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BEGE-102

The Structure of Modern English

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Answer all the questions.

Q. 1. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Nasal consonants in English
SOLUTION In phonetics, a nasal additionally called a nasal occlusive, nasal stop interestingly with a nasal
fricative or nasal continuant is an occlusive consonant created with a brought down velum, enabling air to
escape openly through the nose. Most by far of consonants are oral consonants. Instances of nasals in English
are [n] and [m], in words, for example, nose and mouth. Nasal occlusives are about widespread in human
dialects. There are additionally different sorts of nasal consonants in certain dialects. Almost all nasal
consonants are nasal occlusives, in which air escapes through the nose however not through the mouth, as it
is blocked (impeded) by the lips or tongue. The oral hole still goes about as a reverberation chamber for the
sound. Infrequently, non-occlusive consonants might be nasalized.

Most nasals are voiced and truth be told, the nasal sounds [n] and [m] are among the most widely recognized
sounds crosslinguistically. Voiceless nasals happen in a couple of dialects, for example, Burmese, Welsh,
Icelandic and Guaraní. (Analyze oral stops, which close off the air totally, and fricatives, which impede the air
with a tight channel. The two stops and fricatives are more ordinarily voiceless than voiced and are known as
obstruents.) as far as acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which implies that they don't fundamentally limit the
departure of air (as it can uninhibitedly escape out the nose). In any case, nasals are likewise obstruents in
their enunciation on the grounds that the progression of air through the mouth is blocked. This duality, a
sonorant wind stream through the nose alongside a deterrent in the mouth, implies that nasal occlusives act
both like sonorants and like obstruents. For instance, nasals will in general example with different sonorants,
for example, [r] and [l], however in numerous dialects, they may form from or into stops.
(ii) Stress and rhythm in connected speech
SOLUTION Usually every word in English has a syllable / a no. of syllables. In such words, there is one sound
usually of a vowel which is more prominent than the rest and occupies the central position.
For example:
(a) the words like cat, dog, boy, etc., have only one syllable, hence they are called ‘monosyllabic’ words.
(b) words like artist, barber, doctor, father, etc., have two syllables (artist/a:/ and /t st/ or /a:t/ and / st/;

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barber–/ba:/and /b / and so on), hence they are called “disyllabic” words.

(c) words like artistic, detention, engineer, fantastic etc., have three syllables, hence they are called
“trisyllabic” words.
(d) words having more than three syllables like artistically, examination etc. have five syllables, hence they are
called polysyllabic words.

How to Work Stress?

In most of the modern dictionaries, the stressed syllable marked with a vertical bar (the mark ) above and
before, for example, the word approve has two syllable / / and /pru:v/. This is marked this way:
approve– / pru:v/ (second syllable stressed)
camel– / kaem l/ (first syllable stressed)
decent– / di:sent/ (first syllable stressed)
government– / g v nment/ (first syllable stressed)
balloon– /b lu:n / (second syllable stressed)
opinion– / pinj n/ (second syllable stressed)
monotonous– /m n t n s/ (second syllable stressed)
In case of a word having two stressed syllables i.e. primary stress and secondary stress, the latter is marked
with the vertical bar below and before the syllable and the syllable receiving primary stress is marked in the
way indicated above.
For example:
advantageous–/ dv n te d es/(first syllable has secondary stress and the third syllable has primary stress).
democratic–/ dem kræt k/(first syllable has sec-ondary stress while the third has primary stress).
Rhythm
Rhythm refers to the occurrence of something at regular periods of time. In English speech it depends on the
stressed syllables occurring at regular intervals of time.
For example,
(i) Go and post this card.
This sentence has one stressed, one unstressed then one stressed syllable and so on.
(ii) The boy you met on Sunday came to see you.

