LT Standard Test

ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDE
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
3DG-J33-00001, Revision 000, 2003 July 10
Reason for Revision: Issued for Use
Prepared by: A. Paine
Checked by: D. A. Huth
Approved by: A. P. DiMartino
INTRODUCTION
This design guide is intended to introduce the reader to and provide guidance for the
selection of level measuring and monitoring devices. The devices described in this
document are applicable to all types of plants or facilities that require level measurement.
INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 PURPOSE 4
2.0 CODES AND STANDARDS 4
3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES 4
3.1 Direct Method 5
3.2 Indirect (Inferential) Method 5
4.0 MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS 5
5.0 LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES 6
5.1 Gauge Glasses 6
5.2 Magnetic-Type Gauges 16
5.3 Mechanical Tank (Float and Tape) Gauges 19
5.4 Tank Gauging (Electrical/Electronic) 19
5.5 Float Type Level Switches 21
5.6 Displacement 22
5.7 Differential Pressure 25
5.8 Ultrasonic 28
5.9 Capacitance 29
5.10 Conductivity 30
5.11 Bubbler (Dip Tube Systems) 32
5.12 Nuclear 33
5.13 Thermal 35
5.14 Fiber Optic Level Switches 35
5.15 Strain Gauge Weighing Systems 36
5.16 Tilt Switches 36
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5.17 Rotating Paddle 37
5.18 Pressure Sensitive Diaphragm Type Level Switch 37
5.19 Vibrating Wand Type Level Switch 37
5.20 Radar Type Level Transmitters 38
5.21 Guided Wave Radar Level Transmitters 38
5.22 Plugged Transfer Chute Switches 39
5.23 Sludge Blanket Level Detectors 39
6.0 BOILER DRUM WATER LEVEL MONITORING AND CONTROL 40
7.0 REFERENCES 40
FIGURES
FIGURE 1 Typical Work Process Flow Diagram for Level Measurement
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1.0 PURPOSE
The purpose of this design guide is to provide guidance for the selection of level measuring
and monitoring devices.
This design guide is applicable for all business lines. If a portion of the guide only applies for a
specific business line it will be noted in the text at that point.
2.0 CODES AND STANDARDS
American Petroleum Institute
API Recommended Practice 551, “Process Measurement Instrumentation”
API Standard Practice for the Manual Gauging of Petroleum and Petroleum Products, “Manual
of Petroleum Measurement Standards Chapter 3 – Tank Gauging”
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
ASME B31.1, "Power Piping"
ASME B31.3, "Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping"
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, including all mandatory addenda, Section 1, "Power
Boilers"
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
NEMA ICS6, "Enclosures for Industrial Controls and Systems"
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
NFPA 70, "National Electrical Code"
Refer to the latest codes and standards and any international or local codes that may be
applicable.
3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES
The measurement and control of liquid level is essential in a process plant, where a wide
variety of liquids are handled in both batch and continuous processes. The accurate
measurement of level is important for plant safety, product quality, environmental protection
(for example, tank overflow to drains), and inventory control.
Almost all liquid level devices measure by way of the position or height of the liquid above a
zero or lowest point, or the hydrostatic pressure or head.
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The level measurement may be expressed either in units of length or volume, or in percentage
of total volume. There are two methods to measure a liquid level: the direct method and the
indirect or inferential method.
3.1 Direct Method
The direct method measures the liquid height above the zero point by any of the following
techniques:
1) Direct visual observation of the height by means of sight glass, level gauge or dipstick
2) A float, which is mechanically linked or electrically connected to an indicator or alarm

device
3) An electrical probe in the liquid
4) Reflection of sonic waves from the liquid surface or bottom
5) Microwave (Pulse Radar)
3.2 Indirect (Inferential) Method
The indirect or inferential method of measurement uses the changing position of the liquid
surface to determine level. The techniques involve:
1) The buoyant force on a float or displacer, which is partially or completely immersed in

