixed with resin to start the
process of polymerization (Polymerization is the chemical process that combines several monomers to
form a polymer or polymeric compound).
Uses:
 Used for the preparation of epoxy bonded concrete.
  Used for crack repair works.
 Steel bars can also be coated with epoxy based chemicals to increase its corrosion resistance
 capacity.
ii. Acrylic polymer based: The problem with epoxy based chemicals is that it requires skilled persons to
use it because there are many factors that can affect its properties, such as time of mixing & area of
application. To avoid this problem, Polymer based repair chemicals were developed. It is much
cheaper than epoxy resin based chemicals but costlier than cement. The primary advantage of using
polymer based chemicals is that they make the concrete or mortar much stronger with less shrinkage.
iii. SBR based: The term SBR stands for Styrene Butadiene Rubber. This is a single pack aqueous
polymer that can be mixed with cement. This type of chemical is cheaper than polymer based
chemicals. It can be used in the same way as in the case of polymer based chemicals. The modern
modified SBR chemical has resistant to UVR.
4.3 Application of Repair Chemicals:

We may classify the materials for concrete works into construction & repair chemicals. These special
materials are the following:
i. Bonding aids (materials are moisture tolerant epoxy resins & SBR acrylic & copolymer emulsions)
ii. Structural crack repair materials (low viscosity epoxy resin & low viscosity polyester & acrylic
resins)
iii. Materials for repairing the breakage or cracks of concrete over small & large areas. For these purpose,
the recommended materials for various sizes of breakage are as follows :
 6mm to 12mm : Epoxy resin mortars
 12mm to 25mm : Polymer modified cementitious mortars
 More than 25mm: Cement & sand mortars with some polymer or sprayed concrete like
gunite.
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4.4 Some examples of Concrete Chemicals for repair:
i. Zentritix KMH (Corrosion Protection & Bonding Coat) :
This chemical can be used for repair RC slab in which underside has fallen off due to corrosion of
steel. This is mineral based corrosion protection agent for reinforcing steel & also a bonding coat. It is
manufactured by MC Bauchemie in powder form for hand applied coarse repair mortar.
ii. Nafufill BB2 (Bonding Agent & Polymer) :
This is based on acrylic based bonding agent & also polymer component made by MC Bauchemie in
liquid form. This chemical is used in mortar system for many purposes such as the following:
 Forming good bond between old & new concrete surfaces as a bond coat
 Making polymer modified repair mortars for filling of structural components
iii. Sika Latex Powder (Water Resistant Bonding Agent) :
It is manufactured by Sika India Pvt. Ltd. This is a popular synthetic water resistant bonding agent
made of latex emulsion. It can be added to cement to make slurry or can be used to make
mortar/plaster. It is also used for making waterproof screed concrete. But it is not exposed to the ultra
violet rays of sun.
iv. Sunepoxy 358 (epoxy Bond Coat) :
It is manufactured by Sunanda Specialist coating company. It is specified specially for bond coat of
the old concrete surface when the size of member like a column is to be enlarged for taking more
loads.
v. New coat (Dr. Fixit) (Roof Waterproofing Coating) :
This a very popular acrylic chemical for waterproof coating that can be directly applied for
waterproofing a leaky terrace roof. It is applied after the application of its primer manufactured by
company called Dr. Fixit.
4.5 Shot-creting:
Shotcrete or gunite is the sprayed or pneumatically placed Portland cement mortar or concrete. This type of
construction is very much used in repair work of large areas. There are two methods of placing concrete or
mortar by this method. They are dry mix process & wet mix process.
In the dry mix process, a mixture of dry cement & aggregates is blown through the pipe along with a high
volume high pressure & to this; water is added in the form of fine spray at the nozzle.
In the wet mix process, the premixed wet concrete or mortar mixture is pumped through a pipeline to the
nozzle from where it is forcefully expelled by compressed air.
4.6 Mechanical anchor:

Mechanical anchors are expansion shell anchors available for a range of rock bolt & hole diameters. They are
used to provide immediate point anchored load bearing support to installed rock bolts. Anchors are attached to
the inserted end of rock bolts & are set in place by rotating the bolt to draw the anchor through the wedges.
Anchors are designed to be installed in specific hole diameters. Oversized holes diameters can result in lower
than acceptable anchorage. Undersized holes can result in anchor damage during installation.
\
Mechanical anchors bolts will generally lose load over time & should not be considered long term
support.

are the learning process of this unit:
-Lecture -Practical -
Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. Define shot-crete.
2. Define mechanical anchor.
3. Differentiate dry mix and wet mix process of shotcreting.
B. Short Questions
14
1. Write about the applications of repair chemicals.
2. Write short on: ‘Epoxy resin based’ & ‘Acrylic polymer based’ repair chemicals.
1. Explain some concrete chemicals for repair. Any four.
Glossary
Repellant- repulsive; resistant or impervious to something
Tolerant- tending to withstand or survive
Viscosity- the state of having a thick consistency
Slurry- any flowable suspension of small particles in liquid
15
Title: Unit-5 Masonry Walls
1. Objective:
a) To define damp wall
b) To explain the causes and effects of dampness and remedies to damp wall
c) To list out eradication of efflorescence
d) To describe cracks in walls
e) To familiar remedial & preventive measures bond between old & new brick work, reinforced
brickwork
2. Contents
5.1 Damp walls, causes effects, remedies, eradication of efflorescence

Damp Wall (Dampness):
Damp Wall refers to the access & penetration of moisture content into the building through its walls, floor,
roof, etc. It may spread upward from the ground through the walls & floors or downwards from the roof
through the walls.
Causes of Dampness:
The following are the main causes of dampness.
i. Moisture from the ground: The materials used for the foundation & floor absorb moisture from the
soil, & it rises up the surface of the building by capillary action.
ii. Splashing of rain: When rain splashes on external walls, dampness may enter the interior. Water
accumulated on sunshades & in balconies enters the walls & causes dampness.
iii. Condensation: Dampness is caused due to condensation of atmospheric moisture, which is deposited
on walls & ceilings.
iv. Construction defects: The following are some of the construction defects that can cause dampness.
 Improper planning of drainage
 Lack of proper slope in roof
 Defective pipe fittings
 Improperly sealed construction joints.
Effects of Dampness:
 Ugly patches appear on the walls & ceiling.
 Plaster softens & crumbles.
 The materials used for wall decoration such as paints & wall papers are damaged.
 Metal components of the building corrode.
 Electrical fittings are damaged.
 Woodwork decays due to dry rot.
 Floor finish may be damaged & loosened also.
Remedies to Damp Wall:

Remedies to damp wall may be temporary or permanent according to the demands. Again, treatment to
remove dampness would be different for internal and external walls.
i. Temporary Remedies:
a. Temporary remedies for internal walls:
 Application of bituminous painting: The affected wall is to be cleaned, allowed to be dried &
 then a coat of hot bitumen is applied uniformly.
 Painting with water proofing solution: Either commercially available such solutions or
 prepared solution may be applied after cleaning the surface.
 Applying cement wash: This is an easy method. Cement & water mixed with admixture may
be applied one or more coats after cleaning the surface.


16
b. Temporary Remedies for External Walls:
 Coating with boiled linseed oil or commercially available linseed oil may be boiled and
 applied hot with brush after cleaning the surface.
  Painting with paraffin: Paraffin oil may be painted over the affected surface after cleaning.
 Application of bituminous painting
 Applying water proofing solutions
 Applying cement wash
ii. Permanent Remedies:
Before selecting a method for permanent remedy against dampness in walls, the cause of dampness
shall have to be investigated. Once the cause is established, the action to be taken for remedial
measure would not be difficult.
As for example:
  Dampness due to leakage from the roof – Stop the roof leakage.
  Cavities, holes, etc. – Detect the exact spot, open the space and fill the cavity with concrete.
  Salt in plaster – Remove the plaster & apply new rendering with salt free sand.
 Vegetation – Removal of vegetation including uprooting & applying chemical solution so that
growth may not recur & sealing if there may be any crack.
Eradication of Efflorescence:
Efflorescence is difficult to eradicate easily. This may be termed as cancer of building. The first & foremost
action in eradication would be ascertained definitely the cause of it i.e. the source of ingress of moisture in the
masonry. The following are the points to eradicate the efflorescence.
 Well fired bricks should be used in construction.
 Sand should be tested for its salt content.
  Proper D.P.C should be provided in the building.
 Efflorescence on brick work traceable to salts in the materials can be removed by dry brushing &
washing repeatedly. Such efflorescence may re-appear in dry season but usually are less in intensity.
Finally these disappear as the salt content of the bricks is gradually leached out.
5.2 Cracks in walls, remedial &preventive measures bond between old &new brick work,
reinforced brickwork
Cracks in Walls:
Cracks in walls are signs of distress in structural or non-structural members caused due to separation of joints,
development of fissures, shearing, separation of members built with different materials in masonry building.
The cracks in buildings (both in masonry & concrete works) are classified as follows according to the width of
cracks.
 Less than 1mm cracks are called thin cracks.
 1mm to 2mm cracks are medium cracks.
 2mm to 4mm cracks are wide cracks.
 More than 4mm cracks are very wide cracks.
Causes of Cracks:
Some of the reasons for the formation of a crack in load bearing wall can be one or more of the following
reasons:
 Defective rendering & plastering
 Settlement of the foundation in a load bearing wall
  Temperature effects
  Local deformation at junctions of masonry with concrete members like slab bearing on masonry walls
 Cracks in half brick partition walls
17
Repair of Cracks in walls:
The cracks in brick walls can be treated by the methods given below.
 Works on cracks less than 1.5mm in width: They are generally filled up with crack sealer. The wall is
 then painted with the matching paint.
 Works on cracks wider than 1.5mm but not very serious: These are repaired by raking them out to
about 25mm depth & refilling with cement mortar or with crack filling compounds available in the
 market.
 Stitching of wide cracks in walls : This is done by stitching a cracked wall with thin reinforced mortar
blocks in case of small cracks & by reinforcement concrete blocks in case of large cracks. Thin mortar
blocks can be struck on both sides of the brickworks for moderate cracks. Thick concrete blocks are
generally inserted in full thickness of the brickwork at every 5th to 6th course for large cracks.
Bond between old & new brickwork:

In repair works, very often new brickwork is required to be bonded with the existing old brickwork. Bonding
of the new brickwork with old one need to be perfect for proper transfer of load & functioning of the repaired
wall as one unit. To achieve this, special care should be taken for bonding. Toothing as shown in the figure is
very effective and is easy to form.
Fig.5.1 Bonding between old and new brickwork

1. Toothing
Reinforced Brickwork/Reinforced Brick masonry (RBM):

 Reinforced brickwork consists of brick masonry which incorporates steel reinforcement embedded in
 mortar.
  This masonry has greatly increased resistance to forces tensile & shear stresses.
 The steel provides additional tensile strength, allowing better use of brick masonry’s inherent
 compressive strength.
 The two materials complement each other, resulting in an excellent structural material.
Fig. 5.2 Reinforced brickwork
18
Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. Why the cracks appear in building?
2. What is reinforced brick? Sketch out.
B. Short Questions
1. What are the causes of dampness? Describe them.
2. Define dampness. What are the causes of dampness?
1. Define dampness. Describe the necessary measures to be advised by you to make masonry wall
damp proof.
Glossary
Penetrate- to enter into; to pierce
Capillary action- the drawing of a liquid (often against gravity) into or up narrow interstices due to
surface tension
Splashes- to spread or splatter around suddenly
Fissures- a crack or opening, a groove
19
Title: Unit-6 Repairs to foundation
1. Objective:
a) To define settlement of foundation
b) To explain types of settlement
c) To familiar causes & preventive measures of failure of foundation
d) To define foundation sinking
e) To familiar examination of existing foundation and strengthening of foundation
2. Contents
6.1 Remedies, types &processes of settlement, foundation sinking

