Differential Equations

DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES
Differential Equation
- An equation containing one or two more terms
involving derivatives of one variable (dependent variable)
with respect to another variable (independent variable),
either explicitly or implicitly.
dy
Leibniz’s notation:
dx
- Lagrange’s notation: f’
- Prime notation: y’
𝐷𝑓
Euller’s notation: 𝐷𝑓 =
𝑑𝑥
Newton’s dot notation: 𝑦ሶ ∙ 𝑦ሷ (to denote derivative with
respect to time)
EXAMPLES:
𝑑2 𝑦
1.) + 𝑚 2
𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 2
2.) (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 =0
3.) y” + 𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 0
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
4.) + 3𝑦 = 2
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦
EXPLICIT FORM IMPLICIT FORM
y=𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0
y can be expressed y cannot be expressed
directly in terms of x directly in terms of x
y = 3𝑥 2 + 2x + 4 𝑥 2 𝑒 xy + ysinxy + x𝑦 2 = 0
I. Classification of Differential Equations
A. Type
1.) Ordinary Differential Equation
- A differential equation containing ordinary
derivatives with only one independent variable.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
ex. : + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2.) Partial Differential Equation

- Contains partial derivatives with two or more
independent variables.
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
ex. : + =0
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
B. Order
- Order of the highest ordered derivative.
2xd3 y 𝑥d2 y 𝑑𝑦 4
ex. : + + =0
dx3 dx2 𝑑𝑥
ORDER = 3
DEGREE = 1
C. Degree
- The highest power of the highest derivative.
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
ex. : y” + 𝑦′ + 2𝑥𝑦 = 0 2.) ( ) +8 ∝ 2
= 16𝑥 2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ORDER = 2 ORDER = 1
DEGREE = 1 DEGREE = 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1.) + − 2𝑦 = 0 3.) 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦
+ 2 𝑑𝑦 3
𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ORDER = 2 ORDER = 1
C. Degree
- The highest power of the highest derivative.
ex. : y” + 𝑦 ′ + 2𝑥𝑦 = 0
ORDER = 2
DEGREE = 1
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4.) + 𝑦( )3 − 2xy = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
ORDER = 2
DEGREE = 1
D. Linearity
- A differential equation is linear if:
✓ It is first degree in the dependent variable and its

derivatives.
✓ It does not contain transcendental functions (trigo, log,
exp) with the dependent variable and of its derivatives.
✓ It does not contain a product of the dependent variable
and any of its derivatives (yy’)
D. Linearity
ex. :
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑4𝑦
1.) x 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 2.) + 𝑦3 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4
ORDER = 2 ORDER = 4
DV : y DV : y
IV : x IV : x
LINEAR NON-LINEAR
D. Linearity
ex. :
𝑑3𝑦
3.) + cos 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 3
ORDER = 3
DEGREE = 1
DV : y
IV : x
LINEAR
E. General Solutions (GS)

- A solution of DE that has at least one arbitrary constant.
The number or arbitrary constant is equal to the order of the diff.
eq.
ex.: 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑥 2 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑥
𝑪𝟏 , 𝑪𝟐 , 𝑪𝟑 → arbitrary constants
E. Particular Solutions (PS)

- Obtained from the GS for which the arbitrary constants
have fixed values.
ex. :
𝑑𝑦
1.) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑦 0 = 3
𝑑𝑥
‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 ׬‬3𝑥 2 + 4𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 → GS
3 = 03 + 4𝑒 0 + 𝐶
C = -1
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑒 𝑥 − 1 → PS
E L I M I N AT I O N O F A R B I T R A RY
C O N S TA N T S
Given: G.S.
Find: D.E.
Solution:
1.) Differentiate GS as many times as there are constants.
2.) Eliminate arbitrary constants using algebra elimination
on substitution.
C O N S TA N T S
EXAMPLE #1:
Given: (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
a is a constant
Derive: 2(x – a) + 2yy’ = 0
2[(x-a) + yy’] = 0
(x-a) + yy’ = 0
a = x + yy’ → substitute to original equation
[x – (x + yy’)]2 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 ′ )2
(𝑦𝑦 ′ )2 +𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑦 ′ + (𝑦𝑦 ′ )2
2 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑥
(𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0 → D.E.
C O N S TA N T S
EXAMPLE #2:
Given: 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 1
There are two constants, so derive twice
𝑦 ′ = 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 2
𝑦 ′′ = 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦 ′′ = 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 4𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 3
2 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 1
− 𝑦 ′ = 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 2
2𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = −𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 4
C O N S TA N T S
EXAMPLE #2:
2 𝑦 ′ = 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 2
− 𝑦 ′′ = 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 4𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 3
2𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ = −2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 5
2(2𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = −𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 ) → Eq. 4

− 2𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ = −2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 5
4𝑦 − 4𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 ′′ = 0 → D.E.
C O N S TA N T S
EXAMPLE #3:
Given: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 1
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 2
𝑦 ′′ = 2 + 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 9𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 3
2 𝑦 = 𝑥 2𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 1
− 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 2
2𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 4
C O N S TA N T S
EXAMPLE #3:
2 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 2
− 𝑦 ′′ = 2 + 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 9𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 3
2𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ = 4𝑥 − 2 − 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 5
3(2𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 ) → Eq. 4
− 2𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ = 4𝑥 − 2 − 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 5
𝑦 ′′ − 5𝑦 ′ + 6𝑦 = 6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 2
𝑦 ′′ − 5𝑦 ′ + 6𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 2 = 0 → D.E.
V A R I A B L E S E PA R A B L E
Given: M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0
Then put in the form: A(x)dx + B(y)dy = 0
Solution:
‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝐴 ׬‬+ ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 𝑦 𝐵 ׬‬0
F(x, y) = C → G.S.
EXAMPLE #1:
Given: 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
1
[ 1 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0]
(1 −𝑦 2 )(𝑥 −1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦
+ =0
𝑥 −1 1 −𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑦
‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−1 + ‫ ׬‬1 −𝑦2 =‫׬‬0
EXAMPLE #1:
1
ln 𝑥 − 1 − ln 1 − 𝑦 2 = 𝐶
2
or
ln(𝑥 −1)
1
(1 −𝑦 2 )2
(𝑥 −1)
𝑒 𝑙𝑛 1 = 𝑒𝑐
(1 −𝑦 2 )2
𝑥 −1
=𝐶
1 −𝑦 2
EXAMPLE #2:
1
Given: sin 𝑥 ∙ sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ∙ cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
sin 𝑦∙cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦
‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑦 dy = ‫׬‬0
ln | sec 𝑥| + ln | sin 𝑦| = 𝐶
𝑒 ln sec 𝑥 ∙ sin 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝐶
sec 𝑥 ∙ sin 𝑦 = 𝐶
sin 𝑦
=𝐶
cos 𝑥
EXAMPLE #3:
Given: ylnx ∙ lnydx + dy = 0; Find G. S.
𝑑𝑦
‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑛𝑙 ׬‬+ ‫𝑦𝑛𝑙𝑦 ׬‬ =‫׬‬0
u = ylnx dV = dx
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 =
𝑥
V=x
xlnx – x + ln(lny) = c
𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥 + ln 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑐
ln(𝑥 𝑥 ∙ 𝑙𝑛𝑦) − 𝑥 = 𝑐
EXAMPLE #4:
Given: 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 𝑦
Find: G.S.
𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1
[𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0]
𝑥2 ∙ 𝑒 𝑦
𝑦𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
‫𝑦𝑒 ׬‬ − ‫ ׬‬2 = ‫׬‬0
𝑥
u=y dV = 𝑒 −𝑦 dy -y𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 −1 = 𝑐
du = dy V = -𝑒 −𝑦
EXAMPLE #5:
Given: 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥𝑑𝑥
‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = − ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 0

‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠(׬‬2 𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑦 − ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬+ ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑥𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 0
u = cosx
du = -sinxdx
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥
tany − 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − =𝑐
3
H O M O G E N E O U S E Q U AT I O N
Homogeneous Equation
- Polynomials in which all terms are the same degree,
such as:
1.) f(x, y) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 → second degree