liquid
2) Hydrostatic pressure of the liquid
3) The amount of radiation passing through the liquid
4) Electric systems by which liquid level may be inferred
5) Microwave (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FM-CW) Radar)
4.0 MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS
The range of the level measuring instrumentation should be large enough to cover the
expected or required operating range including upset conditions.
Measurement of an interface level may be straightforward when the interface is clearly defined,
as is usual between petroleum oil and water. But when the interface is ill-defined, as may occur
with some combinations of liquids, or if one of the liquids froths, the distance between the
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highest point of the lower level of clean upper phase and the lowest point of the upper level of
clean lower phase, and, in addition, make allowance for variation of the interface level. In
other words, where there is an interface band rather than an interface line, suitable allowance
should be made to measure the entire height of the band plus its movement. This holds true
even where the upper phase is a vapor or gas; if the liquid may froth or swell, this should be
taken into account when determining the required measuring range.
A vessel may have a number of level sensors responding to the level at assorted elevations
and ranges. At least one indicating instrument having an independent measuring loop should
span the entire range of levels measured by other instruments. Depending on how much of the
height of the vessel that may have to be utilized or checked, this indicating instrument may
have to span as much as the full height of the vessel.
An external-chamber level instrument, even a gauge glass, often does not accurately reflect
the actual level in the vessel. A disparity exists if the density of the liquid(s) in a chamber piped
to a vessel is not equal to the density of the liquid(s) in the vessel, as often occurs when the
vessel and the chamber are at different temperatures. Such errors can be significant in
applications such as high-pressure steam boilers and liquefied gas storage vessels.
External-chamber instruments are also subject to inaccurate readings or time lags due to
restrictions or plugging in the connecting piping.
In a vertical, flat-bottom cylindrical tank, the change in volume is linear with respect to the
change in level. However, if this tank is placed in a horizontal position, the change of volume is
nonlinear with respect to the change of level. Additional non-linearity is introduced if the tank
has conical or dished ends rather than flat ends. Thus, it is generally more effective in this case
to indicate percentage of level instead of volumetric units. However, tables are available to
relate the partial volume of horizontal cylinders at any height to the total volume, and increased
use of digital control systems make such corrections relatively easy to implement for
measurements within the system.
Level instrument connections shall be located on a vessel so that liquids or vapors entering or
exiting the vessel do not impinge on the instrument connection.
5.0 LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES
5.1 Gauge Glasses
Gauge glasses are simple devices, which indicate level by sight. Various techniques are used
to visually see the level of fluid in a vessel. These include glass tubes or windows, or reflexive
lenses.
5.1.1 Types
Several types of gauge glasses are available. The selection of the proper gauge glass
depends on the process conditions and the fluid type. The two basic types are Armored,
and Tubular.
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5.1.1.1 Armored
Where a gauge glass is to be used, the armored type, using flat glasses is generally to be
used. An exception may be made for mild operating conditions that permit the use of a tubular
gauge glass.
The basic types of level gauge glasses are as follows:
A reflex gauge glass may have one or more sections. Each section has a single flat glass with
prismatic vertical serrations that can show a steam/water interface and other non-staining
gas-or-vapor/liquid interfaces very clearly as white and black. A reflex glass should be selected
for ease of reading where an armored gauge is desired and service conditions permit,
especially for light colored liquids such as propane or lighter, and for clean (boiler) steam
service up to 300 psig (20 barg). Reflex Gauge type level glasses are not normally designed
for thermal cycling operation and hence not preferred for use in steam/water applications with
thermal cycling. They are also not recommended for steam or condensate applications for
tempearture above 300 deg F (150 deg C). A transparent gauge glass is preferred in those
cases.
A transparent gauge glass may have one or more sections. Each section has one flat glass
window in front and one in back. A transparent gauge glass is more expensive than the reflex
gauge glass, and should, therefore, not be used indiscriminately. It should be used when an
armored gauge glass is desired and any of the following conditions apply:
a. The liquid is sticky and dirties the glass. A light may then be placed behind the gauge
glass to improve visibility.
b. A liquid/liquid interface is to be observed.
c. The glass would be etched by the liquid, thereby reducing visibility, and a shield is used
to protect the glass from the liquid (see "Mica Shields," Section 5.1.4.1.6).
5.1.1.2 Tubular Glass
This is the lowest-pressure and lowest-cost type of gauge glass. It consists essentially of a
glass tube held between special gauge valves. It should be used only for fluids that are not
hazardous and that will not etch the glass (see "Mica Shields," Section 5.1.4.1.6). For safety, it
must always be provided with guard rods or other protective devices (see 5.1.4.2.1 “Guards”).
Furthermore, a tubular glass gauge should not be used where the gauge may experience
constant or strong vibration. Tubular Gauge glasses are normally not recommended for
process applications as they break easily.
Gauges of so-called "red line" type as well as clear gauges are available. The red-line gauge
shows a solid red line from the bottom of the glass up to the liquid level. Its use may be
considered for maximum visibility.
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5.1.2 Application
With some exceptions, every liquid-containing vessel should have a level gauge to provide
local measurement of level for operation and for calibration of other level instruments. The
most common type of gauge is the glass-window type but others are available. Exceptions to
the use of a glass-window gauge may include the following cases:
a. A closed vessel that contains a poisonous or radioactive liquid whose release by failure
of a gauge glass is totally unacceptable. (Level gauge glasses are routinely used for
corrosive and flammable fluids in the process industries.)
b. A vessel under pressure/temperature that exceed the design rating of the gauge.
c. A vessel requiring level measurement over a span of more than 12 feet, (3.6 meters)
provided that (1) a suitable substitute indicating system is available, and (2) there is a
worthwhile saving of money by using a substitute. If either of the two conditions is not
satisfied, then as many level gauges as are necessary should be used.
d. An open vessel whose level can be judged by looking into the vessel and for which
accurate measuring is not required or whose level can be measured by a stick.
However, a gauge may be used in this case for convenience.
e. A closed vessel where the liquid would coat the glass so that the level cannot be seen
behind the glass.
f. A storage tank with a floating or fixed roof, where liquid level is being measured and
indicted by a mechanical tank gauge with a readout unit external to the tank.
g. A closed vessel with cryogenic (below –240OF (–150OC)) or other low boiling point liquid
where the boiling point is so far below the maximum ambient design temperature that
use of a large chamber (see 5.1.4.1.1 “Large Chamber”) cannot eliminate turbulent
boiling of the liquid in the level gauge.
5.1.2.1 Service Rating
a. Armored gauge glasses are suitable to 10,000 psig (690 barg) and 750°F (400°C) (not
concurrently), possibly higher. Manufacturer's literature should be consulted for the
exact ratings of different brands and different models. Standardization by a project on a
single pressure rating may be worthwhile by enabling gauge glass dimensions to be
uniform throughout the project.
b. Tubular gauge glasses should not be used above 50 psig (3.5 barg) or 212°F, (100°C)
although they are commercially available for higher temperatures and pressures.
5.1.2.2 Length
5.1.2.2.1 Armored
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Manufacturers generally offer different models of gauges for three pressure classes, to cover
low, medium and high-pressure applications. Generally, the higher the pressure the shorter the
visible length between reinforcements. Except for welding-pad-type gauge glasses, an
armored gauge is made up of a number of standard-length sections, each relatively short
because of strength limitations, assembled together to provide a single chamber to provide the
required overall length. Each manufacturer has several different lengths for his standard
sections of a given pressure rating. A given gauge should have the same size glass sections.
Also, a given project should generally standardize on a limited number of section sizes for all
gauges of the same pressure class for uniformity. The section length is usually chosen to be
the longest offered by a given manufacturer for the model of interest. Although slightly different
in design, all manufacturers adhere to nearly similar end-to-end or side-to-side dimensions.
They also make similar length gauge sections, so that one manufactures complete assembly
can often replace another. However, the individual components are not interchangeable.
Armored level gauges are available in various standard numbers of sections from one to a
maximum that depends on the brand and model. The usual practice is to use any number of
sections from one to five, as appropriate for the application, and to use more than one gauge if
additional visibility is required. If more than one gauge is used to span a given distance, then
adjacent gauges should be installed with their visible ranges overlapping a nominal amount,
say one inch.
Welding-pad-type glasses, which are installed in a hole or slot in the vessel wall, are available
in both rectangular and circular forms.
5.1.2.2.2 Tubular Glass
Tubular gauge glasses are available in any length desired up to 72 inches (1800 mm), in some
cases longer. The length of glass may be specified either directly or by implication, by stating
the center-to-center distance of the gauge valves that are part of the assembly.
5.1.2.2.3 Overall
For an armored gauge glass, each model and mounting arrangement has a manufacturer's
standard length, or standard minimum length in the case of side/side-connected glasses.
However, a side-connected end of a gauge may be fabricated to any specified length beyond a
minimum, and use of a special length may be helpful, particularly for a tight installation that
does not have room for connection fittings (see 5.1.2.3 "Mounting," below).
The overall length of a tubular gauge glass cannot be considered separately from the length
including the gauge valves because the glass tube is held by the valves.
5.1.2.3 Mounting
5.1.2.3.1 Armored
Armored gauge glasses can be obtained with the upper connection at top, side, or back, and
the lower connection at bottom, side, or back. Unless a special need exists for one or two side
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or back connections, the gauge glass should have top and bottom connections. The use of
one or two side or back connections permits a shorter installation for a given size of gauge
glass, and should be used when conditions are cramped, as, for example, when visibility is
required to be as close as possible to a vessel connection (see discussion of overall length
above). Side or back connections should not be used for fluids that tend to plug the
connections.
5.1.2.3.2 Welding-Pad
An armored gauge glass mounting style that is infrequently used, the so-called welding-pad
type, causes the gauge to be welded to and to become part of the vessel. This type may be
useful in any of the following cases:
1) For slurries.
2) To provide an accurate view of the vessel level, free of thermal errors.
3) Where space is limited.
A welding-pad-type reflex gauge glass is used in single sections and should be mounted by the
vessel manufacturer. As this design requires a slit in the vessel wall, it is only suitable for low-
pressure applications.
5.1.2.3.3 Tubular Glass
A tubular gauge glass has limited choice of mounting arrangements. Two angle valves hold the
glass tube and provide the mounting connections.
5.1.2.4 Connections
Armored gauge glasses are generally available with chamber connections of either 3/4- or
1/2-inch size, usually FNPT, but options are offered in manufacturers' catalogs. The 3/4-inch
size and the FNPT connection should be used for the chamber unless there are special
requirements.
Tubular gauge glasses have no chamber connection other than the ends of the glass tubing.
5.1.3 Specifications
5.1.3.1 Armored
The body material armored gauge glasses shall meet the design conditions of the vessel.
Generally the body material corresponds to the vessel material. The body is also available with
various corrosion-resisting linings--such as rubber, lead, plastic--over a relatively low-cost base
material. The manufacturer's ratings may vary depending on the material used.
Cover plates must be adequately strong but are not wetted by the process and need not be
corrosion-resistant to the process. However at higher or sub ambient temperatures a similar
material to the body is required both to match thermal expansion (contraction) and provide a
material suitable for the environment.
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Gaskets may be of non-asbestos sheet, Graphite sheet, Teflon, or other materials to suit the
service. The choice of gasket material may reduce the gauge glass rating due to high
temperature, radioactivity, or other factor. Teflon should not be used in radioactive service.
5.1.3.2 Tubular Glass
Tubular glasses are available with different grades of glass but the type used shall be suitable
for the design pressure and temperature of the service. The glass should be of Pyrex or other
thermal-shock-resistant type.
5.1.4 Features and Options
5.1.4.1 For Armored Gauge Glasses
5.1.4.1.1 Large Chamber
This is a 2-inch-(50 mm) inside-diameter chamber, which is larger than the usual gauge
chamber. This construction should be specified only if bubbling is expected within the
chamber. The bubbling may occur by flashing of the liquid, or release of dissolved gas
because of reduced pressure, or by the temperature within the chamber rising to the boiling
point, as will occur for a very-low-boiling-point liquid in a warm environment.
5.1.4.1.2 Heat-Exchange Construction
This may use either an internal tube or an external tube through which either a coolant or a
heating fluid may be passed. Another arrangement uses an electric heating element.
A heating feature may prevent freezing of the gauge fluid. Heat exchange with a coolant may
prevent boiling. Do not use glass gauges for LNG. Heat-exchange construction should be
used, where practical, in preference to external tracing if either winterizing or summarizing is
required.
5.1.4.1.3 Non-Frost Extension
This is used for liquids whose temperature is below the freezing point of water. It consists of a
thick length of essentially colorless, transparent plastic that is mounted flush against the flat
glass. The thickness may be as many inches as required to provide a temperature gradient so
that the back face of the plastic is at or close to the cold-liquid temperature while the front face
is at or close to the ambient temperature. Thus, frost will not form on the front to obscure the
glass. Temperature absorption by, and boiling of, the gauge liquid are also reduced.
5.1.4.1.4 Integral Expansion Loop
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To reduce gauge glass stresses caused by differential expansion of the gauge glass and the
vessel or piping, the gauge should be specified to have an integral expansion loop at the top of
the gauge for steam service at 750 psig (52 barg) or higher.
5.1.4.1.5 Spring Washers
The manufacturer may recommend and supply Belleville spring washers for gauge glasses in
high-temperature service. These washers are used under the gauge nuts and compensate for
expansion and contraction of gauge parts, thereby maintaining proper clamping force despite
wide temperature swings. Belleville spring washers may also be needed for cryogenic service.
5.1.4.1.6 Mica Shield
Glass is etched and loses transparency if exposed to alkali, say with a pH greater than 8, or
clean (boiler) steam over 300 psig (21 barg). For process steam the impurities may require
shielding at lower pressures. For these conditions, a mica shield or equal is required to protect
the glass chemically. Use of a mica shield or equal shield material prevents the use of a reflex
glass.
5.1.4.1.7 Illuminator
This accessory is a section of light-transmitting, essentially colorless plastic that comes