Settlement of Foundation:
Settlement is the vertical displacement from its original level of placement. Settlement has got several
implications on a foundation. The implications include:
 Appearance of structures
 Utility of structures
 Damage to the structures
Types of Settlement:
On the basis of the movement of the foundation, settlement is categorized into three main types, which are
shown in Fig. They are:
i. Uniform settlement: A settlement is uniform, if all pans of the structure undergo equal settlement as
shown in fig (a). Uniform settlement occurs under a structure supported by a very rigid raft
foundation.
ii. Tilt: Tilt occurs when an entire structure rotates due to non-uniform settlement. The tilt is shown in
fig (b).
iii. Angular distortion: When two foundations supporting columns/walls settle unequally, the structure
will be subjected to angular distortion as shown in fig (c).
Fig 6.1 Types of settlement
Failure & preventive measures of foundation:

The causes & preventive measures of failure of foundation are as follows:
 Unequal settlement: Subsoil may have unequal settlement due to different pressures at different
portions or due to unequal safe bearing capacity under different portions of a building. The preventive
 measures are as follows:
o The foundation should rest on hard strata.
 o Foundation should be designed so as to get uniform pressure on soil.
 Subsoil moisture movement: Expansive soils like black cotton soil crack & sink when they are dry &
expand due to increase in to moisture content in rainy season. This causes upward pressure on the
foundation, resulting in failure. To avoid such failures, expansive soil should be completely removed
from the sides & bottom of foundation.
20
 Movement of sub soil: Sometimes, movement of subsoil takes place due to various factors like flow
of rainwater close to foundation, percolation of leakage of water from water supply pipes & sanitary
 pipes of the building. To prevent it such failures, the following measures need to be taken:
o Providing suitable drain for rainwater. o
 Making joints in the pipes watertight.
 Transpiration of trees & shrubs: If there are trees very close to the building, their roots may penetrate
the subsoil & absorb moisture. As a result, voids in the soil reduce & the ground near the wall
depresses. The only preventive measure is to avoid planting trees that have long roots & keep the
 building area free from shrubs.
 Unequal settlement of the masonry: The mortar joints in the foundation may shrink unevenly due to
excessive loads. It is advisable not to build more than 1m height foundation masonry in a day & keep
the joints thin. Use of stiff mortar is to be preferred.
Foundation Sinking:
A sinking foundation is one issue that can occur if the foundation is laid improperly or on unstable soil.
Sinking foundations are problems that need to be addressed and examined as soon as notice them to prevent
further damage. There are several different techniques used to fix a sinking foundation, and each is more
appropriate in certain situations.
 High-pressure grouting works by injecting grout into unstable soil to improve its integrity,
 Helical piers can be used in some situations where other piers cannot.
6.2 Examination of existing foundation, strengthening of foundation

Examination of Existing Foundation:
Sometimes, it becomes necessary to examine the foundation of an existing building to check if it is safe or if it
would be safe for addition of one or more floors on the existing structure.
 The section of the foundation would have to be ascertained be either by obtaining it from the
‘as built’ drawing or excavating at the sides & taking measurements.
  The bearing capacity of the soil would have to be ascertained close to the foundation level.
 The dead load & live load on the foundation coming from the existing structure including foundation
 would have to be ascertained.
 The intensity of pressure on the soil below the foundation thus evaluated would have to be compared
 with the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
 Intensity of pressure < safe bearing capacity, capable of carrying additional load
 Load of additional floor proposed to be added is computed & the section of the existing load bearing
 walls is checked.
 If the wall section is found to be safe & the foundation is also found to be safe & intensity of pressure
on the soil below the foundation is within the permissible limit, the additional floor proposed can be
 built.
 If the foundation is found to be inadequate, it would have to be strengthened by widening the
foundation base.
Strengthening of foundation:
Columns foundations need strengthening in the case of applying additional loads. The repair work of
foundations is carried out by the method of underpinning.
The process of strengthening the foundation of existing building is called underpinning. The main objective of
underpinning is to transfer the foundation load to a lower stronger depth.
Methods of Underpinning:
The two methods are commonly adopted are Pit & Pile method.
Pit Method: Pit method is the traditional method of underpinning. It involves extending the old
foundation till reaches a stable stratum.
The soil below the existing foundation is excavated in a controlled manner through stages. When
strata suitable are reached, the excavation is filled with concrete & kept for curing, before next
excavation starts.
21
This is a low cost method suitable for the shallow foundation.
Fig. 6.2 Pit method

 Pile Method: In this method, piles are driven on adjacent sides of the wall that supports the weak
 foundation. A needle or pin penetrates through the wall that is in turn connected to the piles.
Needles behave like pile caps. Settlement in soil due to water clogging or clayey nature can be
treated by this method.
Fig.6.3 Pile method
Shoring:
Shoring is the temporary support given to improve the lateral strength of walls during repairs.
Such support is required during the following situations:
 When the wall bulges due to poor workmanship.
 When the wall cracks due to the settlement of foundation.
 When the openings are to be made in the wall.
 When an adjacent structure is to be dismantled.
Shores are classified into three categories according to their positions in space:
 Raking Shores (Inclined)
 Fly Shores (Horizontal)
 Dead Shores (Vertical)
22
Fig.6.4 Methods of shoring along with
height of the building for stability (a)
dead shore, (b) raking shore and (c)
flying shore

Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. Write about foundation sinking.
B. Short Questions
1. What are the types of settlement? Explain it.
2. How can you examine the foundation of an existing building?
1. Write about strengthening of foundation.
Glossary
Distortion- a result of bringing something out of shape
Stiff- rigid, hard to bend
Inject- to push or pump something in
Ascertain- to make (someone) certain or confident about something; to ensure
Stratum- layer of material arranged one on top of another
Workmanship- the skill of worker
Clogging- the situation of something being obstructed, blocked
Dismantled- to take apart; to disassemble
23
Title: Unit-7 Water Proofing
1. Objective:
a) To define waterproofing
b) To explain repair of rain water leakage in building
c) To describe repair and renovation of waterproofing works of RC flat roofs
d) To familiar repair of leakage of basement due to groundwater
2. Contents
7.1 Repair of rain water Leakage in building

Waterproofing:
Waterproofing is the process of making a structure waterproof & water resistant so that it remains relatively
unaffected by water or resisting the flow of water under specified conditions.
Types of rainwater leakage in building:

The problem of rainwater leakage in buildings can be classified as follows:
 Leakage in flat roof terrace
 Leakage in shells & sloped roofs
 Leakage through junctions of walls & sunshades
 Leakage through cracks on external walls
 Leakage at junction of outer walls with roof slabs & other floor slabs
 Leakage from external electric points
 Leakage from expansion joints of slab or beams
Repair of rainwater leakage in building:

 Drainage of flat roof should be planned at the construction stage itself.
  Cracks in junction of walls should be filled with elastomeric compounds.
 All cracks that have been formed on external walls should be painted with special waterproofing paint
 (Silicon paint).
 All the external electrical points & fittings should be sealed with good sealants. A wires & pipes taken
 out in the building should be bent down.
 Expansion joints in slabs & beams should be properly filled with approved joint fillers (special
materials that allows the movement of the joints)
7.2 Repair and Renovation of waterproofing works of RC Flat Roofs

Sources of leakage of flat roofs:
  Inadequate slope of the roof surface.
 Presence of local depressions.
 Absence or defects in the construction of the fillets or golas.
 Defect in the khurrah & drainage pipe.
 Leakage of joints of the flat tiles laid on the top of the roof.
Waterproofing of RC Flat Roofs:

Waterproof of flat slabs may be done by:
 Lime Concrete Terracing: The RC roof is cleaned thoroughly, & a layer of bitumen primer is applied
on it. Three coats of hot blown asphalt are then applied, over which a specially prepared lime concrete
(1:5:10) bed of 100mm thickness is provided. It is cured for 6 days. The surface of the bedding is
covered with flat tiles with cement mortar (1:3). A convex corner joint is made at the junction with
 the parapet wall.
 Membrane Waterproofing: In this method, a layer of hot mastic asphalt is applied on the clean roof
surface. This is covered by jute cloth, on which another layer of mastic asphalt is laid. So, this jute
mat is sandwiched between two layers of mastic asphalts.
24
Fig 7.1 Lime Concrete Terracing
Fig 7.2 Membrane watreproofing
 Using Waterproofing compounds: Several waterproofing compounds are available in the market
 under different trade names. They may be grouped into the following categories.

Waterproofing admixtures: These admixtures are in powder or liquid form; about 2%
 of the admixtures are mixed while making cement mortar. When the finishing coat
mortar is applied, these compound seal the pores in the slab & make them watertight.

Waterproofing membrane system: These materials are available in the form of paints.
They may be epoxy based or elastomeric, & may be applied to the roof slabs with 
rollers, brush or spray. A min. of two coats are applied to get desired waterproofing.
7.3 Repair of Leakage of Basement due to Groundwater

Methods of waterproofing Basement:
The basement waterproofing method needs to depend on the type and severity of the damage. The source of
the water damage, whether external or internal, also plays a major role in determining the type of
waterproofing method to use.
There are three basic basement waterproofing methods:
 Interior sealants: Although interior sealants are not often used as a basement waterproofing tool, they
can be used as a temporary material for keeping the basement dry. This tool is designed to ensure that
the atmospheric humidity level in the basement stays low. Using interior sealants to waterproof the
basement prevents moisture from being absorbed by the basement walls and floors, and can also help
 prevent moisture from spreading to other parts of the structure.
 Interior water drainage: The most effective basement waterproofing method is called interior water
drainage. A drainage system can help avoid water buildup in the basement, moving the water from the
footers of the house foundation and out below the basement floor. Interior drainage systems can be
installed easily & are much more affordable than outside basement waterproofing systems.
 Exterior basement waterproofing: Exterior basement waterproofing is a costly and extensive method
used by contractors to waterproof basements, usually at the time of construction. This method is
25
designed to prevent water from causing any major structural damage to building, using polymers and
membranes to coat the exterior basement walls.