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This sentence has one stressed and one weak syllable alternatively, except a slight pause after Sunday.
However,
the stressed syllables may not occur so frequently in everyday use. A few more examples.
(i) He is a Pro fessor of Mathe matics at the Uni versity of Agra.
(ii) John’s friend Sham / visited him on the oc casion of his birthday.
In the above sentences the stressed syllables don’t occur regularly in an utterance.To make them so, we
should say them quickly and use the reduced or weak forms of some of the words, when there are many
unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables. In weak syllables/ /,/ / and / /vowels are generally used.
Sometimes, certain sounds
are also left out and not pronounced at all.
(iii) Conversion as a morphological device in English
SOLUTION The Nature of Conversion
Conversion and Derivation
Conversion is a process of derivation, it doesn’t add any derivational affixes.
(i) Conversion like derivation creates ‘new’ words and enlarges the lexical choice of the user. For example,
The city was policed by the Army.
(ii) These new words are listed independently in dictionaries.
(iii) Whenever a word is converted from one part of speech to another, its meaning undergoes some change,
but the change is not regular.
(iv) Conversion changes in the part of speech of the ‘stem’.
(v) A word converted from another word can take derivational affixes appropriate to its new class, e.g. bottle
(n)> bottle (v) >bottle.
Similarly, a word with a derivational affix can undergo conversion, e.g. beg (v)> beggar (n.) > to beggar (v).
(vi) Though a word cannot undergo conversion after the addition of an inflectional suffix. But can still undergo
conversion, if it has a derivational suffix.
Difference between Conversion and Derivation
The difference between them seems to be that while in derivation an affix (prefix and suffix) is added to the
stem, no such thing takes place in conversion.
Conversion and Suffixation

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It has been known the prefixes mainly affect the meaning but do not the grammar, while suffix affected their
grammar, but had little effect on meaning. Also, a great majority of prefixes did not change the part of speech
of the stem, suffixes invariably did. In this respect, conversion is like suffixation. The term ‘conversion’
denotes converting the base from one part of speech to another, e.g. changing the nouns into verbs and
adjectives, adjectives into nouns and verbs, verbs into nouns and adjective and so on. The consequence of
this change is very important in comparison with the changes in meaning, which can mostly, be predicted
from the change in grammar. In this respect, conversion is similar to suffixation, hence these cases should
therefore be classified on the basis of grammar. The only difference is that no suffixes are added in the case
of conversion. In other words, conversion is like derivation with a zero suffix. Conversion preffix is a small
group of prefixes, which unlike the majority of prefixes, affect the grammar of the
stem, changing its parts of speech.
Full and Partial Conversion
At the point when a word having a place with one grammatical form is changed over into another word so that
it demonstrates every one of the qualities of another grammatical form, it is known as an instance of full
transformation. Halfway transformation happens when a word does not demonstrate every one of the
attributes of the grammatical form to which it has a place after change. For instance, in the sentence, "the
poor are getting more unfortunate, the rich more extravagant, the words 'poor' and 'rich' are initially
descriptors yet are utilized as things.
Conversion with Formal Modification
When the noun ‘house’ is changed to the verb ‘to house’ a change is noticed, i.e. noun ‘house’ is pronounced/
haus/while verb (to) house is pronounced /haus/.Since, the change of the final sound here is not reflected in
spelling, therefore, it can be considered a pure case of conversion. However, in words like advice (n.) and
advise (v), use (n.) and use (v.) etc. words shows the change in pronunciation as well as spelling. Generally the
change in pronunciation consists of turning the final voiceless consonants into the corresponding voiced one
/s/>/z/,/f/>/v/, etc. and change in spelling, when it occurs reflects this change. In the following examples, the
words show different kinds of changes in sounds, sometimes accompanied by a change in the position of the
stress.
Conduct (v) /k n d kt/> conduct (n)/ k nd kt/
Conflict (v) /k n fl kt/ > conflict (n)/ k nfL kt/

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Permit (v) /P mit/> Permit (n)/P :m t/

In the above mentioned cases, the stress is on the second syllable in verbs but on the first syllable in nouns. In
some cases, there is also a change in a vowel sound. There is, however, no addition of a suffix either in the
noun or in the verb. These can therefore be treated as cases of conversion with modification of form.
Types of Conversion: Classification and Description
Since there are no suffixes in conversion, therefore the grammatical classification of conversion is done by
nothing down the part of speech of the base and the part of speech of the word resulting from conversion to
put into different classes viz. conversion from noun to verb, from verb to noun, from adjective to noun, from
noun to adjective etc.
However, in order to make it more systematic, two- step pattern of classification is done, i.e. firstly, all cases of
conversion are divided according to the parts of speech of the word which results from conversion and thus
major types of conversion are found.
(i) Conversion to noun
(ii) Conversion to verb
(iii) Conversion to adjective
Secondly, each type of conversion is subdivided according to the part of speech of the base. The word
converted to noun may be a verb of an adjective. Terminology-wise, such cases are called deverbal nouns and
dead jectival
nouns respectively are called deverbal is produced out of this:
(i) Conversion to noun
(A) From verb base–deverbal
(B) From adjective base–deadjectival
(C) From other bases