complete with an electric lamp. It efficiently provides light for viewing a transparent armored
gauge in a dark location. It should be used where suitable nighttime or indoor lighting does not
exist. It can be added to an existing installation. When used, it’s the electrical enclosure type
suitable for the hazardous area classification, and the voltage should be specified to meet the
area classification requirements.
5.1.4.1.8 Integral Isolation Valves
These apply only to welding-pad-type gauge glasses, and they permit maintenance on the
gauge glass without shutting down and venting the vessel on which the gauge glass is
mounted. The integral valves require a 100-percent fillet weld to the vessel, and the gauge
chamber is then tack-welded to the vessel.
5.1.4.1.9 Measuring Scale
A calibrated measuring scale may be provided, as for tubular gauge glasses.
5.1.4.1.10 Glass Material
Borosilicate Glass is the most common type of optic material. It offers good resistance to most
chemicals at temperature at or below 600 degF (315degC) . Tempered Borosilicate Glass is
used to improve thermal shock resistance.
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Aluminosilicate Glass has a higher viscosity and a lower thermal expansion coefficient
compared to borosilicate glass. Aluminosilicate glass is commonly used where process
temperatures are greater than 600 degF (315 degC) but at or below 800 degF (427degC).
Fused Quartz is made from crystalline silica with few impurities. The highest temperature
rating, 1000 degF (538 degC) is achieved by using quartz.
5.1.4.2 For Tubular Level Gauge Glasses
5.1.4.2.1 Guards
Four guard rods should be provided as a minimum to protect the glass against external blows.
A cage of slotted metal, or plastic, or safety-glass may be provided for additional protection.
5.1.4.2.2 Measuring Scale
A calibrated measuring scale may be provided, thereby converting the LG to an LI. The scale
may be of engraved plastic or of various metals, either engraved or painted.
5.1.4.2.3 Level Switch
A capacitance-type level switch is available for mounting on a tubular gauge glass. One or
more switches can be used on the same glass for stepwise control or alarm. However, this
arrangement is not suitable for heavy-duty service and should not be used.
5.1.4.3 Fiber Optic Level Indicator
The use of fiber optics to transmit the water level gauge image to the control room is now
highly successful.
This system uses a fiber optic hood mounted to a bi-color multiport type gauge glass fitted with
an illuminator. The fiber optics accepts the red (vapor) and green (clear liquid) light coming
through the gauge. The light from each port is focused onto the receiving end of a glass optic
fiber, one for each port. The light is then transmitted through the fiber to the control room
display.
The control room display focuses the light from the optic fiber to provide a drum water level
indication, which is a direct reading of the boiler drum water level gauge glass.
5.1.4.4 Gauge Glass Image (Reflection)
The gauge glass is fitted with an illuminator and a reflector hood with a mirror at 45º. This
reflection is then transmitted via enclosed "duct work" to another mirror at the boiler front or the
control room.
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This is an inexpensive method of direct reading of the boiler drum level gauge glass but has
the disadvantage that for a completely clear image of the drum level, the operator must stand
in one particular viewing location.
An inherent problem with coal-fired plants is to keep the mirrors clean. Mirror alignment is also
a problem. This system is not recommended due to its disadvantages.
5.1.5 Gauge Valves

Gauge glasses may have ordinary line valves for isolation but the gauge valves, the so-called
"gauge cocks", should be used for the special features they offer for this service: special body
patterns, integral check valve, integral bleed connection, and easy disassembly for
maintenance. These features should also be used, insofar as they are available and
applicable, to valves for tubular gauges. It should be noted that where a vessel trim
specification does not allow threaded pipe fittings, piping valves listed for that specification may
have to be used instead of gauge cocks.
5.1.5.1 Body Pattern

All gauge valves are of angle pattern, with two variations: straight and offset. The straight
pattern has gauge and vessel connections in one plane, the offset pattern has them offset from
each other. The offset pattern should be used because it permits the inside of the glasses of a
top- or bottom-connected gauge to be cleaned for improved visibility without requiring the
removal of the valve or gauge. The same type of valve should be used for side-connected
gauges for consistency.
Valves are also available with spherical or offset union connections to allow for slight
mismatch in gauge to standpipe or vessel connection, which is particularly helpful for easier
installation of top-side/bottom-side connected gauges.
5.1.5.2 Materials
All the valve materials shall be suitable for the vessel design conditions.
The body material generally corresponds to the vessel material except that the material is
usually brass or bronze for tubular gauge glasses. The stem should be manufacturer's
standard.
Packing should be Grafoil or Bechtel-approved equal, except that the packing may be
Bechtel-approved manufacturer's standard for services that are at a temperature not
exceeding 450F and are in non-radioactive service, as defined for the project.

The pressure and temperature ratings of gauge valves shall satisfy the vessel design
conditions. Manufacturers' literature should be consulted to determine available ratings.
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5.1.5.4 Check Valve Feature
Though level gauges are nominally satisfactory for their design conditions and are made of
very-high-quality glass that resists thermal and mechanical shock, glass is a brittle material that
may fracture because of improper torquing of retaining bolts, improper installation, or for other
reasons. A leak may result from failure of a sealing gasket. Gauge glasses have proven to be
very reliable in service but, as a precaution in case there is a failure, all gauge valves shall be
provided with an integral check valve. This is a ball check that seats automatically to block flow
following a venting of the gauge when the vessel is under pressure.
5.1.5.5 Seat Construction

There are two seats in a gauge valve and a third one is available. One seat is for manual
shutoff, another for the ball check. The manual shutoff seat may be procured with either an
alloy, replaceable seat; a non-replaceable alloy insert seat; or an integral seat. The
replaceable seat should be specified for manual shutoff.
The manufacturer's standard construction is used for the ball-check seat.
A third available seat is for stem backseating to enable repacking the valve while the valve is in
service, Backseating should not be specified (unless a standard design feature) because a
closed root valve (a) renders a backseat unnecessary, and (b) provides more safety when
valve packing is to be replaced, on the rare occasions when it is necessary.
For ferrous bodies, the seat and disc should be stainless steel, Stellite, or other
corrosion-resistant material. For nonferrous bodies, they should be metallic, i.e., soft seats
should not be used.
5.1.5.6 Bonnet
Bonnets should be manufacturer's standard except as follows:
a. If the bonnet is threaded, it shall be pinned or seal welded to prevent accidental

disassembly.
b. In high temperature or corrosive service, the bonnet should be bolted (“Outside Screw
and Yoke” or OS&Y) for ease of disassembly and to isolate the stem threads from the
liquid.
5.1.5.7 Connections
a. For armored gauge glasses, the gauge valves have three connections, which should
be as follows except where special requirements may exist:
1) Gauge connection: To match the connection on the chamber.
2) Vessel connection: ¾” NPT(M) with swivel-union joint. The swivel joint

facilitates field connection by allowing some accommodation to fit a pair of
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vessel connections that are not located properly. The union feature permits
easy removal of the gauge glass for maintenance.
3) Bleed/drain connection: ½” NPT(F) with 2” (50mm) bar stock plug.
b. For tubular gauge glasses, the gauge valves have three connections, which should be
as follows except where special requirements may exist:
1) Gauge connection: To match the connection on the chamber.
2) Vessel connection: ¾” NPT(M) with union joint. A swivel joint should not be
used because it may cause the assembly to be twisted and the glass tube to
fracture.
3) Bleed connection: ½” NPT(F) with 2" (50mm) bar-stock plug.
5.1.5.8 Handles
Valve handles should generally be specified as handwheels, and the stem thread should be
quick-closing type. If access to a gauge valve will be difficult, a lever-type handle can be
specified, with a chain or chains of suitable length, and a multi-lead quick-closing type stem
thread. Chains must be located so that they can be safely operated in the event of a blown
gauge glass.
5.2 Magnetic-Type Gauges
Magnetic Level Gauges are a type of direct level measurement. They consist of a magnet
carried by a float inside of a vertical chamber. An indicator on the outside of the vertical
chamber is affected by the magnet and shows the position of the float. It is an all-metal
alternative for glass-window level gauge. It can cover as large of a span as required.
5.2.1 Types
5.2.1.1 Flagged
One type of magnetic-type level gauge has a vertical chamber in which rides a
magnet-carrying float. There is a readout section that holds a vertical bi-colored series of
magnetic flags that sequentially appear to change color as the float rises past them and
change back as the float falls past them. The gauge thereby shows the level in small
discrete steps. Actual level can be read in engineering units on a calibrated scale that is
attached to the assembly
5.2.1.2 Follower
A second type of magnetic-type level gauge has a sealed tube that contains a metal follower.
The sealed tube is attached to the vertical chamber in which rides a magnet-carrying float.
The follower is magnetically coupled to the float in the vertical chamber. Since the follower is
magnetically coupled to the float, the follower position accurately indicates the liquid level.
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Use of this type should be avoided if installation will be subject to violent level changes that
could decouple the follower from the float causing loss of indication.
5.2.2 Application
A magnetic-type level gauge is useful where a gauge glass would normally be applied except
where the use of glass is not acceptable or preferred. A magnetic-type gauge can be
connected to the process system by welding, resulting in a hermetically sealed system.
This gauge may also be helpful where an interface is difficult to see because the interface is
between two similarly colored liquids. The difference in specific gravities should be at least
0.2. The difference in specific gravity can be lower than 0.2, however, this would then
increase the float chamber size. Minimum specific gravity difference for fluid/fluid interface
level is as low as 0.07.The manufacturer should be consulted if the difference is lower than
0.2.
The magnetic gauge uses a long thin float with a magnet imbedded near the top. When
installed in an application where temperature increases from ambient, the decrease in fluid
density will cause the float to sink deeper causing a level offset. Where indication is critical,
the supplied gauge should provide a scale indicating the drop in level due to change in
temperature.
Magnetic-type level gauges are available in pressures to 5000 psig (345barg) or