-Lecture
-Practical
-Discussion
-Group work
4. Assessment
1. List out the points to repair of rainwater leakage in building.
B. Short Questions
1. Write are the methods of waterproofing of RC flat roof? Explain any one.
2. What are the basic basement waterproofing methods? Explain any two.
Glossary
Sealant- any material used to seal a surface so as to prevent passage of a fluid
Depression- an area that is lower in topography than its surrounding
Sandwich- to place one item between two other, usually flat, items
Severity- the degree of something undesirable; badness or seriousness
26
Title: Unit-8 Concept of repairs & strengthening of RCC structures
1. Objective:
a) To explain repairs of RCC structures
b) To familiar physical examination of common defects
c) To describe structural repairs & strengthening repairs by new developments
2. Contents
8.1 Concept of repairs of RCC structures

Repairs of RCC Structures:
In present time, the concrete structures exist in extreme aggressive environment. The load bearing capacity of
a concrete structure could be guaranteed, provided the structure is properly designed, engineered &
constructed to specified standards of workmanship. In practice, this is not always possible.
A defect existing in a structure causes damage as a consequence which generally manifests itself on the
surface of the concrete. To arrive at a correct diagnosis of damaged structures, they need be inspected &
analyzed systematically step by step.
8.2 Physical examination of common defects

The common defects of distressed structures are visible & can be ascertained by visual examination of the
symptoms which appear on the surface:
 Active crack: Excessive moment, shear or torsion
 Dormant crack: Temporary overload
 Swelling of concrete: alkali aggregate reaction
 Scaling & spalling of concrete: excessive compressive stress chemical attack
  Erosion of concrete surface: abrasion, chemical attack, poor concrete
 Discoloration of concrete: excessive temperature develops yellowish tinge in concrete, chemical
 attack, fungus growth, rusting of steel
 Rusting of steel: poor permeable concrete cover
 Yielding of steel: overload
 Snapping of steel: fatigue, brittle, fracture
 Excessive deflection of member: poor design
8.3 Structural repairs & strengthening repairs by new developments

Structural repairs & strengthening:
There are various methods of repairing damaged structures according to the degree of damage & structural
character of the member.
 Crack in RCC member: Crack in RCC member may appear in the tensile zone of the member due to
excessive bending moment. To correct this defect, the member shall be released of load causing
bending as far as possible, then strengthening the member by adding reinforcing steel with proper key
 & bonding with the old member is done
 Crack due to excessive shear: These cracks are at 45o to the axis of the member; they are wider at the
lower fiber & appear in the compressive zone. These may be corrected by adding diagonal shear
 reinforcement in the form of stitching.
 Crack in slab: These cracks are generally at the support or at the mid-span bottom develop due to
 insufficient steel or displacement. These may be corrected by addition of steel bars as required.
 Crack in foundation due to settlement: These, when detected, may be beyond repair. The foundation
may have to be replaced. In such case, either the foundation would have to be redesigned with wider
base or the foundation may have to be taken down on soil having safe SBC.





27

-Lecture
-Discussion
-Group work
4. Assessment
1. Write in short about Concept of repairs of RCC structures.
B. Short Questions
1. Describe about the physical examination of common defects & damages.
1. What are the various methods of repairing damaged structures according to the degree of damage &
structural character of the member? Explain it.
Glossary
Aggressive- prone to behave in a way that involves attacking or arguing
Tinge- to add a small amount of colour
Snapping- the sound or action of a sudden break
Consequences- that which follows something on which it depends; that which is produced by a cause
Dormant- inactive
28
Title: Unit-9 Damage due to fire
1. Objective:
a) To identify effects of fire on RCC and factors that affect the resistance of concrete in fire
b) To explain repairs to RCC structures damaged due to fire
2. Contents
9.1 FIRE RESISTANCE
Physical characteristics of hydrated cement

Chemical integration of cement and water causes hydration of cement. The product of hydration is more like
gels, consisting of poorly formed infinitely small fibrous crystals. The whole is seen as a bundle of fibres, a
fluffy mass growing with age.
The hydrated cement, or cement gel, consists of the solid products of hydration plus the water which is held physically or is absorbed on the
large surface area of the hydrates; this water is called gel water and is located between the solid products of hydration in so-called gel pores.
These are very small (about 80x10−9 mm) in diameter. The volume of gel water is 28 per cent of the volume of gel. In addition to gel water,
there exists water combined chemically or physically with the product of hydration and is thus, held very firmly. This is known as combined
water and exists in fully hydrated cement. The combined water is about 23 per cent of the mass of dry cement.
There is no chemical bond between hydrated cement products and the aggregates. The surface of the gel
forms an atomic bond with the surface of aggregate.
Effect of Temperature on Reinforced Concrete

During a change of temperature, the small difference in rates of thermal expansion between cement gel,
aggregate and steel bars will cause one component tie with another thus hindering free temperature
deformation between them and resulting in internal counteracting strings.
Internal strains incited by temperatures up to 100°C are negligible and will not lower the efficiency of the
reinforced concrete. But higher temperatures will have an adverse effect; 25% of the strength lost a 200°C to
250°C, and, if heated to 500°C - 600°C and then cooled, the aggregate will fail e strike on the a window g of
harder completely.
The principal reasons for this break-down under high temperatures are:
i. Great internal stresses due to difference of temperature, deformation between cement gel and
aggregate.
ii. Chemical dehydration of cement minerals which lead to segregation of free lime and it’s slaking
upon cooling through the action of either gel water or free moisture and is followed by the rupture of
the concrete.
The effect of heat upon concrete-steel bond is qualified by the kind of bar surface and the amount of heat. If
the bar is smooth, the bond is greatly weakened, beginning at 250°C and almost entirely lost at 500°C. But if
the bars are intermittently deformed, their grip is hardly affected even at 500°C.
Since the mechanical properties of ordinary reinforced concrete are vulnerable to high temperatures structures
subjected to such action (furnaces, flues, etc.) are built of heat-proof concrete that retain al physico-
mechanical characteristics under protracted thermal regimes of 1,000°C to 1,400°C.
Fire resistance
A concrete element of construction, when subjected to fire, undergoes a gradual reduction in strength and
rigidity. The fire resistance of an element of construction is expressed as the time for which the element
resists any change or damage or spalling.
Factors that influence the fire resistance of concrete structures are:
a. Size and shape of the element,
b. Type of concrete.
c. Type of reinforcement
d. Provision of protective concrete cover to the reinforcement
e. Load supported, and
f. Conditions of restraint
29
Factors to be considered in determining fire resistance
i. Aggregate
a. Dense concrete: calcareous aggregates and aggregates siliceous in character, e.g., flint, quartzites
and granites- these are more vulnerable to heat.
b. Light weight concrete: aggregates made of sintered p.f.c. expanded clays and shales, etc.-
these provide better resistance to heat.
ii. Cover to main reinforcement
Cover has to provide lasting protection to the reinforcement from both fire and environmental attack.
Choice of thickness should be on the basis of the more onerous. Here ‘cover’ is the distance between
the nearest heated face of the concrete and the main reinforcement or an average value taking into
consideration all the reinforcements.
9.2 Repairs of R.C.C. structures damaged due to fire

A damaged structure is usually found with spalling concrete and this happens mostly when the cover to the
main reinforcement was not as specified or the cover thickness was cover provided exceeded additional
sacrificial reinforcement was not provided or the fire resistance period specified for the cover provided
exceeded.
However, in such cases, the prime necessity is to make a thorough survey of the damaged structure and collect
as much information from site and locality as mentioned. The information should then be sorted out and
further investigations made to rebuild the case and ascertain the following:
i. Duration of the fire; here it must be kept in mind that fire in the zone might have lasted for a longer
period; but the individual member might have been under the influence on for a much shorter period.
Duration of fire on the surface of each member need be established it.
ii. If spalling has occurred, the thickness of the concrete spalling of each member need be determined
readily from quipped laboratory s only measured
iii. It should be definitely ascertained, if the depth of the spalling had penetrated into the concrete beyond
the cover.
iv. The strength of the concrete is to be assessed by testing of core concrete after removing the spalling
and loose concrete.
v. It must be ascertained definitely if the cement gel of the concrete was still alive or has been destroyed.
If destroyed, the depth of the concrete with damaged cement gel is to be established for removal.
Concrete affected by high temperature generally get a yellowish tinge, which is an indication of
affected concrete. Due to evaporation of gel water, the concrete becomes spongy.
vi. If the reinforcement is exposed due to spalling, the strength of the steel need be ascertained A piece of
steel about 300 mm long may be taken out and sent to the laboratory for ascertaining the present
strength On receiving the information, the concrete up to the depth the cement gel has been damaged
or suspected to be damaged shall be removed and the surface cleaned properly. If the steel is found to
have retained 90% strength, the damaged concrete with cover may be re-established with epoxy or
polymer concrete after applying epoxy or polymer coating on the existing surface. The cover shall be
re-established as required as per tabulated data and, if necessary, sacrificial reinforcement may be
provided as required with nominal
reinforcement of 6 mm dia. MS bars.
However, if the concrete has been damaged beyond repair, i.e., the cement gel of the standing damaged
structure has suffered destruction or the steel has lost strength, the structure will have to be demolished and
replaced.
While using epoxy or polymer in repair, it should be used on the specific suggestion and specification as
would be supplied by the manufacturer in consideration of the information as have been obtained. The data
available regarding the damaged structure should be made available to them for recommending a proper
specification for using the chemicals as may be necessary.

-Lecture
-Discussion -Group
work
30
4. Assessment
1. How repairs of concrete structures damaged due to fire can be carried out?
2. What are the possible ways of repairs to RCC structures damaged due to fire?
B. Short Questions
1. What will be the effects on R.C.C structures when temperature rises up to 95oC?
Glossary
Fluffy- lightweight
Gel- a semi-solid to almost solid colloid of a solid and a liquid, such as jelly, cheese or opal
Spongy- having the characteristics of a sponge, namely being absorbent, squishy or porous
Flues- a pipe or duct that carries gaseous combustion products away from the point of combustion
(such as a furnace)
Onerous-difficult, demanding
Full Form
MS- mild steel
31
Title: Unit-10 Advanced Damage detection techniques
1. Objective:
a) To define non destructive testing (NDT)
b) To list out important non-destructive field tests
c) To describe Test for in situ concrete strength
d) To explain Chemical Analysis of Concrete
e) To familiar Corrosion Potential Assessment
2. Contents
10.1 Introduction:
Non Destructive Testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science & technology industry
to evaluate the properties of material, component or system without causing damage.
10.2 Important non-destructive Field tests

The generally used non destructive field tests are the following:
I. Test to find in situ concrete strength
 Rebound hammer test: is used to measure surface hardness of concrete which is considered as
 a measure of the quality of concrete.
 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test: is used to assess the homogeneity of concrete in the member &
 the condition of concrete in the member.
 Load test: is used to find the strength of a structure.
II. Test to find the nature of corrosion & cracking in the RC member
  Chemical Analysis of concrete: is carried out to test for carbonation & chloride effect.
III.Test to find corrosion potential assessment
 Cover meter & profometer
 Half cell potential survey
10.3 Test for in situ concrete strength:

  Rebound Hammer test
The operation of Rebound Hammer (also called Schmidt's Hammer) is illustrated in Fig 10.1. When
the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled mass
with a constant energy is made to hit concrete surface to rebound back. The extent of rebound, which
is a measure of surface hardness, is measured on a graduated scale. This measured value is designated
as Rebound Number (a rebound index). A concrete with low strength and low stiffness will absorb
more energy to yield in a lower rebound value.
Fig.10.1:- Rebound hammer Fig.10.2:-Schematic diagram of operation of the

Image source:Google rebound hammer(Image source:Google )
32
IS 13311 Pt-2-1992 as well as BS: 6089-81 and BS: 1881: Pt-202 explains the standard procedure for test and
correlation between concrete cube crushing strength and rebound number. The results are significantly
affected by the following factors:
a. Mix characteristics:
i. Cement type
ii. Cement Content,
iii. Coarse aggregate type
b. Angle of Inclination of direction of hammer with reference to horizontal (Fig 10.3)
c. Member Characteristics.
i. Mass,
ii. Compaction
iii. Surface type,
iv. Age, rate of hardening and curing type
v. Surface carbonation
vi. Moisture Condition,
vii. Stress state and temperature.
Since each of these may affect the readings obtained, any attempts to compare or estimate concrete strength
will be valid only if they are all standardized for the concrete under test and for the calibration specimens
Fig.10.3:- Graph of cube compressive strength in N/mm2

plotted against the rebound number
Image source:Google
Table 10.1: Rebound Hammer Test Values and Quality of Cover

Average Value Number on the tester Quality of Concrete
Greater Than 40 Very good (hard layer)
30 to 40 Good
20 to 30 Fair
Less than 20 Poor
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test:

Ultrasonic scanning is a recognized non-destructive evaluation test to qualitatively assess the homogeneity
and integrity of concrete. With this technique, following can be assessed.
1. Qualitative assessment of strength of concrete, its gradation in different locations of structural
members and plotting the same
2. Any discontinuity in cross section like cracks, cover concrete delamination etc
3. Depth of surface cracks.
This test essentially consists of measuring travel time, ‘T’ of ultrasonic pulse of 50-54 kHz, produced by an
electro-acoustical transducer, held in contact with one surface of the concrete member under test and
receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the surface at the other end. With the path length,
33
‘L’ (i.e. the distance between the two probes) and time of travel, T the pulse velocity (V=-L/T) is calculated
(fig 10.4). Higher the elastic modulus, density and integrity of the concrete, higher is the pulse velocity. The
ultrasonic pulse velocity depends on the density and elastic .properties of the material being tested.
Though, pulse velocity is related with crushing strength of concrete, yet no statistical correlation can be
applied.
Fig 10.4 Method of propagating and receiving pulses
The pulse velocity in concrete may be influenced by:

a. Path length
b. Lateral dimensions of the specimen tested.
c. Presence of reinforcing steel
d. Moisture content of the concrete.
The influence of path length will be negligible provided it is not less than 100 mm when 20 mm size
aggregate is used or less than 150 mm for 40 mm size aggregate. Pulse velocity will not be influenced by
the shape of the specimen, provided its least lateral dimension (i.e. its dimension measured at right angles to
the pulse path is not less than the wavelength of the pulse vibrations For pulse of 50 Hz frequency, this
corresponds to a least lateral dimension of about 80 mm. The velocity of pulses in a steel bar is generally
higher than they are in concrete. For this reason, pulse velocity measurements made in the vicinity of
reinforcing steel may be high and not representative of the concrete. The influence of the reinforcement is
generally small if the bars run in a direction at right angles to the pulse path and the quantity of steel is
small in relation to the path length. The moisture content of concrete can have a small but significant
influence on the pulse velocity. In general, the velocity is increased with increased moisture content, the
influence being more marked for lower quality concrete.
Measurement of pulse velocities at points on a regular grid on the surface of a concrete structure provides a
reliable method of assessing the homogeneity of the concrete. The size of the grid chosen will depend on
the size of the structure and the amount of variability encountered.
Table 10.2: Pulse Velocity & Condition of Concrete
Pulse Velocity obtained by direct Test (Km/sec) Condition of Concrete

Greater Than 4.0 Excellent
3.5 to 4.0 Good
3.0 to 3.5 Medium
Less than 3.0 Poor
34
Table 10.2 shows the guidelines for qualitative assessment of concrete based on UPV test results. To make
a more realistic assessment of the condition of surface concrete of a structural member, the pulse velocity
values can be combined with rebound number. Table 10.3 shows the guidelines for identification of
corrosion prone locations by combining the results of pulse velocity and rebound numbers.
Table 10.3: Identification of Corrosion Prone Location Based on Pulse Velocity and Hammer Readings
(Source: Indian Concrete Journal, June 1998)
S.N. Test Results Interpretations
1 High UPV values, high rebound Not corrosion prone

number
2 Medium range UPV values, low Surface delamination, low quality of surface concrete,
rebound number corrosion prone
3 Low UPV values, high rebound Not corrosion prone, however, to be confirmed by
number chemical tests, carbonation, pH
4 Low UPV values, low rebound Corrosion prone-requires chemical and electrochemical
number tests.
10.4 Chemical Analysis of Concrete:

Chemical analysis of concrete can provide extremely useful information regarding the cause of causes of
failure of concrete. The tests most frequently carried out are listed below:
1. Depth of carbonation
2. Chloride content
3. Cement content
4. Sulphate content
5. Type of cement
6. Alkali content
Carbonation Test
This test is carried out to determine the depth of concrete affected due to combined attack of atmospheric
carbon dioxide and moisture causing a reduction in level of alkalinity of concrete. A spray of 0.2% solution
of phenolphthalein is used as pH indicator of concrete. The change of colour of concrete to pink indicates
that the concrete is in the good health, where no change in colour takes place; it is suggestive of
carbonation-affected concrete. The test is conducted by drilling a hole on the concrete surface to different
depths upto cover concrete thickness, removing dust by air blowing. spraying phenolphthalein with
physician's injection syringe and needle on such freshly drilled/broken concrete and observing the colour
change The depth of carbonation is estimated based on the change in colour profile The pH value can also
be determined by analyzing samples of mortar collected by drilling from the site dissolving the same in
distilled water and thereby titration in laboratory.
Chloride Content
Chloride content can be determined from broken samples or core samples of concrete. Primarily, the level
of chloride near the steel-concrete interface is of prime importance. Chloride content in concrete are fixed
water insoluble) as well as free water soluble Though it is the water soluble chloride ions, which are of
importance from corrosion risk point of view, yet total acid soluble (fixed as well as free) chloride contents
are determined and compared with the limiting values specified for the concrete to assess the risk of
corrosion in concrete. The total acid soluble chlorides are determined in accordance with IS: 14959 Part III
2001. whereas for assessment of water soluble chlorides the test consists of obtaining the water extracts,
and conducting standard titration experiment for determining the water soluble chloride content and is
expressed by water soluble chloride expressed by weight of concrete or
35
cement. The method gives the average chloride content in the cover region Further a chloride profile across
the cover thickness will be a more useful measurement as this can help to make a rough estimate on chloride
diffusion rate. One recent development for field testing of chloride content includes the use of chloride ion
sensitive electrode. This is commercially known as “Rapid chloride test kit-4”. The test consists of obtaining
powdered Samples by drilling and collecting them from different depths (every 5 mm), mixing the sample (of
about 1.5 gm weight) with a special chloride extraction liquid, and measuring the electrical potential of the
liquid by chloride-ion selective electrode. With the help of a calibration graph relating electrical potential and
chloride content, the chloride content of the samples can be directly determined.
Based on the chemical analysis, corrosion-prone locations can be identified as per the guidelines given in
Table-10.4.
Table 10.4: Guidelines for Identification for Corrosion Prone Locations based on Chemical Analysis
(Source: Indian Concrete Journal, June 1998)

1 High pH values greater than 11.5 and very low chloride content No corrosion
2 High pH values and high chloride content greater than Corrosion prone
threshold values (0.15 percent by weight of cement)
3 Low pH values and high chloride content (greater corrosion Increased risk of corrosion
prone than threshold values of chloride 0.15 percent by weight
of cement
10.5 Corrosion Potential Assessment

Corrosion Potential Assessment:
1) Cover-Meter /Profo-meter Non-destructive method for measuring
(In-situ Test) -thickness of cover concrete
-reinforcement diameter
-reinforcement spacing
2) Half Cell Method (In-situ Test) Non-destructive method for measuring/plotting

corrosion potential for assessing probability of
corrosion
Test to find corrosion potential assessment:
Cover meter survey

The necessity to provide adequate cover thickness to control corrosion needs no emphasis. A cover thickness
survey is useful to determine existing cover thickness in a specific location, where damage has been
identified and elsewhere, for comparison on the same structure. The cover thickness can be measured non-
destructively using commercially known cover meters The cover meters are also used to identify the location
and diameter of rebar. COVERMASTER and PROFOMETER are the commercially available instruments,
which are used to measure the cover thickness and rebar size. Table 10.5 shows how the cover meter
readings are to be interpreted for corrosion assessment.
Fig 10.5 Cover meter or profometer
36
Table 10.5: Interpretation of Cover Thickness Survey
1 Required cover thickness and good quality concrete Relatively not corrosion prone
2 Required cover thickness and bad quality cover concrete Corrosion prone
3 Very less cover thickness yet good quality cover concrete Corrosion prone
Half cell potential survey

Corrosion being an electrochemical phenomenon, the electrode potential of steel rebar with reference to a
standard electrode undergoes changes depending on corrosion activity
A Systematic survey on well-defined grid points gives useful information on the presence or probability of
corrosion activity. The same grid points as used for other measurements, namely rebound hammer and UPV
could be used for making the data more meaningful. The common standard electrodes used are:
i. Copper-Copper sulphate electrode (CSE)
ii. Silver-Silver chloride electrode (SSE)
iii. Standard Calomel electrode (SCE).
The measurement consists of giving an electrical connection to the rebar and observing the voltage
difference between the bar and reference electrode in contact with concrete surface. [Fig.10.6]Generally, the
voltage potential becomes more and more negative as the corrosion becomes more and more active.
However, less negative potential values may also indicate the presence of corrosion activity, if the pH values
of concrete are less.
Fig.10.6 Half-cell potential test for corrosion activity

.
Table 10.6 Corrosion Risk by Half-Cell Potentiometer
Probability of Corrosion being Active (%) Cu-CSE (mV) S-SCE (mV)
>95 More negative than -350 More negative than -700
>50 -200 to -350 -500 to -700
<5 More positive than -200 More positive than -500

-Lecture
-Discussion
-Group work
4. Assessment
37
Very Short Questions
1. Define Non Destructive Testing (NDT)? List out different NDT that are carried in damaged
detection techniques.
B. Short Questions
1. What tests do you propose to decide corrosion potential of concrete? Explain any one.
1. Describe about the tests for in situ concrete strength. Correlate the test data & quality of concrete.
Glossary
Assess- to determine, estimate or judge the value of; to evaluate Strikes-
to thrust in; to affect by a sudden impression or impulse
Correlated- mutually related in a measure of the linear statistical relationship between two random
variables, indicating both the strength and direction of the relationship
Graduated- marked with graduations, marked
 Learning Private Limited.
 CPWD HANDBOOK ON REPAIRS AND REHABILITATION OF RCC BUILDINGS
38
Title: Unit-11 Strengthening RC beams, columns & slabs
Objective:
a) To define strengthening
b) To describe methods of strengthening of an existing building
c) To explain Plate Bonding Method
d) To familiar RC Jacketing of Beams and Columns with Reinforced Concrete
2. Contents
11.1 Introduction
Strengthening :
The process of upgrading the structural system of an existing building to improve performance under existing
loads or to increase the structural components to carry additional loads. In general, structural strengthening
may become necessary because of code changes, seismic upgrade, change in service loads, or deficiencies
within the structure caused by errors in design or construction. Some of the methods are listed below:
 RC Jacketing: It is the provision of a concrete jacket with extra steel, if needed. The jacket goes all
around the members. A steel reinforcement cage or composite material wrap can be constructed
 around the damaged section onto which shotcrete or cast in place concrete is placed.
 Fiber wrap techniques by using fiber reinforced polymer (FRP): An FRP composite is defined as a
polymer that is reinforced with a fiber. Like steel, it can be used as reinforcement & also as a means
of prestressing of members. The primary function of fibred reinforcement is to carry load along the
length of the fiber & to provide strength & stiffness in one direction.
Fig 11.1 FRP method for strengthening of RC members (a) FRP at beam-column joint and (b) FRP at slab
 Plate Bonding Method : It is one of the method of strengthening .It is described in 11.2
11.2 Plate Bonding Method

Plate Bonding Method: It consists of mechanically connecting mild steel (MS) plates to the RC members
bolted or glued together with epoxy resins. This method increases the strength, stiffness & ductility of the
member. It is a popular method for repair & seismic retrofitting. It is usually adopted where enlargement of
the size does not suit the situation. The work is difficult & also increases the weight of structure.
39
Fig 11.2 Strengthening beam by plate bonding (a) enhance flexural strength and (b) enhance shear
and flexural strength and ductility.
11.3 RC Jacketing of Beams and Columns with Reinforced Concrete RC