(ii) Conversion to verb

(A) From noun base: Denominal
(B) From adjective base–deadjectival
(C) From other bases
(iii) Conversion to adjective
(A) From noun base–denominal

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(B) From verb base–deverbal

(C) From other bases
Direction of Conversion
Following is the criteria for deciding which one of word in each case is a base and which the converted form.
(i) The Criterion of Meaning: Any word, be it noun verb, adjectives etc., can be identified with the help of its
meaning. This word may also be later converted into another part of speech with a slight change in meaning. If
the primary meaning of the word be identified, its base can be identified.
(ii) TheCriterion of Form: Some words containing prefixes or suffixes identify them as belonging to a particular
part of speech, while when some of these verbs are converted into nouns, the verb prefix helps us to identify
the verb as the base. Similarly, there are some suffixes which occur only with nouns, when they occurs as
verbs it can be concluded that they have been converted from nouns. Similar is the case with words
containing adjective suffix.
(iii) The Criterion of History: This criterion is unreliable.
Description
The criteria of meaning and form is required to fix the direction of conversion in most cases:
(1) Conversion to noun
(IA) From verb bases (Deverbal Noun)
While converting verbs to nouns, various kinds of meaning changes take place, where the noun may express
any of the following meanings:
(a) Agent of the action denoted by the verb, e.g. cheat, spy.
(b) Object of the action denoted by the verbs, e.g. catch, find.
(c) A instance of the event or activity resulting from the action denoted by the verb, e.g. attack, look, laugh,
murder.
(d) Instrument used for the action denoted by the verb, e.g. cover, lift, wrench.
(e) Feeling, emotion state of wind etc. expressed by the action denoted by the verb, e.g. desire, dislike etc.
(f) Place of action denoted by the verb, e.g. dump. retreat.
(1.B) From adjectives bases (Deadjectivalnouns)

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Almost any objective may take the definite article and function like a plural noun (e.g. poor, rich) but such
cases does not show all properties of nouns. They are therefore treated as cases of partial conversion. Some
nouns derived from adjectives, however show all the characteristics of nouns and therefore are treated as
cases of full conversion. Not only can they be used as subjects, objects etc., but can also be inflected for
number and case and can be modified by adjectives. Mainly, they are of two types:
(a) words like criminal, intellectual, noble etc.
Words like daily, weekly, monthly etc. While referring for newspaper and magazines. These nouns are derived
by shortening an adjective + noun phrase and are therefore not treated as cases of conversion but as cases of
shortening.
(1.C) From other bases
Nouns are sometimes also derived from particles, auxiliaries, affixes, conjunctions and whole phrases e.g.
Particles–The ups and downs of life
Auxiliaries–This is a must.
Conjunctions–Ifs and buts.
Affixes–socialism, communism, and other isms.
Phrases–Also rans, a has been high-ups etc.
II. Conversion to verb
II.A. (From noun bases (Denominal verbs)
Verbs converted from nouns convey various kinds of meanings, which can be expressed in other way by using
the noun. Sometimes, meanings of a whole set of verbs can be expressed in ways, which are identical, e.g.
captain, father, pilot etc., can be expressed ‘to take on the role denoted by the noun’.
A few more similar examples:
(a) Compaign, motion, orbit, parade etc. meaning to perform the action implied in the noun.
(b) Bottle, can, floor, ground etc. meaning ‘to put, or to be, in /on the place etc denoted by the noun.
(c) Brake, cart, hammer, mirror etc. meaning to perform an action by means of what the noun denotes.
(d) Butter, grease, mask, plaster, wax etc. meaning to provide with, apply etc. the substance denoted by the
noun.
(e) Bud, flower, seed, joke, echo etc. meaning to produce or make the thing denoted by the noun.