2.) g(x, y) = 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 3 → fourth degree
Homogeneity
- F (ʎx, ʎy) = ʎk f(x,y) where k is the degree of
homogeneity.
Standard Form
- M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy > 0 if m(x, y) and n(x, y) are
homogeneous and of the same degree, the equation can
be reduced to variable separable using the ff. substitution.
y = vx
yy = vdx + xdv
or
x = vy
ax = vdy + ydv
EXAMPLE #1:
f(x,y) = 2𝑥 2 − 4xy + y 2
f(ʎx, ʎy) = 2(ʎ𝑥)2 − 4(ʎx)(ʎy) + (ʎy)2
= 2ʎ2 𝑥 2 - 4ʎ2 xy + ʎ2 y 2
= ʎ2 (2x 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + y 2 ) → f(x,y)
D=2
∴ Homogeneous
EXAMPLE #2:
g(x,y) = x 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 9 Non-Homo
𝑥3 2𝑥
f(x,y)cos + 𝑒 Homo D = 1
𝑦3 3𝑦
F(x,y) = x-ytanx Non-Homo

F(x,y) = xlnx-xlny Homo D = 1
EXAMPLE #3:
M(x,y)dx+ N(x,y)dy = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
y = vx
dy = vdx+xdv
𝑥 2 + 𝑣 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 2 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 3 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑥 2 + 2𝑣 2 𝑥 2 4𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 3 𝑑𝑣 = 0
1
3 )
2 2 3
(𝑥 1 + 2𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = 0)( 2
(1+2𝑣 )(𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑑𝑣
∫ + ∫ =0
𝑥 1+2𝑣 2
EXAMPLE #3:
1
𝑙𝑛𝑥 + ln 1 + 2𝑣 2 =𝐶
4
1
𝑥 1 + 2𝑣 2 4 = 𝐶
1
2𝑦 2 4
𝑥 1+
𝑥2
=C
EXAMPLE #4:
(𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣
(𝑥 2 −𝑥 2 𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑣(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣) = 0
2 2 1
[𝑥 1 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0]
(1−𝑣)(𝑥 3 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑣𝑑𝑣
‫𝑥 ׬‬ − ‫ ׬‬1−𝑣 =0
EXAMPLE #4:
1
ln 𝑥 − ‫ ׬‬−1 − 𝑑𝑣 = ‫ ׬‬0
1−𝑣
𝑣𝑑𝑣
ln 𝑥 + ‫ 𝑣𝑑 ׬‬− ‫׬‬ = ‫׬‬0
1−𝑣
ln 𝑥 + 𝑣 + ln 1 − 𝑣 = 𝐶
𝑦 𝑦
ln 𝑥 + + ln 1 − = 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
ln 𝑥 + + ln = 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥−𝑦 𝑦
ln ∙𝑥 + = 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦
ln 𝑥 − 𝑦 + = 𝐶
𝑥
EXAMPLE #5:
𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ = 4𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 − 4𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
Let: 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣
𝑥 2 𝑣𝑠𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 2 𝑣 + 2𝑣 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑥 3 𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 2 𝑣 + 2𝑣 2 𝑥 2 = 0
3 2 2 1
𝑥 𝑑𝑣 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0 3 2
𝑥 (2+3𝑣+𝑣 )
𝑑𝑣 2𝑑𝑥
2 − =0
2+3𝑣+𝑣 𝑥
𝑑𝑣 2𝑑𝑥
− = 0
2+𝑣 (1+𝑣) 𝑥
EXAMPLE #5:
𝑑𝑣 2𝑑𝑥
‫ ׬‬2+𝑣 (1+𝑣) − ‫ ׬ = 𝑥 ׬‬0
1 𝐴 𝐵
= + (2 + 3𝑣) 1+𝑣
2+3𝑣+𝑣 2 2+𝑣 1+𝑣
1=𝐴 1+𝑣 +𝐵 2+𝑣
Let:
v = -1 B=1
v = -2 A = -1
1𝑑𝑣 1𝑑𝑣 2𝑑𝑥
‫ ׬‬2+𝑣 + ‫ ׬‬1+𝑣 − ‫ ׬ = 𝑥 ׬‬0
− 𝑙𝑛 2 + 𝑣 + 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑣 − 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = 0
EXAMPLE #5:
1+𝑣
ln 2 = 𝐶
2+𝑣 𝑥
1+𝑣
=𝐶
2+𝑣 𝑥 2
𝑦
1+𝑥
𝑦 =𝐶
2+𝑥 𝑥2
1 𝑥+𝑦
=𝐶
𝑥 2 2𝑥+𝑦
EXAMPLE #6:
3𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
‫׬‬ +‫׬‬ = ‫׬‬0
𝑥 3+2𝑣
Homo: 1st degree
1
𝑙𝑛𝑥 + ln 3 + 2𝑣 = 𝐶
Let 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 ; 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣 2
3𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑒 ln(𝑥 ∙ 3+2𝑣) =𝐶

3𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑣 = 0 𝑥 3 + 2𝑣 = 𝐶
𝑥 3 + 2𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑣 = 0
EXAMPLE #6:
or
1
𝑙𝑛𝑥 + ln 3 + 2𝑣 = 𝐶 2
2
2𝑙𝑛𝑥 + ln 3 + 2𝑣 = 2𝐶
2 2𝑦
𝑥 3+ =𝐶
𝑥
2 3𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑥 =𝐶
𝑥
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
E X A C T E Q U AT I O N S
Standard Form: M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0
Solution:
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
1.) Test for exactness: =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2.) If exact:
a.) Integrate M term by term with respect to x,
with y held as constant.
b.) Integrate N term by term with respect to y,
with x held as constant.
c.) Cross out terms in N (or M) which are already
in M (or N) as a result of integration.
EXAMPLE #1:
𝑀 = 3𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑁=𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
=0+1 =1 → exact
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
3 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬+ 𝑦 ‫ 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬+ 𝑥 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 ׬‬0

3𝑥 2
+ 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
2
3𝑥 2 3𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦
+ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶 =𝐶
2 2
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 = C
EXAMPLE #2:
(cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − cot 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − (sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
M N
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝐶 = − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
cos 𝑦 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫ ׬‬co𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − sin 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ ׬‬0
cos 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − ln sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = 𝐶
cos 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − ln sin 𝑥 = 𝐶

EXAMPLE #3:
3 + 𝑦 + 2𝑦 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
M N
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
= 0 + 1 + 4𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
= 1 + 2y -2y(1 - 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)
= 1 + 4y𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
3 ‫ 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬+ 𝑦 ‫ 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬+ 2𝑦 2 ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 ‫ 𝑦𝑑 ׬‬+ 2𝑥 ‫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 ׬‬− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑𝑦 ׬‬0
2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑦
3𝑥 + 𝑦𝑥 + 2𝑦 2 න 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 𝑐
2 2
2
𝑦
3𝑥 + 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 𝑐
2
EXAMPLE #4:
2𝑥 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
M N
𝜕𝑀
M: = 0 + 𝑦(− sin 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 + cos(𝑥𝑦) → = −𝑥𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 + cos 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑁
N: = − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 → = −𝑥𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦 + cos 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥
2 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬+ 𝑦 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ ׬‬0
𝑦(sin 𝑥𝑦) 𝑥(sin 𝑥𝑦)

𝑥2 + + = 𝐶 → 𝑥 2 + sin 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
𝑦 𝑥
D E T E R M I N AT I O N O F I N T E G R AT I N G
FA C T O R
𝛿𝑀 𝛿𝑁
Suppose M(x, y)dx + N(x, y) = 0 is not EXACT → 𝛿𝑦
≠
𝛿𝑥
However, the equation can be made exact by obtaining an