Jacketing of a beam:
The following is a brief step by step procedure of strengthening a beam by jacketing with reinforced concrete.
 The support is provided at the midpoint of beam (or other points in the slab also) to reduce load acting
 on the beam.
  The plaster & damaged concrete is chipped off, if present.
 Extra steel reinforcement is added & the steel ends are supported by drilling holes in the column.
 Holes are grouted with epoxy resins & the steel is inserted.
 An expanded wire mesh around the beam on the three sides, leaving necessary gap for additional
 concrete between the old beam & the wire mesh are fixed.
  Epoxy bond coat is applied to the old surface.
 While the bond coat is still fresh, polymer modified mortar is applied to get the required thickness on
 all three sides of the beam. This can be obtained by 2 or 3 applications of mortar.
 The beam is water cured for at least 3 days & all the props are released provided under beam. By this
process, a stronger beam can be obtained.
40
Fig 11.3 RC jacketing of beams (a) repair scheme of the beam (b) expanded wire mesh placed in position and
(c) polymer modified mortar being applied
RC Jacketing of a column:
The following is a brief step by step procedure of strengthening a column by jacketing with reinforced
concrete.
 The support is provided to the beam near to the beam column joints to relieve the column of the some
 of the load.
  The external plaster of the column cover & also the portion around the steel is removed.
  The concrete & steel surface is cleaned & the steel is painted with corrosion inhibitor, if needed.
 A shear key reinforcement is installed to make the new concrete act with the old concrete. For
installing shear keys, holes are drilled to sufficient depths along the height of the column. Holes are
 cleaned, epoxy is injected & the reinforcement bars are inserted. The epoxy is allowed to cure.
 A bond coat is applied to concrete & steel to make new & old to act together.
  A watertight shuttering is fabricated & erected.
 A free following concrete is poured so that there is no need of vibrator & the concrete is compacted
 well. This should be carried out before the bond coat dries up.
 The supported shuttering is released and the concrete is cured. Additional finishing is provided as per
needed.
Fig 11.4 RC jacketing of column

Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. Define strengthening.
B. Short Questions
1. What is plate bonding method?
41
1. Explain with details step procedures of strengthening a beam by jacketing with reinforced
concrete.
2. How would you repair severely damaged R.C column with jacketing for cover concrete. Describe
each method with brief guidelines for surface preparation & chemical you would select.
3. Describe the methods involved in strengthening of RCC column.
4. Explain with the help of neat sketches the strengthening of RC beam and column with reinforced
concrete jacketing. (NEB-2075)
Glossary
Stiffness- rigidity, inflexibility
Ductility- ability of a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section without fracture under
the action of a tensile force
Relieve- to ease, to provide comfort
Inhibitor- (chemistry) any substance capable of stopping or slowing a specific chemical reaction
Fabricated- constructed or assembled
42
42
Title: Unit-12 Evaluation of strength, economic & age of building
1. Objective:
a) To familiar determination of approx. age of a building
b) To describe determination of strength structural member of old building
c) To explain finding cost in use of an old building
2. Contents
12.1 Determination of approx. age of a building:

The complete drawing would have the best clue in determining the age of building but in most cases of very
old building such drawings are not available. In the absence of such of such record o age of building, its
approximate age may be estimated by striking a common line from the three results as detailed below:
a. Local enquires: The information available would vary widely. Sometimes, there may be plaques
inscribing the name of person responsible for the construction of the building with date, describing the
purpose of construction.
b. Architecture & Architectural features: Architecture & architectural features of a building may provide
some indication of the approximate construction period of the structure. The development of
architecture & architectural style are listed below :
 4th to 5th century A.D :

During this period, Buddhist architecture became predominant with the advent of
 Hinduism  & native inspirations. Constructions were mainly done by the Persian
craftsman.

 Greek ornamental patterns, Mayuran foundation,  stone structure, columns decorated in gold &
silver, Pillar of law foundation of stupas, etc.

 During this period, 
Buddhist influence gradually eclipsed & Hindus became predominant with
Gupta inscriptions.

 Circular or octagonal form with magnificent entrance portal, free standing  temples,
temples with ornamental works, Padma patterns on back walls or ceiling, etc.
  
This period is dominated by Islamic & Muslim building types.

 Mosque having reception vertical elements, Tower, walldecorated with plaster, semi-circular
arches, use of multiple domes & multiple columns, etc.
 18th century A.D & later :

In early period, there were competitions among the British, French & Portuguese. But
  European architecture mixed with local Persian, Hindu &
the product was imported
Muslim architecture.

 Halls with flat roofs on timber beam & joists, grand stairs
with balustrades & extensive
colored marbles, Exterior walls with exposed bricks, etc.
c. Materials used: The approximate age of building may be estimated by visual examination of the
materials used in construction.
  Nails :

 Prior to the 1800s, nails were hand-made by blacksmiths.They are often squared rather than
rounded, and have a beaten look on the top of the head.

 Type A- and Type B- cut nails were used from 1790 to 1830. They were made from wrought
iron and are squared.

  machine-made nails that are rounded
Wire nails, used from 1890 through today, are modern,
and more practical to use than the earlier designs.
  Wiring :

K & T (knob-and-tube) wiring wasan early method of electrical wiring installed in
buildings from 1880 to the 1940s.
43

 
Aluminum wiring was used extensively from 1960 till 1975, a period during which copper
was prohibitively expensive.
 Electrical Receptacles : Electrical receptacles evolved from earliest to most recent in the
following order:
  
Non-polarized: are made up of two slots of equal size, with no ground slot.
  
Polarized: are two-slotted, one of which is wider than the other to allow for proper polarity.

Grounded & polarized: Modern receptacles were changed to permit grounding of a
 They can be identified by the round hole beneath the center of the polarized
device.
slots.
  Flooring :

 In the late 19th century, linoleum became common for use in hallways and  passages,
but it became better known for its use in kitchen floors in the 20th century.

Asphalt tile was used for floor tiles starting around 1920 through the 1960s. The
  contained more asphalt, unlike later tiles that had
earliest tiles are darker because they
higher levels of synthetic binders.

 in response to consumers who wanted lighter-colored
Vinyl asbestos tiles became popular
tiles of varying color patterns.
12.2 Determination of strength structural member of old building:

For determining the strength of a structure, it is necessary to have a “completion” or “as built” drawing of the
building. If the completion drawing is available, the task becomes easy. Otherwise, detailed of the structural
members (Sub & Super structure) will have to be prepared by actual measurement at site. When all the records
& data are known as far as possible, calculations may be made as usual by structural engineer to ascertain the
strength of the structural members.
In case of R.C.C slabs, beams, columns the overall sizes of the members are known by measurements. The
unknown factor is the details of reinforcements. In absence of any “as built” drawing, this may be determined
by cutting grooves in the cover & thus exposing the reinforcements. When the details are obtained & the
conditions of the reinforcements are known, moment of resistance of both concrete & steel can be calculated in
usual method. However, allowance must be made for the age of the structure & the steel, in particular.
In the case of brickwork in load bearing walls & columns, calculations are made for its desired thickness on the
basis of loads in accordance to the nature of the use of building. A large FOS is recommended.
In general, timber members lose 40% strength in 5 decades of life. While calculating strength, this has to be
taken in account. In view of these, a large FOS is recommended in computation.
As regards steel members, observations need be made to ascertain the thickness of the parts of the members
which are susceptible to corrosion. After checking, the strength of the member should be calculated very
carefully allowing for strength in reduction & other factors like deformation, creep, etc.
12.3 Finding cost in use of an old building:

  The area of each floor of an existing building is calculated as per measurement or drawing.
 The rate of each floor of an existing building is determined.
 The present value of each floor of an existing building is calculated as :
 The depreciation amount of each floor of an existing building is determined as :

Depreciation amount = Depreciation rate ×Present Value
In practice, 2% is depreciation rate per year. If construction of building is 2010 A.D

& its value is to be determined in 2017 A.D, the difference in year is 7 years. Then
depreciation rate will 14%.
 The Fair Market Value (FMV) of each floor of an existing building is calculated as : FMV
 = Present value – Depreciation amount
44
 The sum of total FMV of each floor of an existing building provides the total cost in use of
an old building.
S.N. Floor Area Rate Present Value Depreciation Amount Fair Market Value
1 G.F.
2 1St
3 2nd

-Lecture -Practical
-Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. How could you find cost in use of an existing building?
B. Short Questions
1. How do you determine the approximate age of an old building? Discuss with reference to the
architectural components & use of building materials.
1. Explain about ‘Determination of Strength of Structural member of old building’.
Glossary
Clue- hint, indication, suggestion
Receptacles- a contact device installed at an outlet for the connection of an attachment plug (typically by
receiving the plug’s prongs) to supply portable appliances or equipment
Susceptible- likely to be affected by; especially sensitive
45
Title: Unit-13 Maintenance of life lines
1. Objective:
a) To describe maintenance of electric supply, water supply leaking pipe joints and sewerage systems,
closed drains, sewers
b) To explain maintenance of roads, road berms, side drain maintenance of bridges, culverts causeways
2. Contents
13.1 Maintenance of electric supply, water supply leaking pipe joints and sewerage systems, closed
drains, sewers
Maintenance of Electric Supply System in Buildings The

following are some of the main considerations:
a) Always use good copper wire for all electrical wiring. Aluminium wires and other cheaper materials
deteriorate fast, as the wires have to carry electricity always. Renewing the wiring in the future will
be costly, as the material and labour costs always increase with time
b) Do not overload any of the circuits by using too many appliances in one circuit.
c) Do not use lamps of very high wattage. Use of the modern fluorescent lamps considerably saves cost
of electricity
d) Do not use more than 13 A to 15 A fuse in each of the ring circuits.
e) Make the circuits so good that an earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) can be installed in the
system. (Any electric fault in the house causes tripping of ELCB and electric supply.)
f) Avoid moisture from all the places near the path of the electric wiring and especially at all junctions
of the distribution points of the wiring system which are usually placed on the top of the walls of the
buildings or in the roof slabs
g) Do not use worn-out extension cords.
h) Avoid coiling extension cords of appliances to prevent overheating. Replace extension cords even
when there is only a trace of wear and tear.
i) Do not place extension cords under carpets, furniture etc.
j) Avoid use of many extension cords in only one circuit to avoid overloading of the circuit
Maintenance of water supply pipe joints:

While leak detection, identification & repair programs are conducted, it is necessary for the technical team to
undertake measures that counter the causes of leaks. Below are such practices:-
S.N. Causes of leaks Counter Practice

1)  Corrosion of internal & external  Use of HDPE pipes
surfaces of pipe network
 Pipe replacement policy & implementation
2)  Excessive load/stresses from the  Lay pipe to depth of 3ft

traffic
 Use strong sleeve at road crossings
3)  Faulty workmanship & poor  Ensure quality workmanship

quality materials, sizing &
layout
 Ensure that materials received for field
operations are of reliable quality
46
Maintenance of closed drains:
Drain maintenance goes a long way to keep drains in good working condition. When practiced as a regular
routine, it can help save costs in home maintenance. Below are four maintenance tips to help keep the drains
in good condition.
 Food residues: It is a good practice to clear all plates & dishes of leftover food before do the washing.
 This will help prevent food remain from being forced down the drain.
 Liquids: Some liquids tend to solidify when poured into the drain. It is best to avoid pouring oily
 liquids into the drain. It will help to prevent the drain from getting blocked.
 Hot water flushing: Kitchen drains frequently get blocked with food residues & other dirt. Scum &
dirt attaches itself to bathroom drains with time. All these can be effectively be washed away with
 hot water. It removes grease & helps to improve the smell of the drains.
 Baking Soda & Vinegar: This is an excellent treatment that will effectively clean the drains. It will
leave drains smelling fresh.
Maintenance of Sewerage Systems and Sewer:

There are several maintenance programs to ensure that sewer system continues to operate effectively
& efficiently. Some of them are given below:
 Grid Program: Sanitary sewers are flushed with a powerful water jet nozzle at least once every four
 years.
 Trouble spots: The locations of accumulation of debris are visited on a 3 to 6 months cycle to be
 flushed.
 Root Control: Some sewer mains are susceptible to presence of roots from vegetation, which can
diminish the flow of capacity of the pipe. Pipes are routed annually with a mechanical saw, flushed &
 applied with a herbicidal foam treatment.
 TV Inspection: The monitoring devices generate a video recording, which can be analyzed at a later to
identity cracks, pipe joints, locations of house lateral connections, flow condition & any other sewer
 characteristics.
 Manhole Rehabilitation: The most common methods are replacing the frame & cover, spraying
cementitious mortar or spraying an epoxy resin liner to the inside of the manhole.
13.2 Maintenance of roads, road berms, side drain maintenance of bridges, culverts causeways
Maintenance of roads:
Road maintenance is concerned with the task of preserving, repairing and restoring a system of roadways with
its elements to keep the serviceable conditions of highway as normal as possible and as best as practicable.
The maintenance activities include identifications of defects and the possible causes thereof, determination of
appropriate remedial measures, implementation of these in the field and monitoring of the results.
Road maintenance works can be classified as:
1. Routine maintenance and repairs
2. Recurrent maintenance
3. Periodic maintenance and repairs
4. Special repairs
Routine Maintenance
A routine maintenance program groups those activities that are carried out as frequently as required during
each year on all elements of the highway in order to ensure serviceability at all times and in all weathers.
These are the maintenance of localized nature required continually on any road whether its engineering
characteristics or traffic volume may be and are generally done by labor and can be contracted out (petty
contractors). Since the highways are exposed to the moving traffic and adverse climatic conditions, they
would wear out so routine maintenance is required for all types of roads. These include filling potholes, patch
repair works, grass and bush cutting, maintenance of cross slope and shoulders, up-keep of drainage facilities
(side drains, culverts etc.), clearing and cleaning of ditches and culverts, maintenance of road signs,
arboriculture etc.
47
Recurrent Maintenance
Maintenance works of localized nature and of limited extent carried out at more or less regular intervals of six
months to 2 years with a frequency that depends on the traffic volume. These works need to be done by the
use of minor equipment. For paved roads these include sealing cracks, local surface treatment, repair of
depressions, holes and ruts-pothole patching, edge repair, local construction etc.
Periodic Maintenance
A periodic maintenance program covers all longer term programmable operations required within the service
life of the road and required only at interval of several years. It includes renewal of wearing course of
pavement surface and preventive maintenance of various items. Frequency and type of renewal depend on the
type of original surfacing, traffic, rainfall and other climatic conditions etc. These may include resealing
(surface treatment, slurry sealing), resurfacing (thin overlay), the renewal and renovation of wearing surfaces
of carriageways that become worn out and deformed by use, re-gravelling of unpaved roads and
resealing/surface dressing of the paved roads, restoration of road markings, culverts and ancillary items,
repainting of metal bridge etc.
Special maintenance
Special repair works may be needed for special problems, which if not identified in time, may cause pavement
failure. These repairs include strengthening of pavement structure by overlay or reconstruction of pavement,
widening of roads. Repair of damages caused by floods, providing additional safety measures like traffic
signs, traffic islands, rotaries and parking spaces etc. Extra ordinary maintenance activities aim at refurbish
roads to thin original condition when they have severely deteriorated.
 Urgent emergency works- needed for reopening the road or construction of temporary diversion to
 allow the traffic to pass around the obstruction such as slides, road washouts etc.
  Removal of debris and other obstacles, placement of warning signs and diversion works etc.
 Reinstatement of the road after the critical period is over by the reconstruction or repair of the
 pavement, the structure and the drainage as the case may be.
 Major action to protect roads against external agents e.g. actions involving slope stabilization and
falls of rocks, retaining walls, protection against flooding etc.
Maintenance of road berms

Berms are small banks on the outside edge of the road that directs water away from the fill/embankment.
They are most useful when the fill can easily erode or scour. Planting grass helps to protect the berm and fill.
They also provide a smooth transition from the road edge to the existing grade of the landscape.
Some of the points to be considered for road berms are:-
 The berms should not be overloaded as it will collapse easily.
  The berm should be keyed into compacted fill.
 Water should be cut out before the fill and not allowed to pool in the middle. As it will lead to
 ponding and scouring and ultimately road failure.
 The low point of the road should not be in the middle of the fill. If unavoidable, flume water away.
Maintenance of side drain

Side drain is an important element in roadway as it protects the carriageway from the water flowing from
upper catchment areas and water flowing the downslope. So it is necessary to inspect periodically and
maintain the side drains if there are any damages. The side drains should be cleaned if there is any blockage.
The check dams provided at slope to prevent the cutting of side drains should also be checked periodically
and maintained if damaged. The cleaning and maintenance of catch
48
48
water drain should be kept and performed in priority. If cutting of side drain is due to higher slope, lining or
providing of check dam should be done. Side drains should be covered at places where there is risk of
landslide. The side drains should be maintained before the starting of monsoon. The cleaning of weep holes of
retaining walls and cleaning of grass/bush should be done before the starting of monsoon.
Maintenance of Bridges
Bridges are one of the important elements of highway. Like roads, bridges are also likely to be affected by
environment and traffic. So, it is important to upkeep the bridges to keep the roadway serviceable. It requires
specialist knowledge/expertise for the maintenance works of bridges like principal inspection, major repairs,
replacement of bearing, paintings etc. Some of the maintenance activities are as follows:
- routine activities: informal inspection of structure, approaches and waterway by sub-engineer and
performing some small maintenance activities all over the year to provide safety to road users. The formal
inspection carried to perform recurrent activity once in a year also fall under this activity.
- recurrent activities: activities performed at an interval of six months to 2 years regarding the age, structural
configuration, material, traffic etc fall under this activity.
- periodic activities: critical activities performed at an interval of six to eight years with the technical
support/guidance of expert.
Maintenance of Culverts
The damages seen on headwalls, abutment, wing walls and catch pit should be evaluated and following
maintenance should be performed:
  Small and medium cracks at joints should be filled with cement slurry or cement mortar
 The reason of larger cracks should be found and joined immediately and monitoring should also be
 done immediately
 Temporary packing during routine maintenance should be removed and joined
 Loose stones at masonry should be removed and joined
  Loose joints should be cleaned and filled with mortar
 The reasons for damaged concrete and depressed bed should be rectified and necessary maintenance
 should be done
 Catch pit should be cleaned periodically to remove the collection of debris
Maintenance of Causeways
Mostly there is problem of congregation of water flow due to collection of debris at waterway. It affects the
flow of traffic and leads to damages at some surfaces of causeway. In vented causeway, most of the time the
water will flow above the surface due to collection of debris. During maintenance of such defects, the debris
can be removed by labor and dispersing the waterway by dozing at larger area along with maintaining the
level at inlet and outlet of causeway. The problems like cracks, potholes, rebar exposition etc should be solved
immediately otherwise it will increase rapidly. The affected area should be marked and cleaned effectively.
The cracks should be sealed by bitumen slurry or cement slurry keeping in view the width of crack. If
possible it should be compacted by rod or any other equipment. The maintained cracks should be kept safe
from water and traffic until it sets. If patch repairs is to be done at concrete surface of causeway, the surface
should be cleaned and binder should be kept along with mix by cutting the edges and bottom and then
compacted and kept safe until it sets. At the rebar exposed places, the loosened concrete should be removed
and then the rebar is cleaned and pothole or patch repairs are performed as per requirement.

-Lecture
-Discussion
4. Assessment
49
49
1. List out the programs to be conducted for the maintenance of water supply pipe joints.
B. Short Questions
1. What are the maintenance programs to operate sewer system effectively & efficiently?
1. Explain maintenance of roads, road berms, side drain maintenance of bridges, culverts causeways.
Glossary
Detection- the act of finding or sensing something
Herbicidal- having the ability to damage or destroy plants, especially weeds
Ancillary- secondary; auxiliary
Rectified- to restore (someone or something) to its proper condition; to set right
Reinstatement- the act of restoring something to its previous state
Full Form
ELCB- Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
 Learning Private Limited.
  Transportation Engineering Volume II Dinesh Kumar Shrestha And Anil Marsani
 Road Maintenance Manual For Engineers And Sub-Engineer 2nd Edition 2072 (DOR)
50
Title: Unit-14 Estimates & tendering
1. Objective:
a) To define estimate
b) To explain estimates of annual repairs, special repairs and maintenance work
c) To familiar preparation of tender
2. Contents
14.1 Estimates of annual repairs, special repairs and maintenance work

Estimate:
An estimate can be defined as the process of calculating the quantities & costs of the various items required in
connection with the work. It is prepared by calculating the quantities, from the dimensions on the drawings for
the various items required to complete the projects & multiplied by unit cost of the items.
Purpose of Estimate:
 MONEY : to determine necessary amount of money required by the owner to complete the proposed
 work
 QUANTITY: to determine the quantities of materials required in order to program their timely
 procurement.
  WORKER: to determine the no. of various types of workers required in each work.
  TOOLS & PLANTS: to arrange necessary tools & plants as per schedule of work in correct numbers.
 SCHEDULE : to create a schedule of work
 TIME: to calculate the completion time of project.
 COST BENEFIT RATIO: to justify benefit ratio.
Types of Estimate:

Approximate Estimate: It is also called preliminary estimate or rough estimate. In order to find out the
approximate cost or probable expenditure in short time, we carry out the approximate estimate.
Detailed surveying, design, drawings etc. are not required for preparation of approximate estimate.
 
This is prepared after the preliminary investigation, preliminary surveying. This is prepared from
practical knowledge and cost of similar works.

 
Detailed Estimate: After administrative approval of the approximate estimate, we prepare the detailed estimate.
A detailed estimate is the most accurate estimate that can be prepared.

For preparation of detailed estimates followings data are required:
 Detailed drawings
 Specifications
 Rates of various items of works
 Updated method of measurements


 
Revised Estimate: It is the detailed estimate which is required to prepare under anyone of the following
conditions:
  When the sanctioned estimate exceeds or is likely to exceed by more than 5%.
 When the expenditure of work exceeds or is likely to exceed by more than 10% of the
 administrative approval.
 When there are material deviations from the original proposal.
  When there is the change in the rate of materials used in construction.

Supplementary Estimate: When some new works have to be performed or there is material deviation
of a structural nature or when there is the change of design then an estimate to include all such works
must be prepared. Then such estimate is the supplementary  estimate. The method of preparation of
the supplementary is same like that of a detailed estimate.
51

Annual Repair and Maintenance Estimates (A.R or A.M Estimate): After completion of a work, it is
necessary to maintain the completed work for its proper functioning. The estimation of the items of
work which requires renewal, repairs, replacement etc. is annual repair and maintenance estimate.
 
White washing, color washing, and painting of doors and windows etc. are such works which requires
frequent maintenance.