temperatures to 750oF (400°C). Temperature may be upto 800oF (426°C). But this would
require insulation of the float chamber. Also, there may be demagnetizing effect on magnets
at elevated temperatures. This type of gauges can be used in cold service (cryogenic) with
temp down to -320oF (- 195°C), but this again requires insulation of the chamber. The
manufacturer's catalog should be consulted.
5.2.2.2 Mounting Styles
Several mounting styles are available, as follows:
a. With a float chamber: The float chamber is piped similarly to the way a gauge glass is
piped. The upper connection may be at the top, upper side, or upper back; the lower
connections at the bottom, lower side, or lower back. The readout section may be
mounted on either the side of the float chamber or, with the use of an extension rod,
on a separate readout chamber that is attached to the bottom or the top of the float
chamber. When using the top- or bottom-mounted readout, the use of a top or
bottom piping connection, respectively, for the float chamber is ruled out.
b. Without a float chamber: The readout section is mounted on the top of the vessel with
the float attached and located within the vessel. A stilling well must be provided in the
vessel to protect the float against turbulence.
Page 17 of 41
5.2.3.1 Construction
The float chamber is normally made of 2-inch (50mm) NS pipe. It has no

standard length but can be made in one piece and as long as necessary. The
float chamber shall be designed and constructed to ASME B31.1 Power Piping
or ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping as applicable.
Float Chamber size shall be 2" minimum. Depending on specific gravity
differences, chamber size may increase. Standard sizes are 2", 2-1/2", 3" and
4". Lower the specific gravity differences higher the chamber sizes.
The readout section, for level indication, is clamped to the side of either the
float chamber or the readout chamber, either above or below the float
chamber. The readout section is typically available only in standard lengths—6
inch (150mm), 12 inch (300mm), 18 inch (450mm), 24 inch (600mm), and 36
inches (900mm)--but two or more such lengths may be combined to provide a
total usable length matching that of the float chamber.
5.2.3.2 Materials
The readout section operates by magnetic flux and must, therefore, have a non-magnetic
wall. When the readout section is mounted on the side of the float chamber, the float
chamber must, therefore, be non-magnetic, and is usually of 304 stainless steel. When the
readout section is not on the side of the float chamber but is rather on a readout chamber,
the float chamber may be of carbon steel, which is magnetic, or of 304 stainless steel; the
indicator chamber must then be non-magnetic, usually of 304 stainless steel.
5.2.3.3 Connections
The float chamber connections are essentially connections for 2-inch (50mm)
NS pipe and are available as any kind of pipe connections. Connections
should be specified to conform to the applicable project piping specification.

An external magnet-actuated level switch is available for attachment to the level gauge. A
calibrated measuring scale may be provided, as for glass gauges. Also, external magneto-
restrictive level transmitters are available and can be attached to the gauge. A 4-20 mA
output signal or smart signal is available. However, care should be taken for mounting the
transmitter for high temp (>300 degF (150 deg C)) applications.
Level gauge “cock” valves used for glass gauges are not appropriate for magnetic level
gauges. Therefore, piping valves consistent with the vessel trim specification are used for
isolation of the magnetic type gauge from the vessel.
Page 18 of 41
5.3 Mechanical Tank (Float and Tape) Gauges
This type of level measurement instrument consists of a float-actuated tape, which drives a
gauge that provides digital readout of the float travel for level indication over the entire tank
range.
5.3.1 Application
This type of instrument is often included with the tank specification and supplied with the
tank especially if the tank is lined. The enclosed tape run enables a loop seal to be provided
if the tank has an "inert gas blanket". With this system the actuation tape is run via totally
enclosed guides and pulleys to the readout unit mounted at a convenient location alongside
or atop the tank.
5.3.1.1 Mounting
The float for this type of instrument is maintained in vertical alignment by guide wires firmly
attached to the top and bottom of the tank, thereby requiring the tank to be empty for
installation and maintenance. For fixed roof tanks, a stilling well should be provided if the
content of the tank is subject to turbulence. The stilling well should either be painted or
corrosion-resistant to prevent rust from forming on the piping above the liquid surface. For
floating roof tanks, the tape is fastened to the floating roof rather than a separate float, since
the roof itself is on the top of the liquid.
The materials of construction must be compatible with the process system and conditions.

The readout unit can be readily fitted with high and low limit switches for alarm and control
requirements. An analog or binary output signal transmitter is also available.
5.4 Tank Gauging (Electrical/Electronic)
Tank gauging is the generic name for static quantity assessment of liquid products in bulk
storage tanks. Typically tank gauging meets the international requirements for custody
transfer and is used on large outside storage tanks. Tank gauging is microprocessor based,
and requires the use of a portable communication or configuration device, called a portable
terminal, for setup calibration or configuration changes. Tank Gauging may also incorporate
tank dimensional data or fluid temperature to perform additional calculations.
5.4.1 Types
There are several techniques to measure the mass / volume of a fluid in a tank. All of the
techniques include a level measurement. The traditional technology used in tank gauging is
Displacer type. Hydrostatic and Radar methods are also used. Batch mixing tanks or weigh
tanks may use load cells.
Page 19 of 41
5.4.1.1 Displacer (Servo)
Displacer type of tank gauge continuously measures the buoyancy of a displacer positioned
at the surface of the liquid. The displacer is attached via a stainless steel cable to a drum
that is mounted in the tank gauge mounted on top of the tank. The drum contains a servo,
which measures the tension and length of the steel cable. It can determine the height of the
displacer within 1mm.
5.4.1.2 Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic tank gauging uses pressure sensors to determine the hydrostatic head, density,
and the mass of the fluid. For improved accuracy this type of device will measure the
temperature of the fluid and of the gauge in determining the density of the fluid between two
pressure sensors, which are at a fixed distance apart from each other. See section 5.7 for
more information on the use of Differential Pressure for level measurement.
5.4.1.3 Radar Hybrid

Radar level sensors mounted at the top of the tank may be used in conjunction with a
hydrostatic pressure transmitter at or near the bottom of the tank. The combined surface
level with hydrostatic head can be used to determine the mass or density of the fluid. See
sections 5.20 and 5.21 for more details on using Radar technology for level measurement.
5.4.2 Application
Tank Gauging is most prevalently used in the Petro-chemical industries. It may be used on
many various types of tanks including those with a floating roof, or pressurized with a gas-
blanket. The accuracy of these systems are very important because they are often used for
custody transfer. Considering the size of some bulk fluid storage tanks, even a 1mm
discrepancy in level measurement translates to a very large volume.
An particular advantage of the displacer type is it can also locate the interface point between
two liquids. This is important for determining the actual volume of petroleum products, which
may have water or various hydrocarbons in the tank. Additionally the servo, by measuring
the tension, can determine the density of a liquid through a program change with the
portable terminal.
5.4.3 Specification
The materials of construction must be compatible with the process system and conditions. A
stilling well should be provided for displacer type and may be useful for enhancing accurarcy
in some radar applications. The stilling well material should be corrosion-resistant. Rust
forming in the stilling well and falling onto the displacer will adversely affect the accuracy
since the buoyancy will be impacted. Radar antennae material must be resistant to
corrosion, condensing vapors, and be rated to handle the pressure and temperatures for the
application.
The traditional displacer technology must only be used for clean, low viscosity fluids. If the
product can stick to the cable suspending the displacer, it will distort the density calculation
Page 20 of 41
and may foul the servo drum. For thick fluids such as heavy oil, radar or radar hybrid
systems are usually used, and hydrostatic tank gauging may be used.
Some guided wave radar systems are able to detect interfaces, but the dielectric of the fluids
must be significant enough for this type to detect an interface. Hydrostatic or Radar hybrid
systems that use an array of pressure transducers, can determine the fluid density. Or if the
specific gravity of the fluids are know, hydrostatic gauges may be able to calculate the
interface level. These density calculations depend on the distance between the radar level
instrument and or the pressure sensors. Any fluctuation due to tank flexure, or thermal
movement will effect this calculation. Temperature is often measured at the pressure sensor
points to compensate for thermal expansion between the pressure transducers.