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There are many other groups of words with meanings like to change into the thing denoted by noun, to
remove the object denoted by the noun from someone or something, to send or go by the means of
communication denoted by the noun etc.
(II.B) From adjective bases (Deadjectival bases)
Mainly two types of deadjectival verbs can be distinguished namely transitive and intransitive.
(a) Intransitive verbs with the meaning to be or become the quality, denoted by the adjective. e.g. bald, dry,
empty.
(b) Transitive verbs with the meaning to cause someone or something to be or become the quality denoted by
the adjective. e.g. dirty, numbled etc.
(II.C) From other bases
A few verbs are also produced by converting adverbs, particles and interjections e.g.
(a) From adverbs–to near, to further in the sentences.
As we neared the city, we could see smoke rising.
(b) From particles–up, down etc. are often used as verbs in informal speech e.g. The workers downed their
tools.
(c) For interjections–Hurrah! Shoo! may sometimes be used as verbs, e.g. He shooed the dog away.
III. Conversion to adjective
(III. A) From noun bases (Denominal adjectives)
Since the nouns can often be used in an adjective function, while still remaining nouns, therefore the number
of adjectives derived from nouns is rather small. i.e. They are often placed before nouns in a modifying
function (a gold chain) and also occur after the verbs like adjectives (It’s a beauty instead of it’s beautiful).
However, there are only a few nouns which can occur both before a noun and after a verb. Such rarely
occurring nouns can be regarded as
a denominal adjective. For example:
a brickhouse>The house is made of brick.
the head teaher>This teacher is head.
(III. B) From verb bases (Deverbal adjectives)
There are no pure cases of conversion from verb to adjective. Cases of conversion prefixes like asleep, afloat
etc. are commonly regarded as adjectives related by formal modification also exist; but are treated as cases of

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adjective to verb conversion and not the other way, round etc., frequent / (adj) and frequent (v).
(iv) Question formation in English
SOLUTION Types of Questions: Basically, there are two types of questions–open and closed. While the former
can
have a number of answers as in When did you arrive? There or here?” Similarly, sentences like “Are you
coming with me? Can only have its answers in ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Therefore, they are also called yes-no questions,
While the former is called wh-questions, as they begin with wh-words like who, what, which, when, where
etc. The selection of the whwords depend upon What you don’t know. It is through these sentences that
imformation about subject, object, complement or an adverbials of a sentence can be found out. On the
other hand, Yes/no questions are used only to seek confirmation (yes) or otherwise (no) of the entire
predicate in a sentence. As in the case of negatives, there is scope of ambiguity by here also. As in the case of
negatives, extra emphasis is used to indicate the specific constituent who is ‘wished’ to be focussed upon. A
pattern can also be used with it to focus a given constituent, e.g. It is Suresh who is now........? In, is it at Delhi
University that Suresh is now.....? if the answer is ‘yes’ it means that Suresh is a student at Delhi University
and nowhere else.
Structure of Questions
The questions are formed by identifying the operator first and then inverting the subject and the operator of a
given sentence, e.g.

‘Are you buying a new car’?

‘Is my brother waching T.V.’?
In case, there is an absence of an operator, a dummy ‘do’ operator in introduced. For example:
Does he like apples? In writing questions in English are distinguished by a question mark (?) at the end.
However, in speech a yes-no question is usually indicated by a rising intonation at the end. Sometimes, in
colloquial speech, a rising intonation may also be used without the subject -operator inversion in a question.
In writing, a similar effect may also be achieved by just putting a question mark at the end of a statement as
in –You are leaving?
Be and have may also be treated as operators even when no main verb follows–For–“He has some money.”
Does he have some money?