Complete Estimate: It is the estimated cost of all items which are related to work. Most people think
that estimate of a structure includes estimation of cost of land, cost of materials and labor but many
 cost are included in estimation such as engineering fees, contingency & other
other direct and indirect
miscellaneous cost.
14.2 Preparation of tender

Tender: Tender is a written offer presented before the owner or department in order to perform the specified
works within a specified time under the agreed obligations.
Tendering: Tendering is the process of making an offer, bid or proposal or expressing an interest in response
to an invitation to tender.
Tender Notice: It is a means of expression through which contractors know where they have to bid a tender.
It shall be published in such a way that all the concerning parties’ get the information in time. It shall contain
following information:
 Date, time & place of tender
 Name of authorities inviting tender
 Nature of works & its location
 Time of completion
 Validity of tender
 Amount of earnest & security money
 Cost of complete set of tender forms, conditions estimated cost, etc.
Tender form: It is a printed standard form of contract giving standard conditions of contracts, general rules &
directions for guidance of contractors. There is a memorandum for giving:
 General description of work
 Estimated cost
 Earnest money
 Security deposit
 Time limit
 Column for signature of contractor before submission of tender, signature of witness to
contractor’s signature & signature of the officer by whom accepted.
Tender Document: It is an agreement between two parties in which they intend to be legally binding with
respect to the obligations of each party to other & their liabilities. Typically, it consists of all the following
documents:
 The Notice Inviting Tenders (N.I.T)
 Tender form
 Schedule of quantities of work, materials, tools & plants
 Special terms & conditions
 Completion specification of the work
  One set of approved drawing where necessary.
Procedure of Tendering in Civil Engineering works:
In Civil Engineering works the tendering procedure starts with the invitation in which the contract manager of
the client through its team or consultant make a bill of quantities and invite from various different contracts to

make a bid and then contract manager will evaluate the bids and then select the most appropriate one.
i. Invitation to Tender :
The inviting of tenders for civil engineering works is usually performed by one of the following:
 By advertising for competitive tenders.
  By inviting tenders from selected contractors.
ii. Opening of Tenders :
52
Tenders submitted by different parties should be under sealed covers and generally these are opened in the
presence of bidders or their representatives. Following procedure is adopted after opening of tenders.
  List of tenders is prepared making sure that earnest money is also accompanied by each tender.
  Tenders without any earnest money shall not be considered in the competition.
 A comparative statement of the tenders is prepared. Rates are given by the bidders for non-scheduled
 items and premium for scheduled items.
 Careful checking of all the tenders is a must to make sure that the tenders are properly signed and any
 corrections are erasures must be initialed by the tender.
  As far as possible, the minimum tender must be accepted.
iii. Final Award of Contract :
After the tender is accepted, the contractor is asked to enter into a legal agreement with the client and to
provide a further sum of 5 to 10% of the total cost of the work (normally 10%) inclusive of earnest which is
known as Security Deposit.
The following points must be considered before the final award of the contract.
 Make sure that his present position on other works allows the staff and machinery to be available for
 this project.
 Reputation of the contractor in the market should be known.
 General behavior and nature of the contractor should be observed

-Lecture
-Discussion -Group
work
4. Assessment
1. Write about A.R & A.M estimate.
2. Define the term ‘Estimate’ & ‘Tender’.
B. Short Questions
1. Write about ‘Tender Form’ & ‘Tender Document’.
1. Describe the procedure of tendering in civil engineering works.
2. Explain in detail the tendering procedure of maintenance works. (NEB-2075)
Glossary
Schedule- a timetable, or other time-based plan of events; a plan of what is to occur, and at what time
Approval- an expression granting permission or indicating agreement
Obligations- act of binding oneself by a social, legal, or moral tie to someone
53
Title: Unit-15 Construction and repair of Underground Water Tanks with Weld Mesh &
Overhead Water Tanks with Ferrocement
1. Objective:
a) To explain underground water tanks and overhead water tanks
b) To familiar layout of underground water tanks
c) To familiar construction of underground water tank
d) To describe repair of leakage of overhead & underground water tanks
2. Contents
15.1 Introduction
Underground Water Tank:
An underground water is a water storage structure constructed below the ground. In most cases, it collects &
stores runoff from the ground catchments. Since it gets support from the ground, they can be built with less
reinforcing material. Thus, it has lower construction cost & therefore are more suitable for storing agricultural
water.
15.2 Layout of Underground Water Tanks:

 The cover & the entrance of the tank are kept well above the ground so that the rainwater doesn’t
 drain into the tank from the ground.
 If there is no space around the house, the tank is constructed below the floor for which care should be
 taken about its cover so that the water tank doesn’t get polluted from above.
 The depth of tanks, the position of the inlet from the water mains etc. depend on the level of the
 municipal water supply mains.
  It has a capacity to store one truckful of water which varies from 8000 to 12000 liters.
 It should be crack free so that there is no leakage of water & there is no seepage of external water into
the tank which pollutes the tanks.
15.3 Conventional Type of Underground Water Storage Tanks:

The conventional type of underground water storage tank is made of reinforced concrete. They are built as
follows:
 Base slab: Reinforced concrete slab - 25cm thickness of ratio 1:1.5:3 concrete (M20) with 20mm
 maximum size aggregate using waterproofing compound as additive.
 Side Wall: Reinforced concrete with minimum 20cm thickness is required. The necessary height for
 storage is provided.
 Cover for the tank: Reinforced concrete slab - 25cm thickness of ratio 1:2:4 concrete (M15).
It can be made as precast units & joined together. The joints should be made watertight by proper
joining.
Construction of Underground water tank with weld mesh concrete:
 Base slab is made of reinforced concrete 1:2:4, 20mm maximum size aggregate with 10cm thickness
 using waterproofing compound as additive.
 1
For side wall, a 200mm (one brick) brick wall in 1:3 cement mortar is required for the 1m depth & the balance is made of 1 2 brick wall.
 Cementcrete or microconcrete is the concrete using small sized aggregate. A first layer of 15mm
thickness of 1:2:4 cementcrete using 6mm to 10mm size quarry stone chips with plasticizer is spread
 over the base & side of the brick walls.
 Cold drawn out wire mesh of size 7.5cm X 7.5cm & 10 gauge is fixed on the side of the walls by U-
 bolts.
 Another layer of cementcrete (1:2:4) of 15cm thickness is again applied on the base & weld mesh on
 the walls.
 A cover for the tank can be made reinforced concrete, as in the case of the conventional type, precast
slab is laid over the tank & joined together.
54
Fig 15.1 Underground water tank with machine made bricks (1) weld mesh in cementcrete, (2)cementcrete,
(3) reinforced concrete slab, and (4) brickwork.
Construction of Ferrocement overhead water tanks:

Ferrocement is made of weld mesh & chicken mesh cast with 1:2 cement mortar. For tank not
exceeding a capacity of 800 liters, the following detailed are listed below:
 Base Slab : The base slab should be 1m2, 30mm thick cast in 1:2 cement mortar with one layer of
 welded mesh 100mm×100mm×10G & two layers of chicken mesh
 10mm×10mm×20G.
 Side Wall : The side walls can be 80cm high 25mm thick with 1:2 cement mortar & one layer of
welded mesh 100mm×100mm×10G & two layers of chicken mesh 10mm×10mm×20G.
For casting side walls, Suitable wooden planks are used for providing the desired shape. After casting the
tank, it is to be cured for 15 days. One coat of waterproofing slurry coat should be applied inside & outside
the tank. The tank is usually supported on the two sides of the walls & not on a base slab.
Repair of Leakage of Overhead & Underground Water Tanks:

When an overhead & underground tank get damaged & tends to leak, it can be easily repair by using
ferrocement construction, weld mesh or chicken mesh & cement mortars. A mesh of steel is put over a fresh
plaster, bonded to old concrete with a bonding coat on the portion to be repaired. Then, another plaster layer is
provided over the steel to make it full RC layer. Instead of sand only in the mortar, small stone chips may be
used to make the mix stronger.

-Lecture
-Discussion
4. Assessment
1. Define the term ‘ferro-cement’.
B. Short Questions
1. Describe about the construction of ferro-cement overhead water tank.
2. Describe about construction of underground water tank with weld mesh concrete.
3. What are the steps involved in the construction of underground water tank with weld mesh
concrete?
55
1. What is the layout of underground water tank? Explain the steps involved in construction of
conventional type of underground water storage tank.
Glossary
Plasticizer- any of various substances added to a material in order to make it more soft
Casting- manufacturing process using a mold
56
Title: Unit-16 Construction of Rain Water Harvesting System
1. Objective:
a) To explain rainwater harvesting system
b) To familiar the ways of rain water harvesting system in buildings
2. Contents
As water requirement of the rising population cannot be met only by the present conventional systems, the
need for rainwater harvesting has become more and more acute with time. Conservation of water that we get
from rains has become a necessity both in our villages and towns. This process is called rainwater harvesting.
We carry out rainwater harvesting in the following ways:
1. Rooftop rainwater harvesting for consumption as well as for recharge of groundwater
2. Rainwater harvesting of water collected on the ground around the buildings for recharge of
groundwater level
Collection of surface water that may run off by check dams and other devices for storage in surface ponds,
dams etc.
Device to be used for rainwater harvesting depends on the local circumstances. For example, rainwater
harvesting in cities is aimed at storing water for human consumption or for groundwater improvement and
subsequent reuse by borewells. In villages, in addition to the above purposes, it is also used for cattle and
irrigation purposes by storing the water in lakes and tanks. Here, we restrict our study to rooftop harvesting
only. Figure 16.1 shows the methods of rainwater harvesting.
Figure 16.1 Rainwater harvesting methods (a) harvesting rainwater from roofs of buildings in water tank (1.
settling tank, 2. Storage tank), (b) recharge by percolation pits with boreholes in the ground to
lead surface water to a previous layer below (1.top enlarged lining filled with sand above with
brick jelly or coarse stones below, 2.borehole filled with brick jelly or stones) and (c) recharge
through a large recharge well(1. settling tank, 2. filter with brickbats or stone, 3. large well).
57
6.2 Rooftop Harvesting for Reuse and Groundwater Improvement
Harvesting roof water for reuse

The rooftop water is collected on the roof which directly leads into the storage tank through pipes, as shown in
Figure 16.1. A bypass system may also be provided so that the water from the initial rains during the rainy
season (which may contain a lot of dust and leaves) can be used for groundwater improvement and only clean
water is led into the storage tanks for domestic use. We should also introduce a filter media before the storage
to collect all the debris that will, otherwise, fall into the storage tank.
Harvesting for groundwater improvement

For this purpose, the rainwater can be recharged through an old well or an existing hole (such as an old
borewell) so that it will recharge the groundwater. We should remember that any seepage deep into the ground
will take time and hence, water should be stored at least for a few hours in the well, tube well or a pit before it
slowly percolates into the ground. The rate of percolation depends on the bottom strata in the storage well.
Hence, the well, pit or bore should end in a permeable strata for proper recharge of the groundwater. If the
rainwater is led into a well filled with sand, it is very important that a filter made of synthetic fibre should be
placed above the soil in the well so that it does not get clogged with time by particles and debris. This filter
should be taken out and cleaned before the start of every rainy season.