Local indication may be provided in the unit on the top of the tank and a remote indication
unit is available that can be located at ground level. Calibration can then be performed at
ground level using a portable terminal. Multi-point TE option is available, which works in
conjunction with level transmitter to select the representative TE.
The tank gauge can provide a 4-20 mA analog or digital output signal. The tank gauge is
capable of providing programmed level alarm outputs and relay contacts for mixer or pump
control.
5.5 Float Type Level Switches
Float level switches incorporate in their design a float, which follows the liquid level or the
interface level between liquids of differing specific gravities. Standard floats are normally
spherical or cylindrical for top-mounted designs and spherical or oblong for side-mounted
designs. Spherical floats are available from 3 to 7 in (76 to 178 mm) in diameter. The small
diameter floats are used in higher density materials whereas the larger floats are used for
liquid-liquid interface detection, for lower density materials, or when the float must buoy up a
long motion take-off assembly. The binary action is provided by one or more switching
elements coupled with the float assembly. The switching elements are normally mercury
filled switches, pneumatic switches, micro switches, reed switches with mechanical or
magnetic coupling, tilt switches, etc.
5.5.1 Application
Float type level switches are not normally considered for industrial processing applications,
except in the utility services or as alarm switches. The repeatability is normally about 1 in (25
mm) for float type level switches.
Use of float type switches is not recommended in the following situations:
· The size of the float is too large or the associated support and guide tubes cannot be
accommodated.
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· In some cases where immersed magnets attract pipe scale and other ferrous metal
particles in the process that can interfere with proper switch operation.
· Many of the float-operated designs have moving parts exposed to the process and
cannot be used in dirty or plugging services.
5.5.2 Process
Floats level switches can operate up to 1000 psig (70 barg) and –40 to 225 deg F (-40 to 107
deg F). Special designs can go up to 200 psig (140 barg) and 500 deg F (260 deg C).
5.5.3 Material
The materials of construction must be compatible with the process system and conditions.
Floats are available in various metal, metal-alloy and plastic material. Also, the switching
element with electrical outputs and its enclosure must meet hazardous are classification
requirements.
5.5.4 Mounting
The External Float chamber type level switches have float in a chamber that can be mounted
externally with side/bottom process connections. In this case the entire unit can be isolated
for maintenance without disrupting normal plant operation. There are also direct-connected
designs such as top-mounted and side-mounted switches. These designs should be
considered only if the vessel can be depressurized and drained when the switch needs
maintenance.
5.6 Displacement
This type of instrument utilizes a displacer (float) connected to a torque tube (spring), which
in turn actuates the transmitter. The torque tube supports the dead weight of the displacer
when it is out of the liquid. As the liquid level rises it displaces some of the weight of the
displacer reducing the load on the torque tube and turning the output shaft. Displacers can
be used to handle a range of densities, however the lower the density the less the standard
output shaft turns. For special applications such as interface, or density measurement
different spring rate torque tubes are available.
5.6.1 Application
Displacement Level instruments are not usually used for measurement over 60 inches
(1500mm), although displacers up to 120 inches (3000mm) are available. Displacers can be
used with a variety of fluids from cryogenic to 750°F (400°C) and in a variety of materials.
Generally the displacer is housed in an external cage except in low boiling point liquids like
cryogenic fluids. Displacer level instrument may be internal also, but normally not preferred.
External cage type is preferred for most services, including liquid-liquid interface, except
those listed below:
· Where the displacer range (length) exceeds 5 feet use a D/P cell or other device
suitable for the application.
Page 22 of 41
· For dirty, corrosive, or viscous service.
· For direct-connected level switches, use a displacer or packless ball float type.
Connecting process piping to level switch should be same size as the vessel nozzle.
Provide vent and drain valve connections to check the process actuation of the level
switch without changing the vessel liquid level.
· In refinery and chemical applications on fractioning columns having steam stripping,

use a purged D/P cell instead of a displacer. If purging is impractical use a sealed
D/P cell. Performance of displacers may be affected by the condensing of steam in
the top section of the displacer housing containing vapor and subsequent flashing of
steam condensate in the bottom section of the displacer housing containing hot liquid.
Stripping steam entering the column should be directed away from the level
connection to the column.
· On steam drums and generators, consider using a sealed D/P cell, or a "wet-leg"
hook-up.
For applications where vessel penetrations are not permitted, other type instruments should
be considered.
5.6.2 Specification
Standard displacer ranges should be 14", 32”, 48” and 60” for ASME English standards and
350 mm, 500 mm, 750 mm, 1000 mm, 1200 mm and 1500 mm for DIN Metric standards.
Units longer than 48"(1200 mm) while available, are to be avoided due to weight and thermal
expansion problems between the vessel and the instrument. The minimum connection
size/ASME rating should be 2"/ Class 150 psig flanged. Vessel nozzle connections should
be 2". However if multiple displacers are used, and may be later changed out by the owner
during maintenance, they may prefer to standardize on a specific Class rating for all
displacers. This should be determined at onset of the Project. Displacement type level
devices should be installed with a vent and/or a bottom drain oriented to allow a probing rod
to check or free the displacer element.
5.6.2.1 Connection
This instrument can be flange mounted from the top of the vessel or mounted within a cage
installed off the side of the vessel. For liquid level measurement the displacer is installed so
that the surface to be measured remains within the length of the displacer. Therefore, the
length of the displacer is critical.
An off-vessel cage can be supplied with a selection of process connection locations, as

follows:
Top and bottom
Top and lower side
Side and side (use only when required by space considerations)
Upper side and bottom
Page 23 of 41
Lower-side connection with upper-top connection may be considered for those applications
requiring level measurement close to the bottom level tap location. Upper-side and lower-
side (side-side) connections may be considered for those applications with space limitations.
In general, controllers and transmitters will have top-side connections and lower-bottom
connections with a rotatable head flange and bottom drain. Displacement chambers should
be of flanged construction for easy float removal. The case mounting should be right
handed unless a left-handed orientation is required by the piping layout. Other variations
may be used where required. If upper-top and lower-bottom connections are used, rotatable
heads are not required.
With the off-vessel cage the required location of the transmitter head with respect to the
vessel connections should be determined. If design is incomplete then a rotatable head
should be specified. This allows a 360-degree horizontal plane location.
5.6.2.2 Material
Materials of construction should be compatible with the process fluid and the system design
pressure and temperature. Normally the body or cage should be fabricated carbon steel with
a 304 or 316 stainless steel displacer or ball and Inconel torque tube, unless process
conditions or vessel construction requires higher-grade alloys.
5.6.2.3 Process
The displacer chamber and flanges shall be suitable for the vessel design pressure and
temperature. Displacer chambers rated higher than ASME Class 600 made from alloy
materials, operating over 700°F (371°C) or under –20°F (-29°C) are costly and should be
avoided if other suitable level measurement device is available. Above 1000 psig (69 barg),
solid displacers should be considered in order to avoid crushing. Displacement level
instruments should have thermal extensions on services above 350°F (177°C) and below –
20°F (-29°C) or as recommended by the manufacturer.
Electronic transmitters shall meet the National Electrical Code (NEC) (NFPA 70) or other
International area classification requirements. The torque tube housing should be isolated
from the pneumatic or electronic mechanisms by a positive sealing arrangement.

The signal output from a displacement level transmitter may be pneumatic or electronic 4-20
mA. Generally, output signal transmission should be electronic for remote indication or
control, while local loops may use pneumatic equipment. Electronic transmitters should be
solid state, two wire “Smart’ type, providing an isolated 4-20 mA signal while operating from
a remote power supply of 24-48 Vdc. Pneumatic transmitters shall have an output range of
3 to 15 psig (0.2 to 1 barg), should be enclosed with a weatherproof case and should be
furnished with an air supply filter/regulator set. The pneumatic version has a higher
temperature rating than the electronic one. An interposing pressure transmitter is required if
the pneumatic version is used and a 4-20 mA output is needed.
Page 24 of 41
5.7 Differential Pressure
The hydrostatic pressure of fluids increases linearly with height. A differential pressure
transmitter will indicate the pressure exerted by the fluid and thus, the level may be inferred.
The density of the fluid determines the relationship between pressure and level. If the
density of the fluid changes, this must be compensated in order have an accurate level
measurement.
5.7.1 Application
Consider D/P cell for level measurement application in the following services:
· Where displacer range (length) would exceed 4 feet.
· On steam drums and generators.
· In refinery and chemical applications on fractioning columns having steam stripping, use
a purged D/P cell instead of a displacer. If purging is impractical, use a sealed D/P cell.
· The use of D/P cells mounted with a diaphragm seal on flange is recommended on
vessels containing corrosive or highly viscous material, low temperature applications,
fluids with particulates, applications involving turbulence or agitation, or applications
where the sensor flange is close to grade.
5.7.1.1 Open Tanks
On open tanks, a direct connected pressure instrument can utilize the process fluid head
pressure to provide level measurement over the entire range of the tank. For clean liquids or
slurries a pressure or differential pressure (D/P) transmitter can be used. With the D/P
transmitter one side must be left open to atmosphere and fitted with a "Bug Screen" to
prevent contamination.
5.7.1.2 Pressurized or Closed Vessels
On closed vessels, compensation must be made for the vessel internal pressure. This is
accomplished by using a D/P transmitter with one side connected to the lower tank nozzle
and the other to the upper tank nozzle. In the presence of a condensing vapor, a
condensate pot can be directly connected to the tank upper nozzle so as to provide a wet
reference leg. In this application the transmitter working range (span) may be lowered or
suppressed. This provides a negative differential so that the output signal increases with
level increase.
5.7.1.3 Access is Restricted to the Top Only
Applications that involve level measurement in wells or forebays with access only from the
top can use a submersible pressure transmitter as an alternative method to the bubbler (see
Section 5.11). The transmitter is lowered to the bottom of a stilling well for protection and is
connected to the surface via a two conductor cable that provides an isolated 4-20 mA signal.
Standard wetted materials are polyurethane cable strengthened with Kevlar and a titanium
body for corrosion resistance.
Page 25 of 41
5.7.2 Specification
5.7.2.1 Connections
5.7.2.1.1 Impulse Tube
The most common method of connecting a pressure level transmitter to the process is with
3/8” or ½” (see 5.7.2.2 “Materials”) 316 stainless tubing. This is called impulse tubing or
sensing line. The transmitter should have instrument valves or a manifold at the transmitter
connection to provide a means for isolating, testing, and servicing the instrument.
In D/P level transmitter installations the sensing line going to the upper tank connection
becomes a "reference leg" of constant pressure head. Care must be taken in applying
reference legs when the atmosphere may alternate from condensing to non-condensing.
5.7.2.1.2 Flanged
On many tanks, a flange connection is provided for the level measurement instrument. Most
pressure transmitters may be specified with an integral flanged connection. With pressure
and differential pressure type level transmitters not mounted onto the tank nozzle, the actual
mounting location must be considered when calibrating for the tank level measurement
required.
For installations that use a flanged level transmitter, the use of a spacer (“bleed ring”) (not
required on an open tank) located between the isolation valve and the transmitter provides a
means for running zero and span checks. Threaded connections are provided in the spacer
for draining and for connecting test instrumentation. This spacer is also used in slurry service
as a flushing ring for cleaning the diaphragm. Generally, material would be minimum carbon
steel for water applications and stainless steel for flammable or hazardous fluids.
In slurry service extended diaphragms are often used in order to have the sensing face level
with the vessel wall.
5.7.2.1.3 Remote Pressure Sensing Diaphragm
Transmitters may be equipped with remote pressure sensing diaphragms; these are also
called remote seals or capillary-diaphragms. They are available as a variation of the flange
mounted transmitter, with an extension to bring the diaphragm flush with the tank wall.
Page 26 of 41
Reasons for using a remote seal include the following:
· The fluid is dirty, corrosive, or viscous.

