WATER

PURIFICATION:
NATURAL and
ENGINEERED
SYSTEMS
Natural forms of pollutants have always been
present in surface waters.
 Many of the impurities were washed from the air, eroded
from land surfaces or leached from the soil and found their
way into surface water.
Natural purification processes were able to remove
or otherwise render these materials harmless.
Human activities increased the amount and changed the
nature of pollutants entering watercourses
Settlements → Villages → Towns → Cities
Quantity of waste products increased until the
self – purification capacity of local bodies of
water was exceeded.
Smaller streams were first affected then larger
streams and lakes ultimately becoming
polluted.
 Only in recent decades have POLLUTION CONTROL
PROGRAMS been initiated in an attempt to reduce
contaminants discharged to bodies of water to the level
that the natural purification processes can once again
assimilate them.
Self –purification mechanisms of natural water systems
include: physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Speed and completeness with which these
processes occur depend on many variables
that are system specific.
System variables that have an influence on
the natural purification process are:

(a) hydraulic
characteristics
(b) physical characteristics of
bottom and bank material

River bed and bank material in the Upper-I (A) and

the Lower Middle (B) River reaches (March 2016).
 (c) variations in sunlight

Norway is known as the land of midnight sun. Due to

high altitude the Norway has, there are seasonal
variations in daylight because of the period of refracted
sunlight is long. In this country, for about a period of 76
days from late May to late July, the sun never sets for
about 20 hours.
(d) temperature
(e) chemical nature of the natural water
The same physical, chemical and biological processes that
serve to purify natural water systems also work in
engineered systems.
 In water and wastewater treatment plants, the rate and
extent of these processes are managed by controlling the
system variables.
A thorough knowledge of the natural purification processes
is essential to the understanding of
1) the assimilative capacity of surface waters

The Fox River is another surface water source that provides

drinking water for communities in Northeastern Illinois.
2) the operations of engineered systems
 PHYSICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF - PURIFICATION
OF WATERCOURSES
1) Dilution
Wastewater disposal practices were based on the premise that
“the solution to pollution is dilution”
Dilution was considered the most economical means of
wastewater disposal and was considered good
engineering practice
Although a powerful adjunct to self – cleaning mechanisms of
surface water, its success depends upon discharging relatively
small quantities of waste into large bodies of water
Growth in population and industrial activity, with increasing water
demand and wastewater quantities precludes the use of many
streams for dilution of raw or poorly treated wastewaters.
Under present regulations, maximum allowable loads
are set independently of dilution capacity – only when
the standard maximum load is violated then dilution
capacity is considered.
• The dilution capacity of a stream can be calculated
using the principles of mass balance. If the
volumetric flowrate and the concentration of a
given material are known in both the stream and
waste discharge, the concentration after mixing
can be calculated as:
CsQs + CwQw = CmQm
where: C – the concentration of selected material
(in mass/volume)
Q – the volumetric flowrate (volume/time)
s,w and m – means stream, waste and
mixture conditions
1) A treated wastewater enters a stream. The concentration of sodium in the
stream at point A is 10 mg/L and the flowrate is 20 m3/s. The
concentration of sodium in the waste stream is 250 mg/L and the flowrate
is 1.5 m3/s. Determine the volume flow and concentration of sodium at
point B assuming complete mixing has occurred.

𝑚𝑔 𝑚3
Point A 𝐶𝑁𝑎 = 10 𝑄 = 20
𝐿 𝑠

Point B 𝑚3
𝑄 = ? 𝑖𝑛
𝑠
𝑚𝑔
𝐶𝑁𝑎 = ? 𝑖𝑛
𝐿
Waste stream

𝑚𝑔 𝑚3
𝐶𝑁𝑎 = 250 𝑄 = 1.5
𝐿 𝑠
 𝐶𝐴 𝑄𝐴 + 𝐶𝑤 𝑄𝑤 = 𝐶𝐵 𝑄𝐵
Where: 𝐴 → 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴
𝑊 → 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐵 → 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵

𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝑊
𝑚3
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑄𝐵 = 21.5
𝑠
𝑄𝐵 = 20 + 1.5
𝑠 𝑠
𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚3
10 20 + 250 1.5 = 𝐶𝐵 21.5
𝐿 𝑠 𝐿 𝑠 𝑠

𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝑁𝑎
𝐶𝐵 = 26.7442
𝐿
2) Effluent from a wastewater treatment is discharged to a surface
stream. The characteristics of the effluent and stream are as
follows:

FLOW BOD5 AMMONIA NITRATE CHLORIDE

EFFLUENT 8640 m3/d 25 mg/L 7 mg/L 10 mg/L 15 mg/L

STREAM 1.2 m3/s 2.1 mg/L 0 mg/L 3.0 mg/L 5.0 mg/L

Determine the stream characteristics after mixing with the waste

has occurred.
 2) Sedimentation and Re – suspension

Suspended solids are one of the

most common water pollutants
and in suspension, solids
increase turbidity and reduce
light penetration may restrict the
photosynthetic activity of plants,
inhibit vision of aquatic animals,
interfere with feeding of aquatic
animals that obtain food from
filtration and be abrasive to
respiratory structures such as
gills of fish.
• Sedimentation – nature’s method of removing
suspended particles from a watercourse and most large
solids will settle out readily in quiescent water.
Particles in the colloidal size range can stay in suspension
for long periods of time though eventually most of these
will also settle out.
This natural sedimentation is not without drawbacks.
Anaerobic conditions are likely to develop in sediments
and any organics trapped in them will decompose,
releasing soluble compounds into the stream above.
Sediments deposit can also alter streambed by filling up
the pore space and creating unsuitable conditions for
the reproduction of many aquatic organisms.
It can also alter its course or hamper navigation activities
and it reduce reservoir storage capacities and silt in
harbors and increase flooding due to channel fill – in.
Resuspension of solids is common in times of flooding or
heavy runoff. Increased turbulence may resuspend solids
formerly deposited along normally quiescent areas of
stream and carry them for considerable distances
downstream and eventually they will settle again.
The power of water for sedimentation and re-suspension

In this photo taken by Canadian Peter Mark in the end of April, 2012, and released on Wednesday, May 2,
a Harley-Davidson motorbike lies on a beach in Graham Island, western Canada. Japanese media say the
motorcycle lost in last year's tsunami washed up on the island about 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles) away.
The rusted bike was originally found by Mark in a large white container where its owner, Ikuo Yokoyama,
had kept it. The container was later washed away, leaving the motorbike half-buried.
3) Filtration
Large bits of debris lodge on reeds or stones as they move
along streambeds and they remain caught until high waters
wash them into mainstream again.
Small bits of organic matters and inorganic clays and
other sediments may be filtered out by pebbles or
rocks along the streambed.
A water percolates from the surface downward into
groundwater aquifers, filtration of much more
sophisticated type occurs
 If the soil layers are deep and fine enough, removal of
suspended material is essentially complete by the time
waters enters the aquifer.
4) Gas Transfer
The transfer of gases into and out of water is an
important part of the natural purification process.
 The replenishment of oxygen lost to bacteria
degradation of organic waste is accomplished by the
transfer of oxygen from the air into the water.
Conversely, gases evolved in the water by chemical and
biological processes may be transferred from the water
to the atmosphere.
 Gas transfer is affected by solubility (extent to which
gas is soluble in water) and transfer rate (rate at which
dissolution or release occurs)
5) Heat Transfer
Bodies of water lose and gain heat much more slowly
than do land or air masses and under most
circumstances, water temperature is fairly constant and
changes gradually with the seasons.
Meteorological variables and other factors such as channel
characteristics (depth, width, surface area), channel volume
etc. affect the rate of heat transfer in bodies of water.
For streams heated by solar radiation over several
miles of heat.
Aquatic plants and animals have not developed sufficient
adaptability to deal with abrupt changes in temperature
and only the most hardy species survive such changes.
 CHEMICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF -
PURIFICATION OF WATERCOURSES
Natural watercourses contain many dissolved minerals and
gases that interact chemically with one another.
Redox (reduction – oxidation), dissolution –
precipitation and other chemical conversions
may alternately aid or obstruct natural
purification processes in natural water systems
 Chemical Conversions in bodies of water:
1. Oxidation – reduction conversion – biochemically
mediated
2. Dissolution – precipitation – solid dissolve in water are
essential to the metabolic and reproductive activities of
microorganisms that degrade and stabilize organic waste –
this is directly or indirectly influenced by dissolution –
precipitation
3. Natural chemical conversions that take place in water
can change materials into a form that is soluble and
therefore usable by various aquatic organisms.
Ex. N and P – most essential nutrients for the growth of
microorganisms and plankton.
 4. Chemical conversions can help stabilize pH of water
bodies. Ex. HCO3- acts as a buffer to protect a stream from
pH fluctuations harmful to aquatic systems.
 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE SELF -
PURIFICATION OF WATERCOURSES
Chemical reactions are biologically mediated – these
reactions are not spontaneous and require external
sources of energy for initiation.
Metabolism – sum total of the processes by which living
organisms assimilate and use food for subsistence, growth
and reproduction.
Metabolic processes and the organisms involved are a
vital part in self – purification of natural water system.
Types of Metabolic Processes:
1) Catabolism – provides the energy for the synthesis of
new cells, as well as for the maintenance of other cell
functions
2. Anabolism – provides the material necessary for cell
growth