-Lecture
-Discussion
4. Assessment
1. Define rainwater harvesting.
B. Short Questions
1. Write about ‘Rooftop Harvesting for Reuse’.
1. Describe with appropriate sketches construction of rain water harvesting system in a building.
(NEB-2074)
Glossary
Bypass- an alternative passage, to ignore the usual channels or procedures
Debris- large rock fragments left by a melting glacier etc
58
Title: Unit-17 Construction of Compound Walls and Barbed Wire Fences
1. Objective:
a) To explain compound walls and barbed wire fences
b) To familiar general layout of ordinary compound wall and compound walls with bricks
c) To familiar construction of compound walls with concrete hollow bricks
d) To describe compound wall finish
2. Contents
17.1 Introduction
Compound walls are the important part of a building layout. There are various types of walls and the type to
be adopted depends on the place where it is to be built. For example, if it is at the entrance of a house in the
city, it should look attractive from the road. On the other hand, if it is in a village, to divide two properties, it
needs to be only functional. It can be a wire fence. The ordinary compound walls are not high and are built
according to the conventional practice. It is only when the wall has to retain earth or it is very high we need to
design them. Barbed wire fences are much cheaper than the compound walls, these are commonly used to
divide land and demark properties.
In this chapter, we go through the construction of the basic conventional type of compound walls and also
the construction of barbed wire fence. Thicker and other types of walls like stone walls are also built on the
same principles.
17.2 General Layout of ordinary compound wall
Ordinary brick compound walls have pillars spaced at regular intervals along the walls. As the main wall is
supported at the base and at the two side pillars only, the bonding at these junctions must be carefully carried
out and maintained. Otherwise, these walls fall down with heavy winds.
The stability of a compound wall with thin brick walls between pillars depend on the strength and the
spacing of pillars. The spacing of the pillars depends on the importance of its location. In very busy places as
in city streets where there will be great damage if the wall falls, it should not be more than 3 m (10 ft). In
other unimportant places like between two properties in the village, it can be longer as much as 4.5 m (15 ft).
In towns and cities, the allowed height of solid wall is only 1.5 m (5 ft). It is allowed to be extended to 2.4
m (8 ft) if the top 0.9 m (3 ft) is open type of wall. However, in corner plots (where two roads meet), for a
distance of 10 m along the road, the height of solid wall should be limited to 1.05 m (3.5 ft) and the balance
should be an open construction. This rule is for the clear vision of people who drive cars from one road to the
other. For walls built with railings on the top only, the bottom 305 mm (1 ft 2 in) is built as solid wall and for
the rest of the height, steel railings are fixed to this wall.
17.3 General layout of compound walls with bricks
Generally, compound wall is built between the side pillars. The main part of the wall is the wall part in
between the pillars. The wall part can be thin (half-brick) or thick (full brick) or even built with holes
(honeycombed) or made of hollow concrete blocks etc. depending on the location and importance of the wall.
We do not go into these details. We can divide the construction into six types.
In towns and cities where the land value is high, neighbors may not allow the foundation of the wall to
extend into their property. Under these circumstances, construction with under reamed piles for foundation is
the best solution. For long walls, say more than 30 m, expansion joints should be provided by having space
between two pillars on the same footing at intervals.
Note: The condition of the soil on which we have to build a structure is a very important aspect. Ordinary
footings can be built on firm soils. If the foundation is clay, especially black cotton soil, it is better to use
under reamed piles as foundation.
We can divide the walls we commonly use into six types. The conventional height is 1.5 m above ground
level.
59
Type 1-Conventional type: This involves brick pillars with brick footing and 10 mm walls of brick with
brick footing foundation. The pillars are usually 112 bricks square spaced at 4.5 m and its foundation ranges
from 60 2 to 100 2. The foundation of the wall is also the conventional footing type, 15 cm 1:5:10 concrete on
15 cm of sand fill. This type is quite costly nowadays [see Figure 17.1(a)].
Type 2-Brick pillars with grade beams below the main wall: In this type, the brick pillars are as
in type 1 but the main wall is constructed on 15 cm RC grade beams between the pillars [see Figure 17.1(b)].
The grade beam is continuous and is usually laid 30 cm below the ground level. Otherwise, discontinuous
grade beams are placed between the pillars.
Type 3-RC pillars on RC footings: These are with RC grade beams between pillars and the wall on the
grade beam.
Type 4-RC pillars constructed by under reamed piles: These are continued up as pillars with grade beams
and a wall between the pillars. Under reamed piles are bored cast in situ piles having one or more bulbs
formed by enlarging the pile stem below ground.
Type 5-Under reamed pile and grade beam: We first build the under reamed pile to the ground level. (The
steel in the pile is continued for the pillar). We build the wall on the grade beam having space for the pillar.
After the wall is built, we continue the steel up in the space and cast the pillar by pouring concrete in the space
with a plank in front. This type is perhaps the best type for safety. As already mentioned, the grade beam
should be below ground level to compensate for the differences in the expansion of concrete and brickwork.
Type 6-Under reamed pile and hollow blocks: Under reamed piles for foundation of pillars with the main
wall built with hollow concrete blocks on grade beams. The pillars are made by continuing steel from the
under reamed piles up in the hollow blocks and concreted as pillars. (This is a very good type which can be
built quickly. This is detailed in Section 30.4)
Figure 17.1 Compound walls with brick (a) Type 1: Conventional walls with brick columns and brick Walls
on concrete foundation and (b) Type 2: Walls with RC columns on RC foundation and brick wall
on RC grade beam.
17.4 Construction of compound walls with concrete hollow bricks

Concrete blockwork (plastered or unplastered according to the appearance we like) is used nowadays extensively
for constructing compound walls. These walls can be constructed quickly and there are many variations in its
construction. One of the popular methods of construction is to use under reamed piles at convenient intervals of 3
to 4 m as pillars with RC grade beams on top of the piles. The blockwork is built over the grade beam. For pillars,
vertical reinforcements can be embedded in the hollow of the concrete block itself from the under reamed piles,
thus giving strength to the walls from horizontal wind loads. Figure 17.2 shows compound wall construction with
concrete block work.
60
Figure 17.2 Compound wall construction with concrete blockwork. The wall is built on grade beams between
concrete pillars. The pillars are made by extending the steel of the under reamed foundation piles
to the top.
The top finish of these walls needs special attention. The top of these walls is usually finished with a coping
cast in a channel-shaped block which is available in the market. Otherwise, a thin (only 25 mm thick) lightly
reinforced precast or cast in place slab is placed on the top of the wall and tied up with the vertical steel of the
pillars. The wall can be made very strong by introducing horizontal thin reinforced concrete strips at different
heights.
17.5 Barbed wire fences
Barbed wire fences are used in dividing properties. They are much cheaper than the brick walls. The barbed
wires are fixed on concrete posts or wooden posts. Wooden post should have a spacing of about 2.5 m with at
least one-third portion going below the ground. The buried part should be treated for termites.
These concrete posts are generally spaced at 3 m or slightly more. Every 15th post along straight lengths
and corner posts are to be strutted on both sides. The posts near the gates also are strutted on one side only.
The first line of barbed wire is fixed at about 15 cm above the ground and it is tied to the post by means of
GI binding wires. In concrete posts, hole may be provided for threading the tie wires, but they weaken the
posts if it is made large. The total height of the post above the ground should be at least 1.25 m.
The total length of the concrete upright posts is usually 1.8 m and that of the inclined struts is 2 m. These
can be reinforced with four 6 mm or 8 mm mild steel bars with 6 mm ties at 200 mm spacing. As these posts
are fully exposed to rain and heat, it is important to provide at least 25 mm cover to the steel. (For temporary
fencing of constructions as in a construction site, we usually use wooden ballies tar coated at the buried end
instead of concrete posts. The spacing of these wooden ballies can be kept as 2.5 m.)
The CPWD specification, as shown in Figure 17.3 specifies nine parallel rows of barbed wires with two
diagonal wires woven through the parallel rows of wires. The weaving can be accomplished by fixing the odd
rows of wires first, then the diagonal cross wires and lastly, the even rows of wires. The horizontal rows can
be reduced to seven but not less than five. Also instead of diagonal wires, we can provide vertical ties at 500
mm spacing woven, as described above. Barbed wires are available in two types-the lighter and the heavier
types.
61
Figure 17.3 Barbed wire with reinforced concrete posts 185 mm × 185 mm at bottom tapered to 100mm × 100
mm at top and 1.8 m in length (a) intermediate posts and (b) end and other anchoring posts with
struts in long stretches (horizontal rows 5 to 9 numbers as desired).
17.6 Compound wall finish

The masonry compound wall finish can be any of the following depending on its position.
1. Plain brick wall (without plastering) painted with terracotta paint
2. Smooth plaster 1:3 plaster finished with steel float
3. Rough plaster 1:5 plaster finished with a wooden float
4. Rough cast finish where a mixture of oversized sand or coarse stone chipping is made into slurry with
cement and dashed on the final plaster while it is still wet.
5. Pebble dash finish (we plaster with 1.1 plaster and stick to it pebbles close together. White cement
and yellow pebbles give good results.)
Note: In towns and cities where people stick notices on walls, the rough cast finish and pebble dash finish
usually discourage people to stick posters.

-Lecture
-Discussion
4. Assessment
1. Write about ‘Barbed Wire Fences’.
62
B. Short Questions
1. How can you construct compound wall with concrete hollow block?
2. Define barbed wire fences. What are the ways to provide finishing to masonry compound wall?
3. Write about general layout of ordinary compound wall.
1. Write about general layout of compound walls with bricks.
Glossary
Layout- a structured arrangement of items within certain limits
Compensate- to pay or reward someone in exchange for work done or some other consideration
Pebbles- a small stone, especially one rounded by the action of water
Full form
GI- Galvanized Iron
CPWD- Central Public Works Department
63

Resource Material On Maintenance & Rehabilitation of Structure Grade XII

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2. Painting of Buildings 5-8

3. Causes & detection of damages 9 -11

4. Materials for repairs 12-14

5. Masonry walls 15-18

6. Repairs to foundation 19-22

7. Water proofing 23-25

8. Concept of repairs & strengthening of RCC structures 26-27

9. Damage due to fire 28-30

10. Advanced damage detection techniques 31-37

11. Strengthening RC beams, columns & slabs 38-41

12. Evaluation of strength, economic & age of building 42-44

13. Maintenance of life lines 45-49

14. Estimates & tendering 50-52

Overhead Water Tanks with Ferrocement 53-55

16. Construction of Rain Water Harvesting System 56-57

17. Construction of Compound Walls and Barbed Wire Fences 58-62

1.3 Rehabilitation (restoration), strengthening, retrofitting

1.4 Methodical approach to repairs, inspection-annual, emergency, special, repairs-minor, special

1.5 Keeping Records of maintenance:

3. Learning process and support materials

Properties of an ideal paint:

2.2 General Considerations

2.2.1 Positioning of Windows in Modern Tall Building

2.2.2 Types of Paints

Procedure for painting in new building:

2.3 Description of paintwork of walls in Buildings:

2.4 Painting of Iron:

Method of painting of iron & steel with enamel paints:

ii. Fire fighting

The process of combustion or burning requires all three to be present.

3.2 List of basic equipments for investigation:

4.2 Most Common Concrete Repair Chemicals:

4.3 Application of Repair Chemicals:

4.6 Mechanical anchor:

3. Learning process and support materials Following

5.1 Damp walls, causes effects, remedies, eradication of efflorescence

Remedies to Damp Wall:

Bond between old & new brickwork:

Fig.5.1 Bonding between old and new brickwork

Reinforced Brickwork/Reinforced Brick masonry (RBM):

Fig. 5.2 Reinforced brickwork

6.1 Remedies, types &processes of settlement, foundation sinking

Fig 6.1 Types of settlement

Failure & preventive measures of foundation:

6.2 Examination of existing foundation, strengthening of foundation

Fig. 6.2 Pit method

Fig.6.3 Pile method

3. Learning process and support materials

7.1 Repair of rain water Leakage in building

Types of rainwater leakage in building:

Repair of rainwater leakage in building:

7.2 Repair and Renovation of waterproofing works of RC Flat Roofs

Waterproofing of RC Flat Roofs:

Fig 7.2 Membrane watreproofing

7.3 Repair of Leakage of Basement due to Groundwater

8.1 Concept of repairs of RCC structures

8.2 Physical examination of common defects

8.3 Structural repairs & strengthening repairs by new developments

Following are the learning process of this unit:

9.1 FIRE RESISTANCE

Physical characteristics of hydrated cement

Effect of Temperature on Reinforced Concrete