· A sanitary application.
· When the process temperature is outside of the normal operating limits of the
transmitter and cannot be brought into those limits with impulse piping.
Remote seals are a thin diaphragm mounted on a flange. The space behind the diaphragm
is filled with oil or other fluid, which is compatible with the process temperature. The
pressure exerted on this oil by the diaphragm is sensed at the transmitter via very small
diameter tubing, called capillary tubing. Remote seals are sensitive to ambient temperature
fluctuation. They can be easily damaged during installation and maintenance, and they can
effect the response time of the pressure measurement. However, they do provide an option
for D/P level measurement in some tough applications.
For dirty, corrosive, or viscous service, a purged D/P cell may be used but it is more
susceptible to blockage and effects from the purge fluid pressure.
Designs using diaphragm-capillary seals should include installation instructions which

provide for installation after the process vessel, piping, etc., hydrostatic pressure testing,
acid washing, flushing, etc. is complete to prevent possible damage to instrument
diaphragms from overpressure, corrosion, etc. Use of an instrument tee with pancake type
diaphragms is recommended to enable venting and draining process fluid.
5.7.2.2 Materials
The materials of construction must be compatible with the process and system conditions.
Wetted parts should consist of a carbon steel body and a 316 stainless steel sensing
element, as a minimum, unless the application requires otherwise. Process connections
(other than diaphragm seals) should be 1/2 inch NPT for refinery and chemical applications,
and 3/8-inch tube or 1/4 inch NPT for power applications. Differential pressure transmitters
should be able to withstand overrange pressure equal to the meter body rating. Level
transmitters will generally not be specified to have local receiver indicators unless the vessel
is not equipped with level glasses.