When external food

source is interrupted,
organisms will use
stored food for
maintenance energy –
a process called
Endogenous
catabolism.
 MICROORGANISMS THAT PLAY AN IMPORTANT
ROLE IN NATURAL WATER SYSTEMS
1) Bacteria – the primary decomposers of organic
material.
Bacteria are classified according to the energy and material
sources that they require:
(a) Autotrophs – organisms that derive both energy and
material from inorganic sources. Their major function is
to convert N and S compounds into stable end –
products
(b) Heterotrophs – bacteria that obtain both energy and
material from organic sources. Most important bacteria
in the degradation of organic material.
Heterotrophs are further classified into:
* aerobic heterotrophs – require O2 in their
metabolic process

Aerobic Heterotrophic Bacteria

Anaerobic Heterotrophs – utilize organics in the
absence of O2
facultative heterotrophs – functions as aerobes when
O2 is present and anaerobic in the absence of O2
Phototrophs – utilize sunlight for energy and
inorganic substances for material source
2) Algae – these are autotrophic, photosynthetic organisms which
metabolize the waste product of heterotrophic bacteria while
obtaining energy from sunlight.
3. Protozoa – single – cell organisms that reproduce by binary
fission. Protozoa are voracious consumers of organic material
and are important members of the aquatic community.
Other organisms: Rotifers and crustacea, sludge worms, etc,
Engineered Systems
For Water Purification
 WATER TREATMENT/PURIFICATION
Water treatment is a system to make acceptable for a
desirable usage, such as drinking water, industrial
utilization, etc.
• The water
treatment
process is to
remove or
reduce
contaminant
s in the
water to
meet the
required
levels.
• In the case of drinking water , it should be potable and
palatable.
• “Potable” means water is healthy for human consumption
(i.e., safe) without harmful microorganisms and
organic/inorganic compounds that could cause adverse
physiological effects.
• “Palatable” refers to water that is free from turbidity,
colour, odour and objectionable taste. Natural water
usually contains various chemical and biological
constituents.
Diagram of a typical water treatment
facility