Integrating Factor (I.F.); and then multiply to the given equation.
Case 1:
δM δN 1
If − is a function of x alone, f(x), then,
δy δx N
‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 ׬‬
I. F. = 𝑒
Case 2:
δM δN 1
If − is a function of y alone, g(y), then,
δy δx M
− ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑦 𝑔 ׬‬
I. F. = 𝑒
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #1:
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 1)dx + 𝑥(𝑥 − 2𝑦)dy = 0 =
−2(x−2y)
𝑥(𝑥−2𝑦)
M N
I.F. = 𝑒 ‫𝑓 ׬‬ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
δM δN
= 2𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 2
‫ ׬‬−𝑥𝑑𝑥
δy δx
I.F. = 𝑒
δM δN
−
δy δx
=
2y−2x + 2y I.F. = 𝑒 −2𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑁 𝑥(𝑥−2𝑦)
1
4y−2x I.F. =
𝑥2
=
𝑥(𝑥−2𝑦)
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #1:
1 2 2
[(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1)dx + 𝑥(𝑥 − 2𝑦)dy = 0]
𝑥2
(1 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 −2 )dx + (1 − 2𝑦𝑥 −1 )dy = 0
δM 2𝑦 δN 2𝑦
= =
δy 𝑥2 δx 𝑥2
‫ ׬‬1𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ ׬‬1 𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑥 −1 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 𝑦׬‬0
𝑦2 1 𝑦2
𝑥 − − +𝑦 − =𝑐
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑦2 1
𝑥 − − +𝑦=𝑐
𝑥 𝑥
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #2:
(2xy3 + 6xy2) dx + (-x2y2 – 6x2y) dy = 0
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 4
= 6xy2 + 12xy =– 2xy2 – 12xy I.F. = 𝑒
− ‫ ׬‬y 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
I.F. = 𝑒 −4𝑙𝑛𝑦
= 6xy2 + 12xy – 2xy2 – 12xy
𝑀
1
I.F. =
= 8xy2 +24xy y4
8x𝑦 2 (y + 3) 4
= =
2x𝑦 2 (y + 3) y
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #2:
1 3
(2xy + 6xy2) dx + (−x2y2 – 6x2y) dy = 0
y4
2𝑥 6𝑥 −𝑥 2 6𝑥 2
+ 𝑑𝑥 + − 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑦3
δM 2𝑥 12𝑥 δN 2𝑥 12𝑥
= − 2 − = − 2 −
δy 𝑦 𝑦3 δx 𝑦 𝑦3
2 6
𝑦
‫𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬ +
𝑦2
‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬− 𝑥 2 ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬−2 𝑑𝑦 − 6𝑥 2 ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬−3 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ ׬‬0
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #2:
𝑥2 3𝑥 2 𝑥2 3𝑥 2
+ + + =𝐶
𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦 𝑦2
𝑥2 3𝑥 2
+ =𝐶
𝑦 𝑦2
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #3: 𝑑𝑥
‫𝑥׬‬
2 2 I.F. = 𝑒
3𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
I.F. = 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑥
M N
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 I.F. = x
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 2 = 4𝑥𝑦 + 1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
− 2𝑥𝑦+1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
=
𝑁 𝑥 2𝑥𝑦+1
1
=
x
FA C T O R
EXAMPLE #3:
x[ 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0]
3𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 3 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
M N
δM δN
= 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 6𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥
δy δx
3𝑦 2 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬+ 2𝑥 3 ‫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 ׬‬+ 𝑥 2 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 ׬‬0
𝑦 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝐶 → 𝑦 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑥 2 = 𝐶
L I N E A R E Q U AT I O N O F O R D E R O N E
I. Standard Form:
Linear in y, y = dependent variable
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
General Solution: 𝑦 ∙ I. F. = ‫𝐼 ׬‬. 𝐹. ∙ 𝑄 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 ‫𝑃 ׬‬ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
II. Standard Form:

Linear in x, x = dependent variable
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥𝑃 𝑦 = 𝑄 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
General Solution: 𝑥 ∙ I. F. = ‫𝐼 ׬‬. 𝐹. ∙ 𝑄 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 ‫𝑃 ׬‬ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
EXAMPLE #1: 𝑦 ∙ 𝑥 2 = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 ∙ 8𝑥

2 𝑦 − 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
δM δ𝑁 𝑦𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 4 + 𝐶
δy
=2 δ𝑥
=1
𝑦𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 4 = 𝐶 → G.S.
2 1
2𝑦 − 8𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 ∙
𝑥𝑑𝑥
2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 8𝑥 + =0
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
+𝑦 = 8𝑥 → Form: + 𝑦𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
2‫𝑥 ׬‬
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 = 𝑒 2 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥
= 𝑥2
EXAMPLE #2:
1
[(1 + cos 𝑥)𝑦 ′ = sin 𝑥(sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 𝑦)]
1+cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 −𝑦 sin 𝑥

=
𝑑𝑥 1+cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+(1+cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑦

+𝑦 = → +𝑦𝑃 𝑥 =𝑄 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥
‫׬‬1+cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒
= 𝑒 − ln(1+cos 𝑥)
= (1 + cos 𝑥)−1
1
=
1+cos 𝑥
EXAMPLE #2:
1 1
G.S.: 𝑦 ∙ = ‫׬‬ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1+cos 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
(1 + cos 𝑥) (1 − cos 𝑥)
𝑦
= ‫(׬‬1 − cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
1+cos 𝑥
𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 → − 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = 𝑐
1+cos 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥
EXAMPLE #3:
1
[𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 ln 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
− 𝑥 ln 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥 𝑃 𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥(− ln 𝑦) = −𝑦 𝑦 𝑢 = −𝑙𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑑𝑢 = − 𝑉=𝑦
𝑦
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 − ‫𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑙 ׬‬ −𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦 + 𝑦
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 (−𝑦𝑙𝑛𝑦+𝑦)
𝑙𝑛𝑦 −𝑦
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑦
𝑒𝑦
𝐼. 𝐹. = 𝑦 −𝑦 ∙ 𝑒𝑦 =
𝑦𝑦
EXAMPLE #3:
x ∙ 𝐼. 𝐹. = ‫𝐼 ׬‬. 𝐹. ∙ 𝑄 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑒𝑦 𝑒𝑦
𝑥 ∙ = ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬− 𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑦 𝑦
𝑥𝑒 𝑦
= −𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑐
𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑒 𝑦
+ 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑦𝑦
EXAMPLE #4: 1
dy 𝑦 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 ‫𝑥𝑑𝑥׬‬
x = 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒
dx 𝑥 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 −𝑙𝑛𝑥
−1 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 =
= + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 ∙ 𝐼𝐹 = ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑄 ∙ 𝐹𝐼 ׬‬
1 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 ∙ = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 + 3𝑥 − 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
+ 𝑦𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑄 𝑥 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥 (׬‬+ 3 − )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑥2
+𝑦 = (𝑥 2 +3𝑥 − 2) 𝑦
− − 3𝑥 + 2𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2
B E R N O U L L I ’ S E Q U AT I O N S
Case I: y – dependent variable

Standard Form:
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑦𝑛 𝑄 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑛≠1
G.S.:
𝑦 1−𝑛 ∙ 𝐼𝐹 = 1 − 𝑛 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑄 ∙ 𝐹𝐼 ׬‬
1−𝑛 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑃 ׬‬
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒
Case II: x – dependent variable