Pneumatic transmitters shall have an output range of 3 to 15 psig, (0.2 – 1barg) should be
enclosed with a weatherproof case and should be specified to be furnished with an air supply
filter/regulator/pressure gauge set. Electronic instruments should have an output signal
compatible with the instrument loop, but generally 4-20 mA DC. Differential pressure level
transmitters should be solid state electronic, two wire ‘Smart’ type, providing an isolated 4-20
mA signal while operating from a remote power supply of 24-48 V DC. Generally, output
signal transmission should be electronic for remote indication or control, while local loops
may use pneumatic equipment. Electronic transmitters shall meet the National Electrical
Code (NEC) (NFPA 70) or equal International area classification requirements.
Page 27 of 41
5.8 Ultrasonic
5.8.1
This type of level measurement operates on the principle of ultrasonic ranging.
Ultrasonic signals are pulsed from a transducer towards the liquid whose level is to be
measured. Signal echoes are received after being reflected from the liquid surface. The
time interval between signal and echo is proportional to the distance from the transducer and
the liquid.
5.8.2
The transducer is mounted to a suitable tank top connection and the transmitter is mounted
at a remote location within the limitation of the system. Ambient temperature compensation
should be specified for outdoor tanks and any vessel whose operating temperature will vary.
5.8.3
This type of level measurement system has a limited measurement range and cannot
tolerate any tank internal interferences.
5.8.4 In order to ensure proper operation and avoid measurement interference from vessel
walls, connections, internal piping, etc, ultrasonic instrument orientation should be carefully
considered and coordinated with the manufacturer.
5.8.5
5.8.6
Ultrasonic devices can be useful for measuring solids level in bins or silos. However, the
measurement can be severely affected by interference from the dusty atmosphere and
background noise that can be experienced during filling operations. Ultrasonic level devices
are also affected by presence of vapours.
5.8.7
An ultrasonic level measuring device will also operate poorly if "sloshing" occurs in the tank
(i.e., if the liquid surface does not maintain an even level). If an ultrasonic device is planned
to be used in these circumstances it should be installed in a stilling well in the tank; however,
special attention must be given to the proper sizing and selection of the stilling well to ensure
that the ultrasonic signal is not interfered with.
5.8.8
Ultrasonic level measuring devices are very useful in measuring slurry levels in tanks,
sumps, and distribution boxes.
5.8.9 Ultrasonic Level Switch
5.8.9.1
This type of instrument mounts the ultrasonic sensor (transducer) at the point of control.
Page 28 of 41
5.8.9.2
The level sensor has a slot or gap through which the process can flow. This slot can be
either horizontal or vertical and vary in form to suit the process fluid.
5.8.9.3
A remote mounted control unit sends an electronic signal to the sensor which converts it into
a high frequency ultrasonic signal.
5.8.9.4
When the sensor slot or gap is filled with process fluid, this ultrasonic signal is transmitted
across to the receiver side and reconverted to an electrical signal.
5.8.9.5
The control unit amplifies this signal and the switch relay is energized.
5.8.9.6
5.9 Capacitance
5.9.1
This type of level measurement instrument consists of a capacitance probe and a
transmitter.
5.9.2
The capacitance probe is mounted direct into the vessel using a 1" NPT connection. This
can also be mounted into a flange if required.
5.9.3
The capacitance to current transmitter can be mounted directly onto the sensing probe or
mounted remotely, within the limitations of the system. The transmitter provides a 4-20
mADC output for use to alarm, control or provide level measurement indication.
5.9.4
Capacitance type level measurement should not be used on vessels with irregular or varying
dimensions.
5.9.5
This level measurement system can be supplied with optional alarms and level indication.
5.9.6
There is a variety of capacitance systems and, despite suppliers’ claims; they are
susceptible to material buildup malfunctions. Therefore, if the process fluid could cause
deposits to bridge between the probe and the probe tank connection, other level
measurement systems should be considered.
Page 29 of 41
5.9.7
When used to measure the continuous level of certain fluids the capacitance level probes
tend to become coated. Under these circumstances a coating compensation circuit should
be specified and furnished by the probe supplier.
5.9.8 Radio Frequency (RF)
5.9.8.1
The Radio Frequency (RF) level sensor uses low voltage to transmit a radio frequency
oscillating signal from the probe to ground. When the material level reaches the probe, the
control contacts are activated. They can withstand high temperature and pressure
conditions up to 5000 psi (345 bar) and 1000°F.(538°C) The sensor could be used to
measure the level of liquids, powders, granular solids, and slurries. The RF sensors are also
applicable for continuous level measurement. They are commonly used in fossil power
plants to detect fly ash hopper level.
5.9.8.2
If RF sensors are used under conditions where it is possible for a highly conductive build-up
to form on the sensing probe there may be problems with accuracy and repeatability.
5.9.9 Capacitance Probe Level Switch
5.9.9.1
This is similar to the capacitance type level transmitter, but for switch applications a
capacitance sensing point type probe for on/off actuation is used.
5.9.9.2
The point type sensing element is unaffected by the vessel shape.
5.9.9.3
The control unit containing the control relay can be mounted directly to the probe housing or
remotely mounted in a suitable location.
5.9.9.4
The sensing probe can be either flange mounted or use a one inch threaded connection.
5.9.9.5
This type of point sensing probe can also be mounted in the horizontal plane, in the
side of a vessel.
5.10 Conductivity
5.10.1
Page 30 of 41
Conductivity (Electric Type) level gauges are routinely used on steam drums operated at
pressures up to 3000 psi (207 bar) for monitoring drum level. The system typically consists
of three components: a) a water column containing the conductivity probes mounted directly
to the vessel, b) control unit, and c) display units installed locally, at the drum elevation, and
remotely, in the control room. Conductivity level gauges are also suitable for feedwater
heaters, flash tanks, condensers, deaerators and turbine drains.
5.10.2
Caution is advised when using this type of level gauge in chemical processes due to the
potential for sparking.
5.10.3
This type of instrument utilizes a water column connected to the vessel with a vertical array
of "conductivity" electrodes installed within the water column.
5.10.4
Differences in the electrical conductivity of steam and water are the means of water level
detection.
5.10.5
The water column is grounded so that the conductivity (resistance) measurement of the
steam and water in contact with the electrode tip is made between the whole surface of the
tip and the grounded water column.
5.10.6
The electrodes are connected to a locally mounted electronic module that reads the signals
to determine which electrodes see steam or water. The result is indicated by a red and green
LED display on the module case.
5.10.7
The "gauge glass" error due to contrasting densities also applies to this type of instrument,
although it is claimed that due to the heavy wall thickness of the water column and the
electrode protective enclosure, this system is more accurate than a normal gauge glass.
Fouling of the probes may occur in sour applications, resulting in measurement error.
5.10.8 Conductivity Probe Type Level Switch
5.10.8.1
This type of instrument utilizes the conductivity of the vessel contents to complete the
electrical circuit and actuate the switch or relay.
5.10.8.2
These instruments can have multiple probes to provide the separate electrical circuits for
multiple on/off control or alarm functions.
5.10.8.3
Page 31 of 41
The control relays are normally provided in a separate remotely mounted enclosure from the
probe.
5.10.8.4
These probes are usually installed from the top of the vessel using either a flange or
threaded connection. The size of the connection is dependent upon the number of probes
installed in one housing.
5.10.8.5
This type of instrument is susceptible to material build-up malfunctions, and this should be
considered in choosing the method of level switching to be used.
5.10.8.6
Single point conductivity probes are used to measure the level in drain pots and provide the
smallest volumetric area. Like all these probes the circuit is made when the liquid reaches
the probe, so to provide fail-safe design a secondary circuit is required to confirm the probe
is working correctly. For isolation provide full port gate or ball valve to ensure all fluid clears
the switch on decreasing level.
5.11 Bubbler (Dip Tube Systems)
5.11.1
On open tank applications, a pneumatic back-pressure method of level measurement
is used.
5.11.2
In this application a pipe (dip tube) is installed in the vessel and a constant supply of air is
fed into the pipe through a constant flow regulator. This supply air pressure must be higher
than the head of liquid to be measured.
5.11.3
The pressure in the pipe will build up until air escapes out of the bottom of the pipe, or
against a sealing diaphragm. The pressure in the pipe is equal to the head of the liquid.
5.11.4
The pressure is connected to a transmitter or switch to provide level indication or alarms as
required. As the level changes the pressure head will change.
5.11.5
Dip tube systems used in a vessel under pressure require the use of a differential pressure
type measuring instrument with regulated gas purge for both the dip tube connection and the
equalizing connections to the instrument. This method of measuring level should be avoided
whenever possible and cannot be used on vessels containing toxic, flammable, or hazardous
fluids.
5.11.6
Page 32 of 41
All dip tubes should be installed with a tee for unplugging without disconnecting instrument
piping and sufficient headroom should be provided above the vessel or equipment for
removal of the dip tube.
5.11.7
When local indication is required, a metal bellows type pressure gauge with a 0-100 scale
should be used as the local indicator. The gas supply should use a rotameter to control the
air purge flow rate. The rotameter should have a range of 0-1 ft3/min (450 cc/sec) and be
equipped with an integral needle valve. Differential regulators should be used only in
services that require precise measurement.
5.11.8
5.11.9
A constant dP type flow regulator should be included on the instrument data sheet, unless
the flow regulator is not needed, e.g., for local indication of non-critical level (see 5.11.7
above).
5.11.10
An air bubbler system should not be used in a power plant condensate or feedwater system.
Great care is taken to eliminate any dissolved air from this "ultra-pure" water. The use of an
air bubbler level measuring system would defeat the purpose of maintaining oxygen free
water.
5.11.11
Although the air bubbler type level measurement has successfully been used for many years
in countless applications, its use for new applications is discouraged, unless no alternative
level measurement method is suitable or available. This is due to the many components and
utility systems that must function correctly for the system to work.
5.11.12
The size of dip tube should be such that pressure drop across it is negligible. The bottom
end of the dip tube should be located far enough above the tank bottom so that sediment or
sludge will not plug it. Also, its tip should be notched with a slot or "V" to ensure the
formation of a uniform and continuous flow of small bubbles.
5.12 Nuclear
5.12.1
This type of level measurement system utilizes the attenuation of beamed electromagnetic
energy (radiation). Any variation of the energy received by a detector is indicative of a
change in the process level. The beam is angled up (or down) through the liquid so that
absorption is proportional to change in height of the fluid or solid
5.12.2
Page 33 of 41
This type of instrument is nonintrusive and is therefore not effected by the internal process
conditions. Nuclear level instruments can operate in very harsh operating environments.
Because it is looking at a change in absorption, initial absorption through thick or lined walls
can be filtered out in the dry condition.
5.12.3
The gamma ray emitting source is encapsulated in a stainless steel, lead filled enclosure
installed external to the vessel. The source housing has a shutter that is opened and the
gamma beam detected by a detector installed external to, and on the opposite side of, the
vessel.
5.12.4
The detector is a low voltage ionization chamber that is monitored by a remotely mounted
amplifier/transmitter that contains all the required electronic circuitry and can also be fitted
with a level indicator.
5.12.5
The standard output available is 4-20 mA dc. Alarm actuation is available as an option.
5.12.6
The size of the source is dependent upon the size of the vessel, the vessel material and wall
thickness, and the process material.
5.12.7
With a point source the output signal is non-linear, but with a strip source, extending down
the side of a vessel, a linear control range can be obtained.
5.12.8
For measurement of level in coke drums in a delayed coker unit, neutron backscatter point
sensors have been the main devices used in the past 15 years. This type of measurement
uses at least three point sensors located at critical level elevations to detect residuum and
foam levels. The nuclear radiation source material and the sensor are located in the same
housing for each point sensor, so a separate “detector” does not have to be mounted on the
vessel. These sensors require specific mounting stud bolts to be welded to the exterior of
the coke drums, and operator access must be provided to perform regular calibration
checks.
This is gradually changing from the use of neutron backscatter to the gamma ray emitters
and detectors. Although the gamma ray devices require much more substantial mounting
hardware on the coke drum because of the very heavy weights of the units, the Cesium
material has a much shorter half-life than the Americium-Beryllium (Am-Be) used in the
neutron backscatter sensors. There are no nuclear remediations or waste recovery
companies, which will accept the Am-Be material except the nuclear level gauge
manufacturers themselves, who re-use the same material in new sensors. Furthermore, the
cost of the gamma ray devices is much less than the neutron backscatter sensors.
5.12.9
Page 34 of 41
Nuclear transmitters should only be used when required due to an extreme plugging problem
or when vessel nozzles need to be minimized. Constant Specific Gravity is required for
nuclear instruments. Application of nuclear instruments tends to depend on many factors
and require special engineering in areas such as source placement, source types, etc.
Access to the vessel may need to be restricted. Maintenance personnel require specilized
training and certification. A license for the nuclear instrument is always required.
5.13 Thermal
5.13.1
A level sensing switch is commercially available that operates on the principal that the
thermal conductivity of air/vapor/gas is significantly different than that of water/liquid.
5.13.2
The measuring sensor of the switch consists of three probes:
· One probe is a low powered heating element.
· One probe, located close to the heating element, consists of a platinum resistance
temperature detector (RTD) and is called the "active" probe.
· One probe, located further away from the heating element, also consists of a RTD
and is called the reference probe.
5.13.3
The device is installed at the highest desired liquid level in the vessel. As long as the liquid
level is below this level the sensor will be surrounded by air that has a relatively low thermal
conductivity. When the liquid level increases above the level of the probes the switch will be
activated.
5.13.4
Level transmitters are available, that consist of several (up to eight) thermal conductivity
switches, which generate a 4-20 mADC analog signal which is stepped proportionately up or
down as the individual switches operate.
5.14 Fiber Optic Level Switches
5.14.1
This device contains an LED that sends infrared light through the fiber optical cables to the
sensing element. With no liquid present, most of the light continues on into a photodetector.
When rising liquid immerses the optical sensing element, the intensity of the light that
reaches the photodetector is greatly diminished. This change actuates a switch. Caution is
advised due to fiber optic cable length usually limited to 500 feet and cable pulling
requirements
Page 35 of 41
5.14.2
Fiber optic switches can be used with most liquids. However, their use with any liquid that will
crystallize on the probe or leave behind a solid residue is not generally recommended.
5.15 Strain Gauge Weighing Systems
5.15.1
When other devices do not provide accurate level measurement of the contents of a vessel,
consideration should be given to the use of an electronic strain gauge weighing system. Strain
gauge weight cells are mounted on the support structure of the vessel, and they measure the
amount of deformation caused by the weight of the product inside.
5.15.2
The advantage of this system is that no direct contact with the contents of the vessel is
required.
5.15.3
The disadvantages of this system are:
· The devices/installation are expensive.
· The true level depends on density (or mass) of the measured product.
· Strain gauges are temperature sensitive.
· Piping load must be isolated from the bin.
· The system must be calibrated so that the sensors ignore the weight of the bin.
5.16 Tilt Switches
5.16.1
Tilt switches are mounted by suspending it over the material whose level needs to be
measured using a cable, rope, chain, or wire. The normally closed circuit is opened when the
base of the switch is tilted 15degrees or more from its vertical position in any direction, which
occurs as the material level rises and deflects the switch. Tilt switches are widely used as dry
material high level detectors in bins, vessels, silos and material handling system transfer
chutes.
5.16.2
In situations where the electrical wire may be damaged by falling material, the wire should be
protected by pipe shield, wide enough as to allow the tilt switch to move freely to its alarm
position.
Page 36 of 41
5.17 Rotating Paddle
5.17.1
When a paddle is placed in a tank, its power requirement when rotating in air is low. Power
consumption increases as the liquid level rises and starts to cover the paddle. Dry level
switches are used to eliminate bin overflows problems. This type of instrument normally
works on the use of a synchronous motor driving a paddle at slow speed. On material
buildup the paddle stops stalling the motor that in turn actuates switches.
5.17.2
When selecting mounting location, the proper location should allow the measured material to
flow freely both to and away from the paddle and shaft. The mounting location should be
determined by a Material Handling specialist in the Mechanical Engineering discipline due to
the complexities of bin designs and the physics of solid material accumulation in the bins.
5.17.3
Caution should be used when using this device to measure the level of solid material in bins
or silos that have mass flow since the shearing action can damage this type of device.
5.18 Pressure Sensitive Diaphragm Type Level Switch
5.18.1
Pressure sensitive diaphragm type level detection devices can be used to detect the
presence or absence of bulk solids. These devices can be used to measure the level of
solid material within a wide range of particle sizes, e.g. from powder to lump size, at
atmospheric pressure. The units can be used at the top and bottom of blending bins, in
screw conveyors, scale hoppers, etc.
5.18.2
The main advantage of this device is that all parts, including the diaphragm can be serviced
without removing the mounting flange.
5.19 Vibrating Wand Type Level Switch
5.19.1
These switches are used for point level detection on liquids, slurries, powders and granules.
5.19.2
The principle of operation is a vibrating paddle or wand which has its vibration amplitude
dampened by contact with a liquid, slurry or solid. The change in signal amplitude is sensed
and operates a relay output.
5.19.3
The vibration mitigates prevents build-up on the wand or paddle.
Page 37 of 41
5.19.4
This type of switch is very useful for detecting levels for cement, metallic ore concentrates,
grains, plastic pellets, carbon granules, dust in dust collector bins, etc.
Care should be exercised when using this type of switch on pellets and granules etc. as the
material must be of a size that will not wedge in the wand.
5.20 Radar Type Level Transmitters
5.20.1
The principle of radar level measurement is based on the reflection of microwaves on surfaces
with sufficient reflective index. The measurement is largely insensitive to disturbances within
the vessel; e.g. steam, condensate, foam, dust etc. are passed without influence.
5.20.2
Radar level devices must be used in enclosed metal tanks because of radio interference
danger from external sources.
5.20.3
There is no radiation hazard. The power concentration is a fraction of the leakage normally
associated with a microwave oven.
5.20.4
The price of radar level devices is about the same as ultrasonic level devices. Also, low power
high frequecy devices are available eliminating the need for FCC licensing.
5.21 Guided Wave Radar Level Transmitters
5.21.1
This type of level measurement system is based upon the technology of Time Domain
Reflectometry (TDR). TDR uses pulses of electromagnetic energy, which are transmitted
down a probe. When the pulse reaches the liquid surface that has a higher dielectric
constant then the air/vapor in which it is traveling, the pulse is reflected back to its source. A
high-speed timing circuit precisely measures the transit time and provides a measure of the
liquid level.
5.21.2
A single probe style is available for liquids with dielectric constants higher than 10. It can be
supplied with a rigid probe in lengths up to 20 feet (6 meters) or a flexible probe can be
provided for depths up to 50 feet (15.24 meters). For dielectrics as low as 2.0, a twin rod
probe is available.
5.21.3
Page 38 of 41
This type of level measurement device is designed to provide reliable measurement to the
very top of the vessel or chamber without the possibility of erroneous signals.
5.21.4
This type of device is being marketed as an ideal replacement for torque tube transmitters,
which makes it an extremely attractive alternative for feedwater heater or condenser hotwell
level monitoring, either in a retrofit or new application. Or for other applications with similar
dielectrics. Temperatures up to 750°F (400°C) and 2000 psi (138 bar) are available.
5.21.5
This type of device is also available in a combined single chamber with a magnetic level
indicator creating a redundant level measurement system.
5.21.6
This instrument is a two wire loop-powered ‘Smart’ type, providing an isolated 4-20 mA
signal while operating from a remote power supply of 11 to 36 Vdc.
5.22 Plugged Transfer Chute Switches
5.22.1
A plugged chute switch is used to alarm (and interlock the drive) in the event that a transfer
chute in a solids material handling system plugs. The type of switch used depends on the type
of material handled and the geometry of the chute and transfer point. No one type of switch is
“best” or works for all cases.
5.22.2
For large material (+¾” to 6”) (19 mm to 150mm) nuclear type level switches have proved very
successful although expensive. Conductance type switches and tilt type switches have worked
in applications where the chute geometry prevents the switch from being buried after actuation.
5.22.3
Capacitance switches with flat or curved plates are available for flush installation in rectangular
or circular chutework.
5.23 Sludge Blanket Level Detectors
5.23.1
Originally developed for water and waste treatment facilities these devices have been
successfully used for thickener control in the mining industry.
5.23.2
These instruments use various techniques for detecting the sludge/liquid interface in a clarifier,
thickeners, etc. These units have the capability to automatically rise out of the way of rakes or
plows as they pass the sensor.
Page 39 of 41