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A positive or negative orientation to questions can be given, indicating whether a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ is being
expected, e.g.
Do you live somewhere near Karol Bagh? (Ans. Yes)
Didn’t they warn her? (Ans. No)
Negative questions may also be used to indicate surprise or disbelief, e.g.
Can’t you even keep your own room tidy?
Besides these, any type of sentence, which is not a question may be accompanied by a tag, i.e. declaratives,
exclamatives and imperatives. The most frequent type of tag reverses the subject-operator order of the main
clause. Secondly, it is generally negative if the main clause is positive and vice-versa. The tone on the tag
operator could be rising or falling. The structure of the tag is always predictable from the structure of the
statement that precedes it. Sometimes, the tag questions, (which don’t follow the rule of reversing the nature
of the statement (i.e. making the tag positive when the statement is negative and vice-versa) are also found,
e.g.
He arrived late, did he? He didn’t arrive late, didn’t he?
The above discussed tags are used to seek confirmation or otherwise of what’s said in the statement.
Imperatives provide a wider range of tags as in–
Close the door, will you? / can you? / can’t you? / could you?
On the other hand, options in exclamatory sentences are limited. These sentences having tags are generally
positive and their tags negative, e.g.
How gracefully she walks, doesn’t she?
In a special case of questions involving modal verbs, as in–
May I take this book? (the hearer has the authority to take this book)
You may take this book? (speaker has the authoirity to permit the hearer to take book)
As regards the structural properties of wh-questions:
(a) Wh-word is placed at the beginning in each sentence.
(i) There is subject-‘operator inversion in all questions except in the sentence like–Who broke the glass?
(ii) In the above discussed example, it is the subject which is being questioned. Here verb follows the whwords
and there in no subject-operator inversion.
Different wh-words belong to different parts of speech. In some of the above discussed sentences, who is

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pronoun, when an adverbial of time, where an adverbial of place, why an adverb of reason and so on.
‘Rising intonation’ is associated with yes–no or other closed questions while the ‘falling intonation’ is
associated with open wh-questions. When a question is combined with another (main) clause, it becomes
indirect, i.e. it no longer follows, ‘subject operator
inversion’ rule. For example:
When will you return? he asked her.
He asked her when she would return.
In indirect speech, all pronouns, adjectives and adverbs denoting hearness are replaced by the corresponding
words denoting remoteness, i.e., this changes to that, these to those, now to then, here to there etc.
It is noteworthy that not all constituents of a sentence will have wh-questions. It is not possible to have a
whquestion corresponding to the verbal element–make. Therefore, ‘what do they Rahul the captain every
year?’ is ungrammatical in English.
Similarly, a wh-question corresponding to the empty subject “it” cannot be have, e.g.

It rained heavily last night (ungrammatical).

As regards the interaction between questions and their negative forms, questions can also be positive, but
negative questions are not the opposite of positive questions, e.g.
You can solve this sum./You cannot solve this sum.
Q. 2a Give the phonetic symbols for each of the following consonants. The first one is done for you:
Voiced bilabial plosive / b /
voiceless alveolar plosive
voiced velar nasal
palatal semi-vowel
voiced palato-alveolar affricate
Voiceless labio-dental fricative
SOLUTION voiceless alveolar plosive [d]
voiced velar nasal [i]
palatal semi-vowel [j]
voiced palato-alveolar affricate [ts]
Voiceless labio-dental fricative [v]

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Q. 2b Mark the stress in the following sentences.

(i) She’s doing her homework.
(ii) They’ve gone away.
(iii) What a colourful picture!
(iv) How much does it cost?
(v) It was time for them to leave.
SOLUTION (i) homework, (ii) away, (iii) picture, (iv) cost (v) time
Q. 2c Write the symbol for the vowel sound represented by the underlined letters in the following
words. turn though severe chair fluent
SOLUTION turn [3] though (1É :1) severe /IÉ/ chair |Ir| fluent | 9|
Q. 3a What are compounds? Describe the criteria for distinguishing compounds from phrases. Illustrate
your answer with examples.
SOLUTION Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new
combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The first part tells us what kind of
object or person it is, or what its purpose is. The second part identifies the object or person in question.
Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different, or more specific, than the two separate words. Most
English compound nouns are noun phrases (i.e. nominal phrases) that include a noun modified by adjectives
or noun adjuncts. Due to the English tendency towards conversion, the two classes are not always easily
distinguished. Most English compound nouns that consist of more than two words can be constructed
recursively by combining two words at a time. Combining "science" and "fiction", and then combining the
resulting compound with “writer”, for example, can construct the compound "science fiction writer". Some
compounds, such as sal and pepper or mother-of-pearl, cannot be constructed in this way. The difference
between phrases and compounds (that are written with spaces) is a little vague. You could take the
definitions that a phrase is anything that acts like a lexical units, and a compound is a compound is necessarily
an inseparable unit with a meaning other than the obvious compositional one (...as that would often make it a
phrase, or just two words that happen to be next to each other).
The issue is complexities by language change:
l compounds may grow apart into phrases and the other way around.