Standard Form:
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥 𝑃 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 𝑄 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑛≠1
G.S.:
𝑥 1−𝑛 ∙ 𝐼𝐹 = 1 − 𝑛 ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑦 𝑄 ∙ 𝐹𝐼 ׬‬
1−𝑛 ‫𝑦𝑑 𝑦 𝑃 ׬‬
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒
EXAMPLE #1:
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑦 1 −𝑛 ∙ 𝐼. 𝐹. = 1 − 𝑛 ‫𝐼 ׬‬. 𝐹. ∙ 𝑄 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 −2 ∙ 𝑒 2𝑥 = −2 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬2𝑥 −𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
− 𝑦 = −𝑦 3 𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 2𝑥
+ 𝑦 −1 = 𝑦 3 −𝑥𝑒 −2𝑥 − 𝑥2 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑦2
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑦𝑛 𝑄 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑛=3
1 − 𝑛 = −2
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 −2 ‫ ׬‬−1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 2𝑥
EXAMPLE #2:
𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑦 2 = 2 ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 ∙ 3 𝑑𝑦
𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥+ 𝑥 2 −3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 2𝑦 3 + 𝑐
𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦
+
𝑦
− =
𝑥
0 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 3 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
+ 𝑥 𝑃 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 𝑄 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑛 = −1
1−𝑛 =2
𝑑𝑦
2‫׬‬
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑦
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 2𝑙𝑛𝑦
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑦 2
EXAMPLE #3:
2𝑦 3 − 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0 2 3 2 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑦 = 3‫∙ 𝑥׬‬ dx
2𝑦 3 −𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥+3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0 3
5
3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥2𝑦3 − =𝑐
2𝑦 𝑥2 𝑑𝑦 5
− 2+ =0
3𝑥 3𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑥2
+𝑦 = 𝑦 −2 ∙
𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 3
1−𝑛 =3
𝑛 = −2
2
3 ‫׬‬3𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑥 2
SUBSTITUTION SUGGESTED BY THE
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #1:
3
(x + 2y -1)dx + 3(x + 2y)dy = 0 vdv
2
dx + −𝑣−2 =0
Let: 2
−3vdv
v= x+ 2y dx +
𝑣+2
=0
dV=dx + 2dy
𝑑𝑣 −𝑑𝑥 6𝑑𝑣
dy= න 𝑑𝑥 න 3𝑑𝑣 න = න0
2 𝑣+2
𝑑𝑣 −𝑑𝑥 x – 3v + 6ln(v + 2)= C
(v-1)dx + 3(v) =0
2
3 3
vdx - 1dx + vdv – vdx = 0 x – 3(x + 2y) + 6 ln(x + 2y + 2) = C
2 2
1 3
- vdx – 1dx + vdv = 0
2 2 -2x – 6y + 6ln (x + 2y + 2) = C
𝑣 3
(- -1dx + vdv) = 0
2 2
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #2:
1 + 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Let: 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦)
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1 + 3𝑥𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑣 0
=
−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 3𝑣 1
− = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3
− ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥׬‬
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑒 −3 𝑙𝑛(𝑥)
1
𝐼𝐹 = 3
𝑥
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #2:
General Solution:
𝑣 ∙ 𝐼𝐹 = න 𝐼𝐹 ∙ 𝑄 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1
𝑣 ∙ 3= න 3 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑣 1
3
=− 4+𝐶
𝑥 4𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑦) 1
3
+ 4=𝐶
𝑥 4𝑥
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #3:
1 1
2 2 2
2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 + 2 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
2𝑥 4 𝑣𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑣 2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 =
1 𝑥8
Let: 𝑣 = 𝑥2𝑦2 𝑣2 2𝑥 4 𝑣𝑑𝑣−4𝑣 2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
(2 + 2𝑣) 4 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 + 2 𝑥 =0
𝑣 2 = 𝑥4𝑦 𝑥 𝑥8
𝑣2 2𝑣 2 2𝑣 3 𝑑𝑥
y= 𝑑𝑥 +
𝑥4 𝑥 4 𝑥4
2𝑥 4 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑣 3 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥 4 𝑣𝑑𝑣 − 8𝑣 2 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
7
=0
𝑥
2𝑣 2 3
2𝑣 𝑑𝑥 2𝑣 2 4𝑣 3 4𝑣𝑑𝑣 8𝑣 2
4
𝑑𝑥 + 4
+ 3 𝑑𝑣 − 4 𝑑𝑥 + 3 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #3:
2𝑣 3 6𝑣 2 2𝑣 2 4𝑣𝑑𝑣 𝑥3
− 4 𝑑𝑥 − 4 𝑑𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑣 + 3 = 0 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑣
2𝑣 2 2𝑣
− 4 𝑣 + 3 𝑑𝑥 + 3 (𝑣 + 2)𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑥 𝑥
2 2
− 𝑣 + 3 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑣 + 2)𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑥 𝑣
2 2(𝑣 + 3)
න − 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑥 𝑣(𝑣 + 3)
𝐴 𝐵
2 𝑣+2 = +
𝑣 𝑣+3
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #3:
2 𝑣 + 2 = 𝐴 𝑣 + 3 + 𝐵𝑣 𝑣 4 (𝑣 + 3)2
6
=𝑐
4 𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = 0 ∶ 𝐴 =
3 1 1
2 2 4 2 2
2 (𝑥 𝑦 ) (𝑥 𝑦 + 3)2
𝑣 = −3 ∶ 𝐵 = =𝑐
3 𝑥6
1
𝑥 8 𝑦 2 (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 3)2
4 𝑑𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 =
−2 ln 𝑥 + න + න = න0 𝑥6
3 𝑣 3 𝑣+3
1
4 2
−2 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑣 + ln 𝑣 + 3 = 𝑐 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 3)2 = 𝑐
3 3
−6 ln 𝑥 + 4 ln 𝑣 + 2 ln 𝑣 + 3 = 𝑐
E Q U AT I O N
EXAMPLE #4:
3 1
2 2 3 2
2𝑦 + 2𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑀 2
1 𝜕𝑁 2
1
= 2 + 3𝑥 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 𝑦 2 + 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
3 1
2𝑦 න 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 2 න 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 3
𝑥 න 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑥 න 𝑑𝑦 = 0
3 3
2 𝑦2 𝑥3 2 𝑥3 𝑦2
2𝑦𝑥 + + + 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
3 3
3
2 𝑥3 𝑦2
+ 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝐶
3
A P P L I C AT I O N S O F F I R S T O R D E R ,
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
A.) Decomposition & Growth
ex. : population growth, radioactive decay
- The rate of change of population or quantity of a

substance dn/dt is proportional to the number of inhabitants or
amount of substance present (N).
𝑑𝑁
αN
𝑑𝑡
where:
N – number of inhabitants/ amount substance
T – time
K – proportionally constant
𝑑𝑁
Rate of Growth: = 𝑘𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
Rate of Decomposition: = −𝑘𝑁
𝑑𝑡
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑇1
‫𝑁 𝑁׬‬ = ‫𝑇𝑑 𝑇׬‬ (Variable Separable)
0 0
ln 𝑁| 𝑁𝑁 = kT| 𝑇𝑇1
0 0
𝑙𝑛 N − ln N0 = k(t1 − t0)
𝑁
𝑒 𝑙𝑛(𝑁 ) = 𝑒 kt
0
𝑁
= ekt
𝑁0
𝑁 = 𝑁0𝑒 𝑘𝑡
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
The number of bacteria in a yeast culture grows at a rate
proportional to the number present. The bacteria count in the
culture doubles in 3 hours. At the end of 15 hours, the count is
1M.
a.) How many bacteria were in the culture originally?
b.) In how many hours will the bacteria count reach 2M?
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
ln 𝑁] 𝑁=2N
N =N
0 = 𝑘𝑇] 3
1
0 0
2N0
𝑙𝑛( ) = 3k
𝑁0
1
𝑘= ln 2
3
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
1
a.) ln 𝑁] 1𝑀
N0
= 𝑙𝑛2 ∗ 15
3
ln 1000000 − 𝑙𝑛𝑁0 = 5 ln 2
1000000
𝑒 𝑙𝑛( 𝑁0
) = 𝑒 ln 25
1000000
= 𝑁0
25
𝑁0 = 31,250
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
𝑁=2𝑀 𝑡 =𝑡
b.) ln 𝑁] N =31250 = 𝑘𝑇] 𝑡 1=0
0 0
2000000 1
ln = ln 2 ∗𝑡
31250 3
𝑡 = 18 ℎ𝑟𝑠
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the
quantity of radium present. Suppose, it is found that in 25 years,
approximately 1.1% of the quantity of radium is decomposed.
a.) Determine how long it would take for approx. ½ of the
radium to decompose.
b.) What percentage of radium is lost after 50 centuries?
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
ln 𝑁] 0.989
N0
𝑁0
= −𝑘𝑇] 25
0
0.989𝑁0
𝑙𝑛( ) = −𝑘(25)
𝑁0
ln(0.989)
𝑘=
25
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
a.) ln 𝑁] 0.5N0𝑁0 = −𝑘𝑇] 𝑡0

𝑡1 = 𝑡
=0
0.5N0 ln 0.989
𝑙𝑛( ) = ∗t
𝑁0 25
𝑡 = 1566.64 years
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
𝑁 𝑡1=50(100)
b.) ln 𝑁] N0 = 𝑘𝑇] 𝑡0
𝑋𝑁0 ln 0.989
ln = 5000
𝑁0 25
𝑥 = 0.1095 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
1 − 0.1095 = 0.8905 ∗ 100% = 89.05% 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
B.) Newton’s Law of Cooling
- The rate of change of temperature of an object is
proportional to the difference between the temperature of the
object (body) and the medium.
𝑑𝑇
a (Tb-Tm)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
= k (Tb-Tm) ‫׬‬ = ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑘 ׬‬
𝑑𝑡 Tb−Tm
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Tb= temperature of an object
Tm= temperature of a medium
𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑖
𝐿𝑛 [Tb−Tm] = 𝑘𝑡]
𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
A thermometer reading, -8°C, is brought into a room
(medium) temperature of which is 21°C. One minute later, the
temperature reading is 0°C. Find the temperature reading 5
minutes after the thermometer is brought into the room.
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
𝑇𝑖 = 0 1
𝐿𝑛 [T−21] = 𝑘𝑡]
𝑇𝑜 = 8 0
𝐿𝑛 [0−21] − 𝐿𝑛 [−8−21] = 𝑘 1
−21
𝐿𝑛 =𝑘
−29
21
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑘
29
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
𝑇𝑖 = ? 21
𝐿𝑛 [T−21] = 𝐿𝑛 5
𝑇𝑜 = 8 29
21
𝐿𝑛 [T−21] − 𝐿𝑛 [−8−21] = 5 𝐿𝑛
29
(𝑇−21) 21 5
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛
𝑒 −29 = 𝑒 29
(𝑇−21) 21 5
−29
= 29
𝑇= 15.23°C
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
A 22.7kg iron ball is heated at a uniform rate of 93degC
and is immediately plunged into a vessel containing 45kg of
water whose temperature is 5degC. The specific heat of iron is
0.896kj/kg-k and for the water, 4.187kj/kg-k. After 5 minutes, the
ball has an average temperature of 85degC. Find:
a.) Temperature of ball after 10 minutes;
b.) The common temperature approached by the ball
and water
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
227 kg at 93°C
Ci = 0.896
45 kg at 5°C
Cw = 4.187
𝑇𝑖 = 85 𝑇𝑖 = 5
𝐿𝑛 [T−Tm] = 𝑘𝑡]
𝑇𝑜 = 93 𝑇𝑜 = 0
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
Qlost = Qgained
Mi Ci [ Tf –Ti ] = Mw Cw [ Tf –Ti ]
(22.7)(0.896)(93-T) = (45)(4.187)(Tm-5)
20.339 (93-T) = 188.415 (Tm-5)
1891.45 – 20.339T = 188.415 Tm-942.075
1891.45 + 942.075 – 20.339T
= Tm
188.415
15.039 – 0. 108 T = Tm
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
𝑇𝑖 = 85 𝑇𝑖 = 5
𝐿𝑛 [T−Tm] = 𝑘𝑡]
𝑇𝑜 = 93 𝑇𝑜 = 0
𝑇𝑖 = 85 𝑇𝑖 = 5
𝐿𝑛 [T−15.039 + 0.108T ] = 𝑘𝑡]
𝑇𝑜 = 93 𝑇𝑜 = 0
𝑇𝑖 = 85
𝐿𝑛 [1.108T−15.039 ] = 5𝑘
𝑇𝑜 = 93
𝐿𝑛 [1.108(85) −1 5 .039 ] −𝐿 𝑛 [1.108(93) −1 5 .039 ]