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ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDE

2.0 CODES AND STANDARDS 4

3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES 4

3.1 Direct Method 5

3.2 Indirect (Inferential) Method 5

4.0 MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS 5

5.0 LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES 6

5.1 Gauge Glasses 6

5.2 Magnetic-Type Gauges 16

5.3 Mechanical Tank (Float and Tape) Gauges 19

5.4 Tank Gauging (Electrical/Electronic) 19

5.5 Float Type Level Switches 21

5.7 Differential Pressure 25

5.11 Bubbler (Dip Tube Systems) 32

5.14 Fiber Optic Level Switches 35

5.15 Strain Gauge Weighing Systems 36

5.16 Tilt Switches 36

5.18 Pressure Sensitive Diaphragm Type Level Switch 37

5.19 Vibrating Wand Type Level Switch 37

5.20 Radar Type Level Transmitters 38

5.21 Guided Wave Radar Level Transmitters 38

5.22 Plugged Transfer Chute Switches 39

5.23 Sludge Blanket Level Detectors 39

6.0 BOILER DRUM WATER LEVEL MONITORING AND CONTROL 40

FIGURE 1 Typical Work Process Flow Diagram for Level Measurement

2.0 CODES AND STANDARDS

American Petroleum Institute

API Recommended Practice 551, “Process Measurement Instrumentation”

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

ASME B31.1, "Power Piping"

ASME B31.3, "Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping"

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)

NEMA ICS6, "Enclosures for Industrial Controls and Systems"

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

NFPA 70, "National Electrical Code"

3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES

3.1 Direct Method

2) A float, which is mechanically linked or electrically connected to an indicator or alarm

3) An electrical probe in the liquid

4) Reflection of sonic waves from the liquid surface or bottom

5) Microwave (Pulse Radar)

3.2 Indirect (Inferential) Method

1) The buoyant force on a float or displacer, which is partially or completely immersed in

2) Hydrostatic pressure of the liquid

3) The amount of radiation passing through the liquid

4) Electric systems by which liquid level may be inferred

5) Microwave (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FM-CW) Radar)

4.0 MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS

5.0 LEVEL MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES

5.1 Gauge Glasses

The basic types of level gauge glasses are as follows:

b. A liquid/liquid interface is to be observed.

5.1.1.2 Tubular Glass

5.1.2.1 Service Rating

5.1.2.2.2 Tubular Glass

5.1.2.3.3 Tubular Glass

5.1.3.2 Tubular Glass

5.1.4 Features and Options

5.1.4.1 For Armored Gauge Glasses

5.1.4.1.1 Large Chamber

5.1.4.1.2 Heat-Exchange Construction

5.1.4.1.3 Non-Frost Extension

5.1.4.1.4 Integral Expansion Loop