1. Rapid mixing 5. Chlorination

2. Flocculation 6. Clear well storage
3. Settling 7. Pumping to distribution system
4. Filtration
 Coagulation (Rapid Mixing)
• Once the raw water arrives at the plant:
• Coagulation removes small particles that are made
up of microbes, silt and other suspended material
in the water. Treatment chemicals such as alum
are added to the water and mixed rapidly in a
large basin.
The chemicals cause small particles to clump together
(coagulate). Gentle mixing brings smaller clumps of
particles together to form larger groups called "floc".
Some of the floc begins to settle during this stage.
• In general, the lower the coagulant dosage, the faster the
mixing should occur because chemical reactions happen
very quickly at low dosages.
• Rapid mixing disperses a coagulant through the raw
water faster than the reaction takes place. When alum
or ferric chloride are used in lower dosages, it is
important to ensure that they mix very quickly with the
raw water to be effective.
 Effect on Turbidity
Coagulation by itself does not
reduce turbidity. In fact,
turbidity may increase during
the coagulation process due to
additional insoluble compounds
that are generated by chemical
addition. The processes of
flocculation, sedimentation, and
filtration should be used with
coagulation to reduce
suspended solids and turbidity.
Flocculation (Slow Mixing)
After rapid mixing, the water flows into
flocculation basins, slow mixing is used
to aggregate the destabilised particles
in order to form larger particles (i.e.,
floc), and is carried out via a
flocculation system.
 Perikinetic and Orthokinetic Flocculation
Perikinetic flocculation refers to flocculation (contact or
collisions of colloidal particles) due to Brownian motion
of colloidal particles. The random motion of colloidal
particles results from their rapid and random
bombardment by the molecules of the fluid.
Orthokinetic flocculation refers to contacts or collisions
of colloidal particles resulting from bulk fluid motion,
such as stirring. In systems of stirring, the velocity of the
fluid varies both spatially (from point to point) and
temporally (from time to time).
Settling tank used in water treatment
Settling (Sedimentation)
• When the flocs have
been formed they must
be separated from the
water. This is invariably
done in gravity settling
tanks that allows the
heavier-than-water
particles to settle to the
bottom.
Settling tanks are designed to approximate
uniform flow and to minimize turbulence.
Sedimentation occurs in a large basin where
water is again allowed to flow very slowly.
Sludge, a residue of solids and water, accumulates
at the basin's bottom and is pumped or scraped
out for eventual disposal.
 The water leaving a settling tank is
essentially clear. Polishing is performed
with a rapid sand filter.
 Sedimentation

g ( p −  )D 2

Vs =
p

18 
Stoke’s Law
Denser and large particles have a higher settling
velocity
 Filtration

Now the water travels

through large filters made
of sand, gravel, and
anthracite. Filtration
removes any remaining
microscopic particles and
microorganisms.
The actual process of
separating impurities
from carrying liquid by
rapid sand filtration
involves two processes:
filtration and
backwashing
Backwashing is
regularly used to flush
captured particles away
from the filter
The solid impurities in the water are removed by many
processes, the most important of which are straining,
sedimentation, interception, and diffusion.
Straining, possibly the most
important mechanism, takes
exclusively in the first few
centimeters of the filter medium.
As the filtering process begins, straining
removes only particles in the water large
enough to get caught in the pores.
After a time, these trapped particles themselves
begin to form a screen that has smaller openings
than the original filter medium.
Disinfection (Chlorination)

• After filtration, the finished

water is often disinfected
with chlorine. Disinfection
kills the remaining
microorganisms in the
water, some of which may
be pathogenic.
 Clear well storage
A clear well is a large storage tank
that holds treated drinking water
for a several hours before it is
distributed throughout the city for
use by consumers. The holding
period allows time for chlorine
added to the water during the
purification process to complete its
work disinfecting the water of
bacteria and other potential
pathogens that might have been
present in the raw water supply.
 Distribution
• From the clear well the
water is pumped into the
distribution system. This is
a closed network of pipes,
all under pressure.
• In most cases, water is
pumped to an elevated
storage tank that not only
serves to equalize
pressures but provides
storage for fires and other
emergencies as well.