=k
5
K = -0. 021
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
𝑇𝑖 = ?
a.) 𝐿𝑛 [1.108T−15.039 ] = −0. 021 10
𝑇𝑜 = 93
𝐿𝑛 [1.108T−15.039 ] - 𝐿𝑛 [1.108 93 −15.039 ]
= -0.21
T = 72.955°C
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
b.) T= Tm
15.039 – 0.108T =Tm = T
15.039
=T
1.108
T = 13.573°C
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
C.) Steady State Heat Conduction
- Fourier’s Law states that the rate of heat conduction is
directly proportional to heat transfer are and temperature
difference across a layer of material but inversely proportional
to the thickness of material.
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
- The time rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and
to the area.
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑡
∝ A
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑞 𝑥1 𝑇1
‫= 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬
𝐴 𝑥0
−𝑘 ‫𝑇׬‬0 𝑑𝑇
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
- The time rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and
to the area.
q = rate of heat transfer

A = heat transfer area
x = thickness
Q = amount of heat transfer
K = thermal conductivity flow from hot to cold
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
A brick wall (k = 0.12 W/MK) is 30 cm thick if the inner
surface is 20°C and the outer surface is 0°C. Find the heat loss
through the wall per day through a square meter area.
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1: Through a Slab
Solution: A = constant
𝑞 𝑥1 𝑇 W
𝑥 ] = -k𝑇] 1
𝐴 𝑥0 𝑇0
𝑞
q
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 = −𝑘 𝑇1 − 𝑇0
𝐴
L
𝑞 −0.12𝑊
0.30𝑚 − 0 = 0 − 20 𝑥0 𝑥1
𝐴 𝑚∙𝑘
(0.12)(20) 𝐽
q= 𝑤 =
0.3 𝑠
𝐽Τ 3600𝑠 24ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
q=8 𝑠x 𝑥 = 691,000 𝐽ൗ𝑑𝑎𝑦
1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 1𝑑𝑎𝑦
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2: Through a Cylinder
dx
q‫׬‬ = −k ‫ ׬‬dT
A
A = 2πRL
R2 dR T2
q‫׬‬R = −k ‫׬‬T dT
1 2πRL 1
q R T
𝐿𝑛 𝑅 |R21 = −kT|T21
2πL L
q 𝑅2
Ln = −k T2 − T1
2πL 𝑅1
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
A pipe 20cm in diameter contains steam at 100°C is
covered with a certain insulation, 5cm thick. The outside
insulation is kept at 40°C. by how much should the thickness of
the insulation be increased in order that the rate of heat loss
will be decreased by 20%.
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
Solution:
15
q 15 15+Δ𝑅 Ln10
Ln = −k 40° − 100° =
2πL 10 10 0.8
0.8q
Ln
15+Δ𝑅
= −k 40° − 100° ΔR= 1.6 𝑐𝑚
2πL 10
0.8q 15+Δ𝑅 q 15
Ln = Ln
2πL 10 2πL 10
15+Δ𝑅 15
0.8Ln = Ln
10 10
15
15+Δ𝑅 Ln
Ln 10 10
𝑒 =𝑒 0.8
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3: Through a Hollow Sphere
dx
q‫׬‬ = −k ‫ ׬‬dT
A
R2
A = 4πr
R1
q R2 dR T2
‫׬‬ = −k ‫׬‬T dT
4π R1 R2 1
q 1 R2 T2
− ቚ |
= −kT T1
4π R R1
q 1 1
− + = −k T2 − T1
4π R2 R1
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3: Through a Hollow Sphere
The inner and outer radii of a hollow spherical shell are 4
cm and 9 cm respectively. The thermal conductivity of the
w
material between the walk is 0.75 . The inner surface is kept
m−𝑘
at a constant temperature of 100℃ and the outer surface is 0
℃.
Find:
a.) The rate of heat loss;
b.) Temperature 5 cm from the center
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3: Through a Sphere
Solution:
100
4cm
5cm
q 1 0.09 w
a.) − ቚ = −0.75 0 − 100
4π R 0.04 m−k
q 1 1
− + = 75
4π 0.09 0.04
Q= 67.858 W
FIRST DEGREE O.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3: Through a Sphere
Solution:
q 1 0.05 w
b.) − ቚ = −0.75 T − 100
4π R 0.04 m−k
67.858 1 1 w
− + = −0.75 T − 100
4π 0.05 0.04 m−k
T= 64 ℃
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #1:
A boy weighing 80 lbs. runs for a slide and reaches it with
1
a velocity of 12 ft/s. The µk between the shoes and the ice is
20
and the wind blows against him with a force equal to twice his
velocity.
a.) What is his distance as a function of his velocity?
b.) How far will he slide?
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑆
=𝑉 =𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑉
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑉
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚 ∙
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑆 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝛴𝐹 = 𝑚 ∙ =𝑚 ∙
𝑉 𝑑𝑆
1 80𝐼𝑏𝑠 𝑉𝑑𝑉
−2𝑉 − ∙ 80𝐼𝑏𝑠 = ∙
20 32 𝑑𝑆
80 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑆 = ∙
32 −2(𝑉+2)
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #1:
Solution:
5 𝑉𝑑𝑉
‫ = 𝑆𝑑 ׬‬− 4 ‫𝑉 ׬‬+2
𝑠 2
‫׬‬0 𝑆 = ‫ ׬‬1 − 𝑉+2 𝑑𝑉
5 𝑉
𝑆=− ቄ 𝑉 − 2 ln 𝑉 +2
4 12
5
𝑆= − [(𝑉 − 2 ln(v + 2))] − [12 − 2 ln 14]
4
5
𝑆= − [(0 − 2 ln 2) − (12 − 2 ln 14)]
4
𝑆 = 10.135
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #2:
A boat is being forced at the rate of 20 kph at the instant
(t = 0) that the towing line is cast off, a man in the boat begins
to row in the direction of the motion exerting a force of 90N. If
the combined mass of the man and the boat is 225kg, and the
resistance (R) is equal to 26.25V, where V is measured in m/s,
1
find the speed of the boat after mm.
2
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #2:
Solution:
∑F=ma
𝑑𝑣
∑F=m( )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
90-26.25v=225( )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 26.25 90
225( )+ ( )=
𝑑𝑡 225 225
𝑑𝑦
+ y ∙ P(x) = Q(x) Linear, Order 1
𝑑𝑥
y ∙ IF= ‫׬‬IF ∙ Q(x)dx
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #2:
v ∙ IF= ‫׬‬IF ∙ Q(t)dt
‫ ׬‬P(x)dx
IF=𝑒
26.25
=e^‫׬‬ dt
225
26.25
=e^ t
225
26.25 90 26.25
V ∙ e^ t= ‫׬‬e^ t dt
225 225 225
26.25𝑡
26.25 90 𝑒^ 225
V∙ e^ t = +c
225 225 26.25
225
DYNAMICS
EXAMPLE #2:
@t=0 v=5.56
26.25(0)
26.25 90 𝑒^ 225
(5.56) (e^ (0))= +c
225 225 26.25
225
C = 2.13
½ min = 30sec
26.25(30)
26.25 90 𝑒^ 225
v∙ e^ (30)= 26.25 +c
225 225
225
v = 3.493 m/s
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
Standard Form: _
𝑛 𝑛1
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
a0 𝑛 + a1 𝑛_1 +…+ an-1 + any = R(x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
where:
a0, a1, … , an-1, an are constant coefficient
R(x) – function in terms of x
Types of Higher Order LDE with constant coefficient:

A.) Homogeneous: when R(x) = 0
B.) Non-Homogeneous: when R(x) ≠ 0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
Differential Operator
D – denotes differentiation with respect to x
𝑛
𝑑 𝑑 𝑦
D= → n
D y= 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ex.:
2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑5𝑦 𝑑3𝑦
2
D y= 2 → 3 5 + 4 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
a0Dny + a1Dn-1y + … + an-1Dy + any = 0
Homo DE: y(a0Dn + a1Dn-1 + … + an-1D + an = 0

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
General Forms of Solutions of LDE:

First Order LDE 𝑑𝑦
‫𝑦 ׬‬ = 𝑚 ‫𝑥𝑑 ׬‬
𝑑𝑦
a0 + a1y = 0
𝑑𝑥 ln y = mx + c
𝑑𝑦
a0 = - a1y 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + c
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑎1
= - dx y = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑐
𝑦 𝑎0
𝑎1 y = c𝑒 𝑚𝑥
Let - = m
𝑎0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.

First Order LDE
y’ = c𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ∙ 𝑚
y’ = mc𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝑦
y’ = = Dy = mc𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Dc𝑒 𝑚𝑥 = mc𝑒 𝑚𝑥
D=m → ∴ 𝐷 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑛
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.

First Order LDE
cemx (a0 mn + a1mn-1 + … + an-1m + an) = 0
cemx = 0
a0 mn + a1mn-1 + … + an-1m + an = 0 → auxiliary equation (AE)

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
A.) Homogeneous Higher Order Linear Differential Equation with

Constant Coefficient
Steps in finding G.S.:
1.) Simplify the given DE.
2.) Det. the associated AE.
3.) Solve for the roots of AE.
4.) Substitute the roots in the given form of GS.
Type I Roots of AE are Real and Distinct
GS: 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑚𝑛 𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
𝑑3 𝑦 3𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ −4 =0 𝑚 = 0, −4, −1
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐷3 𝑦 + 3𝐷 2 𝑦 − 4𝐷𝑦 = 0 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −4𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 𝐷3 + 3𝐷2 − 4𝐷 = 0 𝑦 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −4𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 𝑚3 + 3𝑚2 − 4𝑚 = 0
𝑚 𝑚2 + 3𝑚 − 4 = 0
𝑚 𝑚+4 𝑚−1 =0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝑑3 𝑦 3𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 9−4 3± 5
+ + =0 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝐷3 𝑦 − 3𝐷2 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦 = 0 3+√5
𝑥
3−√5
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2 + 𝐶3 𝑒 2
𝑦 𝐷3 − 3𝐷2 + 𝐷 = 0
𝑦 𝑚3 − 3𝑚2 + 𝑚 = 0
𝑦 𝑚 𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 1 = 0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3:
4𝐷4 + 4𝐷 3 − 13𝐷2 − 7𝐷 + 6 = 0 -1 4 4 -13 -7 -6
-4 0 13 6
-2 4 0 -13 6 0
4𝑚4 + 4𝑚3 − 13𝑚2 − 7𝑚 + 6 = 0 -8 16 -6
4 -8 3 0
4𝑚2 − 8𝑚 + 3 = 2𝑚 − 1 2𝑚 − 3
1 3
𝑚= , , −1 , −2
2 2
1 3
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 2 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2 + 𝐶3 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑒 −2𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
Type II Roots of AE are Real and Repeated if root m is

repeated n times
GS: 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + ⋯ 𝐶𝑛 𝑥−1 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
𝐷3 + 3𝐷 2 + 3𝐷 + 1 𝑦 = 0 -1 1 3 3 1
-1 -2 -1
𝑚3 + 3𝑚2 + 3𝑚 + 1 = 0 1 2 1 0
𝑚2 + 2𝑚 + 1 = 𝑚 + 1 𝑚+1 𝑚+1
𝑚 = −1, −1, −1
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝐷5 − 5𝐷 4 + 7𝐷3 + 𝐷2 − 8𝐷 + 4 𝑦 = 0 1 1 -5 7 1 -8 4
1 -4 3 4 -4
1 1 -4 3 4 -4 0
𝑚5 − 5𝑚4 + 7𝑚3 + 𝑚2 − 8𝑚 + 4 = 0 1 -3 0 4
-2 1 -3 0 4 0
𝑚2 − 𝑚 − 2 = 𝑚 − 2 𝑚 + 1 2 -2 -4
1 -1 -2 0
𝑚 = −1, 1, 1, 2,2
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶5 𝑒 −𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
Type III Roots of AE are Imaginary and Distinct
Roots: 𝑚 = 𝑎 ± 𝑖𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
𝐷3 − 3𝐷 2 + 9𝐷 + 13 𝑦 = 0 -1 1 -3 9 13
-1 4 -13
𝑚3 − 3𝑚2 + 9𝑚 + 13 = 0 1 -4 13 0
(𝑚2 −4𝑚 + 13)
4± 16− 52 4± 36𝑖 4±6𝑖

= = = 2 ± 3𝑖
2 2 2
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥3𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝐷2 + 9 𝑦 = 0
𝑚2 + 9 = 0
𝑚2 = −9
𝑚 = 9𝑖
𝑚 = ±3𝑖
𝑦= 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
Type IV Roots of AE are Imaginary and Repeated
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐶3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
𝐷3 − 𝐷2 + 𝐷 − 1 2
𝑦= 0
𝑚3 − 𝑚2 + 𝑚 − 1 2 =0
𝑚2 𝑚 − 1 + 𝑚 − 1 2 =0
𝑚2 + 1 2
𝑚−1 2
𝑚 = ±𝑖 2 𝑚 = 12
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 0𝑥 𝐶3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 0𝑥 ( 𝐶5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
B.) Non-Homogeneous LDE with Constant Coefficients

𝑎0 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥)
where:
𝑅(𝑥) ≠ 0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
B.) Non-Homogeneous Linear DE Constant Coefficients

General Solution: 𝑌 = 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
where:
𝑌𝑐 = complementary solution (obtained from the
homogeneous equation)
= GS of the homogeneous form of the given DE
(if R(x) = 0)
𝑌𝑃 = particular solution (particular part of the

solution)
= Derived from R(x)
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.

Steps in finding G.S. of Non-Homogeneous LDE:
1.) Determine 𝑌𝑐 (when R(x) = 0)
2.) Determine form of 𝑌𝑃
3.) Differentiate 𝑌𝑃 based on the order of the given LDE
4.) Substitute 𝑌𝑃 and its derivatives in the given LDE to
determine the value of constant
5.) Add 𝑌𝑐 and 𝑌𝑃 to determine GS
To get 𝐘𝐜 :
𝑎0 𝐷𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑌𝐶 = 0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.

Steps in finding G.S. of Non-Homogeneous LDE:
1.) Determine 𝑌𝑐 (when R(x) = 0)
2.) Determine form of 𝑌𝑃
3.) Differentiate 𝑌𝑃 based on the order of the given LDE
4.) Substitute 𝑌𝑃 and its derivatives in the given LDE to
determine the value of constant
5.) Add 𝑌𝑐 and 𝑌𝑃 to determine GS
To get 𝐘𝐏 :
1.) Method of Undetermined Coefficients
(used only when roots of R(x) can be obtained)
2.) Variation of Parameters
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
I. Method of Undetermined Coefficients (MUC)
ex. : determine the form 𝑌𝑝
1.) 𝐷 2 − 6𝐷 + 9 𝑦 = 3𝑒 −𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑚 − 3 (𝑚 − 3)
𝑌𝐶 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = 𝐶1 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
𝑥
2.) 𝑅 𝑥 = 2𝑒 + 5𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥
3
𝑥
𝑌𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑥𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶5 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶6 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥
3
3.) 𝑅 𝑥 = 5 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 3 2𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶1 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝐶3 cos 3 2𝑥 + 𝐶4 sin 3 2𝑥)

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
4.) 𝑅 𝑥 = 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 + 4𝑒 2+ 3 𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = 𝑒 0𝑥 𝐶1 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 2𝑥 + x 𝑒 0𝑥 𝐶3 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶4 sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶5 𝑒 2+ 3 𝑥