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l In langauges that like aggluntination, there may be a thinner boundary than in other languages, with
compounds being mostly compositional and mostly working as an interpretation aid
l compounds may change between spaced, hyphenated and solid (written as a single word) over time.
l The different forms that a compound may appear in may mean the same (e.g. grown-up, grownup), some
may feel wrong (e.g. I am a grown up) with the same meaning and with different meanings (e.g. day to day
and day-to-day have different meanings as they are used in sentences). These changes often happen
because of the context of real-world use of these compounds, so this is often not trivially analysed.

l some compounds may become phrases, and some phrases compounds.

l some things may exist as compounds as well as phrases (e.g. grown up as a noun, grown up as an adjective
phrase). For example, a number of compound nouns (often with a hyphen) look a lot like a verb phrase.
Style guides may have their own say about how to write compounds, although they tend to be rough rules to
apple to cases where more than one option may seem valid and may just indicate a preference.
Q. 3b Add prefixes to the following words. Write what type of prefix (negative, reversative, number,
degree, etc.) it is: able national compose noon associate
SOLUTION able, disable (negative), national international (degree), compose compositve (degree) noon
afternoon (degree) associate associated (degree)
Q. 3c Fill in the blank in the sentences with an appropriate form of the word given in the brackets and
prefix from the box. You may change the form of the word if required.
mis out - - over - multi - Pre - sub - re - trans -
(i) Because the machine had outlived its usefulness, the production manager proposed to it. (place)
(ii) The finance department badly the costings for the new factory buildings. (calculate)
(iii) There’s something wrong with this bill. I think they’ve me. (charge)
(iv) Our major supplier is a large company, which always delivers on time. (national)
(v) Manufacture of the components was to a smaller company. (contract)
Ans. (i) replace, (ii) miscalcution, (iii) overchars, (iv) mlutinational, (v) sub contract
Q. 4a Identify the patterns in the following sentences in terms of these elements, viz. S,V, IO, DO, C,
A.
(i) He hopes to become an agricultural expert.
(ii) She skillfully demolished their argument.

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(iii) She listened carefully to their argument.

(iv) Please get off my bicycle.
(v) The student’s new bicycle has three gears.
Ans. (i) C, (ii) A, (iii) Io, (iv) Do (v) Io
Q. 4b What is the difference between Defining and Non-defining Relative clauses? Discuss giving
examples.
SOLUTION Defining and non-defining clauses are both types of relative clauses - clauses that share some extra
information about something. But apart from that the two types of clauses are a little different. Read on to
find out what makes each unique! Before we can identify the differences between defining and non-defining
clauses, it's helpful to understand what a relative clause actually is. Relative clauses are used to state
additional information about the noun in the sentence. It's usually just a phrase or clause, that's included as
part of the main sentence.
Let’s take a look at an example:
“The celebrity, who was a major film star, was photographed on the red carpet.”
The phrase "who was a major film star" adds some extra information to the sentence, so you can understand a
little more about the subject, the celebrity.
Now let’s take a closer look at the two types of clauses.
What is a defining relative clause?
While both types of relative clauses add extra information to the sentence, a defining relative clause clearly
adds detail about a specific noun that is defined.
Let’s look at some examples:
“My brother who finished university this summer is spending the year travelling.”
“The house whose doors are shuttered is rumoured to be haunted!”
In both the examples above, you can see an extra clause in the middle of the sentence following the words
“who” or “whose” which contain additional information. They relate to a specific noun that has been pointed
out uniquely identified: “my brother” or “the house”.
So how do you put together a defining relative clause? You'll need to use a relative pronoun such as “who”,
“whose” or “which”.

