1.

a. Explain Glass fabrication techniques, Fiber reinforced compesite materials and products.
b. Describe the various types glass available in market and its usage as an architectural
material in exterior and interior

2.

a. Discuss potentials of glass as a building materials, highlighting its suitability in different

environments

b. Compare properties and application of annealed glass, tempered glass and laminated glass.

3.

a.Explain the manufacturing process of glass

b.Describe the various types of glasses available in the market and its usage as an architectural
material in interior and exterior.

Answers

1.

a. Fabrication of glass techniques include cutting, grinding, laminating, and drilling. Glass
fabrication requires polishing, bending, finishing and edging in most of the cases.

The ingredients that make up glass vary depending on the type of glass. The main component of
glass, called former, must be heated to a very high temperature to become viscous. The most
common former is silicon dioxide, found in sand. The former is mixed with a flux, which helps it to
melt at a lower temperature. Common fluxes are soda ash and potash. A stabilizer is also used to
keep the glass from dissolving or forming unwanted crystal impurities. A common stabilizer is
calcium oxide, from limestone. These dry ingredients are mixed together in a batch. A furnace melts
the batch to form a liquid compound. Cullet, which is made up of broken glass, is added to the batch
to help it melt.
If colored glass is being fabricated, a metallic oxide is added to the batch. Iron colors glass green,
copper turns it light blue, cobalt a dark blue, gold a deep red. Low-iron glass is recommended when
coloring glass any color besides green. In small amounts, manganese dioxide is used to decolorize
glass, but in large amounts, it colors glass purple, or with a higher amount, black.
After it is melted,  the viscous glass is then poured into a bath of molten tin, then formed into a
ribbon and cooled. The slow and even cooling process is called annealing.  Glass must be cooled
evenly, because if one area stays hotter longer it becomes thicker, and the different levels of
thickness results in stress on the piece of glass. An improperly-annealed piece of glass is more likely
to crack. 
Cutting
Next, annealed glass is cut down to the desired dimensions. This is usually done with Computer
Numerical Control machines, or CNC machines, which are capable of extremely precise operations.
CNC machines operate according to specific CAM and CAD software programs, which enable them to
machine any number of workpieces with identical precision. They are also able to perform a wide
range of machining tasks normally accomplished by specialized equipment: they can cut curves and
straight lines, drill holes, and grind grooves. The CNC machines used in glass fabricating use
distinctive tooling, including diamond abrasive tooling, diamond points, and carbide wheels, to
achieve better accuracy and glass working capabilities.
After the glass is cut and shaped, manufacturers usually perform some glass polishing, laminating,
and other finishing services. Polished mirrors and lenses make up a significant part of the glass
fabrication market. These items generally demand extreme precision, and surface tolerances must
be exact in order for components to function as desired. These precision components are used in
telescopes, prisms, laser lenses and mirrors, and other optics, all of which are greatly affected by
imperfections and inaccuracies.
Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment that strengthens glass to about four times the strength of non-
tempered glass. If tempered glass does break, it fractures into small, rounded pieces instead of
jagged shards. 
The tempering process begins with cut and washed glass traveling through a tempering oven, either
in a batch or a continuous feed. The glass is heated to more than 600 o Celsius before it goes through
quenching, the cooling process. During quenching, high-pressure air blasts the glass from nozzles in
many different positions. The outer surface of the glass cools much more quickly than the center,
which leads to the center of the glass trying to pull back from the outer surface.  The outcome is that
the center remains in tension, and the outside goes into compression, giving tempered glass its
strength.
Glass can also be chemically tempered.  The glass is submerged in a molten potassium salt bath that
causes the sodium ions in the glass to be replaced with larger potassion ions. The larger potassium
ions fill the gaps left by the sodium ions, which creates a state of compression in the outer surface of
the glass. This method is more expensive than using a tempering oven, so it is not as widely used.
A disadvantage of tempered glass is that it cannot be re-worked once tempered, so it must be
shaped completely before the process. Also, because of the balanced stress of tempered glass, if any
part of it is damaged the whole piece of glass is likely to shatter.
Tempered glass is a type of safety glass, used for car windows, entrance doors, and other
applications where glass shattering may endanger humans.
Laminating
Laminating is another way to create safety glass. Laminating involves strengthening the glass with a
plastic material interlayer. The interlayer not only strengthens the glass but also holds glass pieces
together if broken, preventing it from shattering.
There are a few laminating procedures. Two or more pieces of glass are bonded, using heat and
pressure, between one or more layers of adhesives, usually polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene-vinyl
acetate (EVA). Another method is to bond two or more pieces of glass with an aliphatic urethane or
EVA interlayer, using heat and pressure. Glass can also be interlaid with a cured resin or with EVA.
Laminated glass is difficult to cut because of its plastic layers, but not impossible. When laminated
glass is damaged, it usually cracks in a spider web pattern instead of shattering into multiple
dangerous pieces.   
Fibre reinforced composite materials consists of fibres of high strength and modulus embedded in or
bonded to a matrix with distinct interfaces(boundaries) between them.In this form, both fibres and
matrix retain their physical and chemical identities yet they produce a combination of properties
that cannot be achieved with either of the constituents acting alone.
Fibre reinforced composite materials are made of metals, ceramics, glasses or polymers that have
been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibres.The most common form in which fibre
reinforced composites are used in structural applications is called a laminate which is made by
stacking a number of thin layers of fibres and matrix and consolidating them into the desired
thickness.
Applications or products – Aircraft and military applications , space applications , automotive
applications, sporting goods applications, marine applications and infrastructure.