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
𝐷2 − 6𝐷 + 9 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑌𝑃 − 6𝐷𝑌𝑃 + 9𝑌𝑃 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑚2 − 6𝑚 + 9 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 − 6 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 9 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑚 − 3 (𝑚 − 3) 4𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑌𝐶 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 1
𝐶1 =
4
𝑌𝑃 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥
1
𝑌𝑃 = 𝑒 𝑥
4
𝑌𝑃 ′ = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥
1
𝑌 = 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑌𝑃 " = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 4
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝐷2 + 4𝐷 + 5 𝑦 = 50𝑥 + 26𝑒 3𝑥 𝑌𝑃 ′ = 𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥
𝑚2 + 4𝑚 + 5 𝑌𝑃 " = 9𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥
by quadratic equation:
−4± 4 2 −4(1)(5) −4± −4 −4±2𝑖
= =
2(1) 2 2
𝑚 = −2 ± 𝑖
𝑌𝐶 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = 𝐶1 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝐷2 𝑌𝑃 + 4𝐷𝑌𝑃 + 5𝑌𝑃 = 50𝑥 + 26𝑒 3𝑥
9𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥 + 4 𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥 + 5 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥 = 50𝑥 + 26𝑒 3𝑥

9𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥 + 4𝐶2 + 12𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥 + 5𝐶1 + 5𝐶2 𝑥 + 5𝐶3 𝑒 3𝑥 = 50𝑥 + 26𝑒 3𝑥
𝑒 3𝑥 : 9𝐶3 + 12𝐶3 + 5𝐶3 = 26
26𝐶3 = 26
𝐶3 = 1
𝑥: 5𝐶2 = 50
𝐶2 = 10
𝑐: 4𝐶2 + 5𝐶1 = 0
𝐶1 = −8
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝑌𝑃 = −8 + 10𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥
𝑌 = 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
𝑌 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥 −8 + 10𝑥 + 𝑒 3𝑥

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3:
𝐷2 + 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1−cos 2𝑥
Identity: 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 =
2
𝑚2 + 1 = 0
𝑚 = −1
𝑚=𝑖
𝑌𝐶 = 𝑒 0𝑥 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥
𝑌𝐶 = 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3:
2 1−cos 2𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥=
2
1 cos 2𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = −
2 2
𝑌𝑃 = 𝐶1 𝑒 0𝑥 + 𝑒 0𝑥 𝐶2 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶3 sin 2𝑥
𝑌𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶3 sin 2𝑥
𝑌𝑃 ′ = −2𝐶2 sin 2𝑥 + 2𝐶3 cos 2𝑥
𝑌𝑃 " = −4𝐶2 cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐶3 sin 2𝑥

HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3:
2 1 cos 2𝑥
𝐷 𝑌𝑃 + 𝑌𝑃 = −
2 2
1 cos 2𝑥
−4𝐶2 cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐶3 sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶3 sin 2𝑥 = −
2 2
1
𝑐: 𝐶1 =
2
1
cos 2𝑥: −4𝐶2 + 𝐶2 = −
2
1
𝐶2 =
6
sin 2𝑥 : −4𝐶3 + 𝐶3 = 0
𝐶3 = 0
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3:
𝑌 = 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑃
1 1
𝑌 = 𝐶1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑥 + + cos 2𝑥
2 6
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
II. Method of Inverse Operator
1
𝑅 𝑥 => 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−𝑚𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝐷−𝑚)
1
𝑅 𝑥 → 𝑒 𝑚1 𝑥 න 𝑒 −𝑚1 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑚2 𝑥 න 𝑒 −𝑚2 𝑥 ∙ ⋯ ∙ 𝑒 𝑚3 𝑥 න 𝑒 −𝑚3 𝑥 𝑅 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛
𝐷 − 𝑚1 𝐷 − 𝑚2 … (𝐷 − 𝑚𝑛 )
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
1
𝐷2 − 6𝐷 + 9 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−3𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐷−3
𝐷 − 3 𝐷 − 3 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 1
= 𝑒 3𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐷−3
𝑚 − 3 𝑚 − 3 = 𝑒𝑥
1 𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑚 = +3, 𝑚 = +3 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ∙
𝐷−3 −2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 = −
1
∙
1
𝑒𝑥
2 𝐷−3
1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥 1 3𝑥
𝐷−3 𝐷−3 = − 𝑒 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−3𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #1:
1 3𝑥
= − 𝑒
2
‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 3𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥
= − 𝑒 ∙
2 −2
1 𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒
4
1 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑒
4
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
1
𝐷2 − 𝐷 − 6 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−3𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐷+2
𝐷 − 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥 1
= 𝑒 3𝑥 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬
𝐷+2
𝑚 − 3 𝑚 + 2 = 𝑒 4𝑥
1
= 𝑒 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥
𝑚 = +3, 𝑚 = −2 𝐷+2
1
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −2𝑥 = 𝑒 4𝑥
𝐷+2
1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 4𝑥
𝐷−3 𝐷+2
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #2:
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 −2𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬2𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 −2𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬6𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 6𝑥
= 𝑒 −2𝑥 ∙
6
1 4𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒
6
1 4𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 𝑒
6
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #3:
1
USING SHORTCUT = 𝑒 1𝑥
1−3 1−3
Given: 𝐷 2 − 6𝐷 + 9 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒𝑥
=
−2 −2
𝐷 − 3 𝐷 − 3 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒
𝑚−3 𝑚−3 = 𝑒𝑥 4
1 𝑥
3𝑥 3𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒
4
𝑚 = +3, 𝑚 = +3
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 3𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #4: 1
USING SHORTCUT = 𝑒 4𝑥
4−3 4+2
Given: 𝐷 2 − 𝐷 − 6 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑒 4𝑥
=
1 6
𝐷 − 3 𝐷 + 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥
1 4𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒
6
𝑚 − 3 𝑚 + 2 = 𝑒 4𝑥 1 4𝑥
3𝑥 −2𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑒 + 𝑒
6
𝑚 = +3, 𝑚 = −2
1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 4𝑥
𝐷−3 𝐷+2
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #5:
USING SHORTCUT
Given: 𝐷 3 + 3𝐷 2 − 𝐷 − 3 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 4
𝐷 − 1 𝐷 + 1 𝐷 + 3 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 4
𝑚 − 1 𝑚 + 1 𝑚 + 3 = 𝑒 4𝑥
𝑚 = +1, 𝑚 = −1, 𝑚 = −3
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 −3𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #5:
1
𝑦𝑝 = (𝑒 2𝑥 + 4)
𝐷−1 𝐷+1 𝐷+3
1 2𝑥 1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 + 4𝑒 0𝑥
𝐷−1 𝐷+1 𝐷+3 𝐷−1 𝐷+1 𝐷+3
1 1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 4𝑒 0𝑥
2−1 2+1 2+3 0−1 0+1 0+3
𝑒 2𝑥 4
𝑦𝑝 = +
1 3 5 −1 1 3
1 2𝑥 4
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 −
15 3
1 2𝑥 4
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶3 𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑒 −
15 3
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #6:
USING SHORTCUT
Given: 𝐷 2 − 3𝐷 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝐷 − 1 𝐷 − 2 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑚 − 1 𝑚 − 2 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑚 = −1, 𝑚 = +2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑒 −1𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥
HIGHER ORDER L.D.E.
EXAMPLE #6:
1
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒1𝑥 𝑦𝑝 = −𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝐷−1 𝐷−2
1 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝑒 −1𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒1𝑥
1−1 1−2
𝑒𝑥
𝑦𝑝 =
0 −1
𝑦𝑝 = −𝑒 𝑥 ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = −𝑒 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬1 𝑑𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = −𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥
V A R I A T I O N O F PA R A M E T E R S
Variation of Parameters
- applied when roots of R(x) cannot be obtained
G.S: 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑝
where:
𝑌𝑐 = complementary solution
𝑌𝑝 = particular solution (based on 𝑌𝑐 )
Consider a 2nd Order O.D.E,
𝑎𝑜 𝐷2 + 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑅(𝑥)
Determine 𝑌𝑐 :
𝑎𝑜 𝐷2 + 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎2 𝑌𝑐 = 0
AE: 𝑎𝑜 𝑚2 + 𝑎1 𝑚 + 𝑎2 = 0
𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 Ø1 x + 𝐶2 Ø2 (x)
where Ø1 x & Ø2 (x)