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An important point to note is that without the additional clause, the sentence would not retain the same
meaning.
What is a non-defining relative clause?
Non-defining clauses still add extra information, but not in the same way. While they tell you something
additional, they're not necessary to the meaning of the sentence, but just add an extra non-essential
dimension.
For example:
“The private yacht, which was rumoured to be the most expensive in the world, belonged to the mysterious
couple.” While the clause certainly tells you something interesting about the topic, the sentence would still
retain the main meaning conveyed without it:
“The private yacht belonged to the mysterious couple.”
Non-defining clauses also use relative pronouns, just as defining clauses do. The only difference is that you
cannot use "that" with a non-defining clause, unlike defining clauses. So apart from that, what else makes
them different? It's easy to spot a non-defining clause in writing, as you'll see that the clause is separated by
commas at the start and end of it!
Q. 4c Fill the gaps in these sentences with a suitable relative pronoun.
(i) The person impressed me most was Mr. Wright.
(ii) Mr. Wright application form we received yesterday is a very promising candidate.
(iii) His CV you showed me yesterday is most impressive.
(iv) He has excellent references from his present employers are ACME Engineering.
(v) He was working in Norwich they have their Head Quarters.
Ans. (i) Who, (ii) Whose, (iii) Which, (iv) who, (v) Where
Q. 5a Giving examples, write briefly about different types of negation.
SOLUTION Types of Negation:Negation may be classified into three major types:
(i) Explicit negation–This is most commonly used in which ‘not’ (or –n’t) is typically placed after the first verbal
element, e.g. She isn’t ready yet.
(ii) Affixal negation–In such cases negative prefixes like un–, non–, in–, im–, dis–, etc. is used to indicate
negative meanings, e.g.
Neha is un-happy. She is insane.

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(iii) Implicit negation–In such cases, negation is implied e.g. Rita denied the story.
Difference between Positive and Negative Sentences
(i) Positive sentences can be related by so or too, e.g.
Neena is happy, and so is Nisha. Neha is happy, and Nisha is too.
(ii) The Negative sentence demand the use of neither, nor or either, or when they are combined, e.g.
Neena isn’t happy, nor is Nisha.
(iii) Positive clauses take negative tag and vice-vers, e.g.
Neha is happy, isn’t she?
(iv) In imperatives, where you is subject the dummy ‘do’ and negative ‘not’ is attached to it, as there is no
operator in this case, e.g.
Do not / Don’t close the door.
(v) In case of negative questions, the operator is inverted with the subject NP along with the negative element,
e.g.
Can’t you solve this sum?
(vi) Sometimes ‘not’ may be used with non-finite verbs, e.g.
He asked me not to go there.
(vii) Sometimes ‘not’ may be used to replace a ‘that’ clause, e.g.
I’m afraid that I cannot come.
(viii) ‘have not’ is not used in sentences indicating possession, e.g.
I haven’t a car.

But in American English, in such sentences is treated as a lexical verb and a dummy do is introduced, e.g.
I don’t have a car.
Non-verbal Negation
Besides these, there are other words, which contain a negative element in their shape or meaning and without
involving the verb make negative sentences. The words are–nothing, nobody, none, nowhere, neither, few,
little, seldom, rarely etc.
The words like scarcely know her. Rita is barely ten.
Little and few are adverbs of negative meaning. Little means ‘not much, and few means ‘not many’ while a
little and a few are positive in meaning, e.g. He has read very few books on Keats (–ve)

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He has read a few books on Keats ( +ve)

‘Never’ is often fronted for emphasis as in, e.g.
Never have I heard such non-sense.
Q. 5b Fill in the blanks with the correct question tags.
(i) You are ready to go,?
(ii) We need a map and a compass,?
(iii) The front door is locked, ?
(iv) That motorist drives recklessly,?
(v) The cars ahead are slowing down,?
SOLUTION (i) An’tyou? (ii) Don’t we, (iii) Isn’t it (iv) Isn’t it, (v) Are the
Q. 5c Fit these conjunctions (if, in case, unless, until, when) into the gaps in the sentences:
(i) We are unable to supply the goods ________ we receive payment in advance.
(ii) A spare axle is provided _________ one is damaged during routine use.
(iii) The machine should not be modified __________ a service engineer is present.
(iv) The filter should be changed _________________ the unit has been in operation for two months.
(v) The red light will come on ___________ the machine overheats.
SOLUTION (i) Until (ii) is case, (iii) Until, (iv) When (v) When

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