b.
 Float Glass: Float glass is also called soda lime glass or clear glass. This is produced by
annealing the molten glass and is clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-6000 psi.
Stronger than Rocky Balboa taking punches from 2000 psi punches man Ivan Drago. It is
 available in standard thickness ranging from 2mm to 20mm. and has weight range in 6-
26kg/m2. It has too much transparency and can cause glare. It is used in making canopies,
shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.
 Annealed glass breaks into large, jagged shards that can cause serious injury and is
considered a hazard in architectural applications.
 Building Codes in many parts of the world restrict the use of annealed glass in areas where
there is a high risk of breakage and injury, for example in bathrooms, door panels, fire exits
and at low heights in schools or domestic houses.
 Safety Glass, such as laminated or tempered must be used in these settings to reduce risk of
injury.
 Tinted Glass: Certain additions to the glass batch mix can add color to the clear glass without
compromising its strength. Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint; sulphar in different
concentrations can make the glass yellow, red or black. Copper sulphate can turn it blue. Etc.
 Toughened Glass This type of glass is tempered, may have distortions and low visibility but it
breaks into small dice-like pieces at modulus of rupture of 3600 psi. Hence it is used in
making fire resistant doors etc. They are available in same weight and thickness range as
float glass.
 Laminated Glass: This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective
layer. It is heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and
protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%. Used in glass facades,
aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.
 Shatterproof glass: By adding a polyvinyl butyral layer, shatter proof glass is made. This type
of glass does not from sharp edged pieces even when broken. Used in skylight, window,
flooring, etc
 Extra clean glass: This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them without
leaving any marks and photocatylitic i.e. they are covered with Nanoparticles that attack and
break dirt making it easier to clean and maintain.
 Double Glazed Units: These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes in order
to reduce the heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause immense amount of heat gain and
upto 30%of loss of heat of air conditioning energy. Green, energy efficient glass can reduce
this impact.
 Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass
fibers, which causes it to "package" air, and consequently make good insulating materials.
Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also for soundproofing.
 Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and, while
the glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The resulting
glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks provide visual
obscuration while admitting light
2.
A.
Need for understanding Glass as a building material –
Need arises at design phase only and accordingly need for specifications required arises in terms of
Type of glass, Colour, U Value, transmittance, thickness, acoustical characteristics and various other
parameters
Glass in architecture can used in both facades and in construction. It is used in building fenestrations
like ribbon windows, doors and in cladding. It is also used in canopies, sky lights, partition walls,
staircases , beams and floors.
It is a flexible building material because-
 Modern glass is available in different colours , style and textures, form , shape and functions
for different aesthetics.
 Lighter structure-1/10th of weight of other building materials
  Construction cost-due to faster envelope
 Dependency on skilled labour- factory made products
 Lower envelope thickness – more useable floor space
Float Glass is a traditional Technology. Various value addition to it are being done by coating,
laminating etc. which are adding the values like solar performance glass, security glass, acoustical
glass, fire resistant glass etc.
Modern Glass technology needs to be explored for its susitability as façade material which is smart
and economical.
It has an impact on the lighting of interior spaces. Glass by nature allows abundance of natural
sunlight. Solar controlled glass can give optimised light transmission for more visual comfort and less
glare.

b.

Annealed Glass, Tempered Glass or Laminated Safety

sometimes called standard glass
is a softer glass that has been
thermally treated and then
slowly cooled to relieve any
internal stresses. Annealed glass
tends to break into longer,
jagged shards which can cause
significant injury. It is generally
used when strength or safety
are not concerns but cost is
Glass which has not been
annealed is liable to crack or
shatter when subjected to a
relatively small temperature
change or mechanical shock.
Annealing glass is critical to its
durability. If glass is not
annealed, it will retain many of
the thermal stresses caused by
quenching and significantly
decrease the overall strength of
the glass.
toughened glass is
manufactured through a
process of extreme heating and
rapid cooling, tempered glass is
much harder and stronger than
normal glass. Another benefit of
tempered glass is the ability to
stand up to moderate heat
(470°F).
More tensile strength (it can
bend easier without breaking)
Wind resistance
If it breaks, tempered glass
shatters into rounded cubes
rather than pointy shards
Tempered glass is commonly
used in big windows,
skyscrapers, automotive glass,
monitor screens (on computers
or phones) and in-home
appliances.
Glass takes the idea of safety
glass a step
further. Laminated safety
glass is crafted by adhering two
pieces of annealed glass
together by a vinyl layer. The
vinyl layer holds the glass
together if the glass is broken or
impaled.
The plastic portion of laminated
glass may be clear or tinted.
Laminated glass aids in the
screening of UV radiation.
Laminated glass is beneficial for
soundproofing.
One of the biggest benefits of
laminated glass is that if it does
break, the broken glass will stick
to the plastic rather than falling
to the floor.
Skylights

Automobile windshields

Glass railings, glass facades and

glass floors

3.
a.

  Large quantities of raw materials (clear sand, calcium oxide and sodium carbonate)are
brought to the glass production plant. They are then weighed and mixed in the right
proportion. Certain admixtures are added to the batch to give the glass appropriate
proprieties or color.
 The mixture is then heated in a gas fired furnace or electric smelter, pot furnace or kiln.
Quartz sand without additives becomes glass at a temperature of 2,300 degrees Celsius
Adding sodium carbonate (soda) reduces the temperature needed to make glass to 1,500
degrees Celsius
 A homogeneous mixture of molten glass is then formed. This mixture is then floated on
molten tin to form glass of desired thickness. After the hot end of the process is over, the
glass is set to cool.
 The way in which the glass is cooled determines its strength. It has to be cooled after
maintaining a suitable temperature i.e. it has to be annealed. If it cooled over an extremely
short duration of time the glass can become too brittle to handle. Annealing glass is critical
to its durability
 Raw material - +metal oxide+ broken glass – melted in furnace – viscous glass is formed –
poured into bath of molten tin – cooled evenly and slowly ( annealing) – cut into various
shapes and sizes – polishing,finishing and laminating

b.

 Float Glass: Float glass is also called soda lime glass or clear glass. This is produced by
annealing the molten glass and is clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-6000 psi.
Stronger than Rocky Balboa taking punches from 2000 psi punches man Ivan Drago. It is
available in standard thickness ranging from 2mm to 20mm. and has weight range in 6-
26kg/m2. It has too much transparency and can cause glare. It is used in making canopies,
shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.
 Annealed glass breaks into large, jagged shards that can cause serious injury and is
considered a hazard in architectural applications.
 Building Codes in many parts of the world restrict the use of annealed glass in areas where
there is a high risk of breakage and injury, for example in bathrooms, door panels, fire exits
and at low heights in schools or domestic houses.
 Safety Glass, such as laminated or tempered must be used in these settings to reduce risk of
injury.
 Tinted Glass: Certain additions to the glass batch mix can add color to the clear glass without
compromising its strength. Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint; sulphar in different
concentrations can make the glass yellow, red or black. Copper sulphate can turn it blue. Etc.
 Toughened Glass This type of glass is tempered, may have distortions and low visibility but it
breaks into small dice-like pieces at modulus of rupture of 3600 psi. Hence it is used in
making fire resistant doors etc. They are available in same weight and thickness range as
float glass.
 Laminated Glass: This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective
layer. It is heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and
protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%. Used in glass facades,
aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.
 Shatterproof glass: By adding a polyvinyl butyral layer, shatter proof glass is made. This type
of glass does not from sharp edged pieces even when broken. Used in skylight, window,
flooring, etc
 Extra clean glass: This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them without
leaving any marks and photocatylitic i.e. they are covered with Nanoparticles that attack and
break dirt making it easier to clean and maintain.
 Double Glazed Units: These are made by providing air gap between two glass panes in order
to reduce the heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause immense amount of heat gain and
upto 30%of loss of heat of air conditioning energy. Green, energy efficient glass can reduce
this impact.
 Glass wool: Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass
fibers, which causes it to "package" air, and consequently make good insulating materials.
Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also for soundproofing.
 Glass blocks: Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and, while
the glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The resulting
glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks provide visual
obscuration while admitting light