= 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 or (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
Determine 𝑌𝑝 :
1.) Change constants, 𝑪𝟏 & 𝑪𝟐 w/ functions of x
𝐴 𝑥 and 𝐵 𝑥
𝑌𝑐 = 𝐶1 Ø1 x + 𝐶2 Ø2 (x)
𝑌𝑝 = 𝐴 𝑥 Ø1 x + 𝐵 𝑥 Ø2 (x)
𝑌𝑝 = 𝐴 Ø1 + 𝐵 Ø2
where:
A & B are unknown functions of x
2.) Get the 1st and 2nd derivative of 𝒀𝒑
Get the first derivative
𝑌𝑝′ = 𝐷𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴 Ø1′ + 𝐴′ Ø1 + 𝐵 Ø′2 + 𝐵 ′Ø2
impose arbitrary condition:
𝐴′ Ø1 + 𝐵 ′Ø2 = 0
𝐷𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴 Ø1′ + 𝐵 Ø′2

3.) Get the 2nd derivative of the simplified equation
𝑌𝑝′′ = 𝐷2 𝑌𝑝 = 𝐴 Ø1′′ + 𝐴′ Ø1 + 𝐵 Ø′′

2 + 𝐵 ′Ø2
Substitute 𝑌𝑝 and its derivative in the given DE:
𝑎𝑜 𝐷2 + 𝑎1 𝐷 + 𝑎2 𝑌𝑝 = 0
𝑎𝑜 𝐴 Ø1′′ + 𝐴′ Ø1 + 𝐵 Ø′′
2 + 𝐵 ′Ø 2 + 𝑎1 𝐴 Ø1
′
+ 𝐵 Ø ′
2 + 𝑎2 𝐴 Ø1 + 𝐵 Ø2 = 𝑅(𝑥)
cancelling out terms,
𝑎𝑜 𝐴′ Ø1 ′ + 𝐵 ′Ø2 ′ = 𝑅(𝑥)
4.) Solve A & B using numbers 1 and 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵
𝐴′ = B′ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE #1:
(𝐷2 + 1)𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥

𝑚2 + 1
m=±i
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + B𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑦𝑝 ′ = −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐴′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + Bcos𝑥 + B’𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝐴′𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + B’𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 → 1st equation
𝑦𝑝 ′ = −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + Bcos𝑥
𝑦𝑝 ′′ = −𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 - 𝐴′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − Bsin𝑥 + B’𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
EXAMPLE #1:
(𝐷2 + 1)𝑦𝑝 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥
−𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 - 𝐴′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − Bsin𝑥 + B’𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + B𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = cscx
− 𝐴′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + B’𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = cscx → 2nd equation
−𝐵′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
A’ =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝐵′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
+ B’cosx = cscx
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
EXAMPLE #1:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝐵
B’ ( ) = cscx = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1 1 𝑑𝑥
B’ ( )=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
න 𝑑𝐵 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 𝑑𝑥
B = cotx
𝑑𝐵 B = -ln(sinx)
B’ =
𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE #1:
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝐴 = −𝑥
A’ = ·
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = Acosx + Bsinx
A’ = -1 = -xcosx – sinx ln(sinx)
𝑑𝐴 y = 𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 - xcosx – sinx ln(sinx)

= −1
𝑑𝑥
න 𝑑𝐴 = − න 𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE #2:
(𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 2)𝑦 =
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑦𝑝 ′ = A𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝐵𝑒 2𝑥
1+ 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦𝑝 ′′ = A𝑒 𝑥 + A′𝑒 𝑥 + 4𝐵𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐴𝐸 = (𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 2) = 0
(𝑚 − 2) (𝑚 − 1) = 0
𝑦𝑐 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦𝑝 = A𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦𝑝 ′ = A𝑒 𝑥 + A′𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝐵𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥
A′𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥 = 0 → 1st equation

EXAMPLE #2:
𝑒 2𝑥
(𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 2)𝑦𝑝 =
1+ 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥
A𝑒 𝑥 + A′𝑒 𝑥 + 4𝐵𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥 -3 (A𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝐵𝑒 2𝑥 ) +2 (A𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑥 ) =
1+ 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥
A′𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥 = → 2nd equation
1+ 𝑒 2𝑥
𝐵′ 𝑒 2𝑥
A′ = -
𝑒𝑥
A’ = -B’𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒2𝑥
−𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥 =
1+ 𝑒 2𝑥 1+ 𝑒2𝑥 1
𝑒 2𝑥 𝐵′ = =
𝐵′𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 1+ 𝑒 2𝑥
1+ 𝑒 2𝑥
EXAMPLE #2:
𝑑𝐵 1
=
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥
න 𝑑𝐵 = න 2𝑥
∙ −2𝑥
1+ 𝑒 𝑒
𝑒 −2𝑥
B= ‫ 𝑒 ׬‬−2𝑥+1 dx
u = 𝑒 −2𝑥+1
du = -2𝑒 −2𝑥 dx
−1
B= ln(𝑒 −2𝑥 + 1)
2
EXAMPLE #2:
A’ = - B’𝑒 𝑥 A = - arctan 𝑒 𝑥
1
A’ = - 2𝑥 · 𝑒 𝑥
1+ 𝑒
𝑦𝑝 = A𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑥
1 2𝑥
𝑑𝐴 −𝑒 𝑥 𝑦𝑝 = -𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 ln(𝑒 −2𝑥 + 1)
2
= 1 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 y= 𝑐1 𝑒 + 𝑐2 𝑒 - 𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 − 𝑒 ln(𝑒 −2𝑥
𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 1)
2
𝑒𝑥
න 𝑑𝐴 = − න 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1+ 𝑒
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
A = -‫ ׬‬2 2 = arctan
𝑎 +𝑢 𝑎 𝑎
u=𝑒 𝑥
du = 𝑒 𝑥 dx
a=1
𝐏𝐑𝐎𝐁𝐋𝐄𝐌 𝐒𝐄𝐓
1.) (𝐷4 + 5𝐷2 + 4)𝑦 = cos 3𝑥 + 4

2.) (𝐷2 + 3𝐷 – 4)y = cos2x
3.) (𝐷3 + 3𝐷2 − 𝐷 − 3)𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥 + 5
4.) (𝐷3 − 2𝐷2 − 5𝐷 + 6)y = 𝑒 −2𝑥

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DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES

2.) Partial Differential Equation

✓ It is first degree in the dependent variable and its

E. General Solutions (GS)

E. Particular Solutions (PS)

𝑦 ′ = 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 2

𝑦 ′′ = 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑦 ′′ = 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 4𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 3

2𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ = −2𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 → Eq. 5

2(2𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = −𝐶2 𝑒 2𝑥 ) → Eq. 4

𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 2𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 2

𝑦 ′′ = 2 + 4𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 9𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 3

2𝑦′ − 𝑦 ′′ = 4𝑥 − 2 − 3𝐶2 𝑒 3𝑥 → Eq. 5

Given: M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0

Then put in the form: A(x)dx + B(y)dy = 0

‫𝑛𝑎𝑡 ׬‬2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = − ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 0

1.) f(x, y) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 → second degree

f(ʎx, ʎy) = 2(ʎ𝑥)2 − 4(ʎx)(ʎy) + (ʎy)2

= ʎ2 (2x 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + y 2 ) → f(x,y)

F(x,y) = x-ytanx Non-Homo

3𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 𝑒 ln(𝑥 ∙ 3+2𝑣) =𝐶

Standard Form: M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0

3 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬+ 𝑦 ‫ 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬+ 𝑥 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 ׬‬0

cos 𝑦 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫ ׬‬co𝑡 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − sin 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ ׬‬0

cos 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − ln sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = 𝐶

cos 𝑦 sin 𝑥 − ln sin 𝑥 = 𝐶

2 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬+ 𝑦 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ‫ ׬‬0

𝑦(sin 𝑥𝑦) 𝑥(sin 𝑥𝑦)

However, the equation can be made exact by obtaining an

(1 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 −2 )dx + (1 − 2𝑦𝑥 −1 )dy = 0

‫ ׬‬1𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬−2 𝑑𝑥 + ‫ ׬‬1 𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑥 −1 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 𝑦׬‬0

3𝑦 2 ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 ‫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ׬‬+ 2𝑥 3 ‫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 ׬‬+ 𝑥 2 ‫ ׬ = 𝑦𝑑 ׬‬0

II. Standard Form:

EXAMPLE #1: 𝑦 ∙ 𝑥 2 = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 ∙ 8𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 −𝑦 sin 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥+(1+cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑦

Case I: y – dependent variable

Case II: x – dependent variable

- The rate of change of population or quantity of a

a.) ln 𝑁] 0.5N0𝑁0 = −𝑘𝑇] 𝑡0

𝐿𝑛 [1.108(85) −1 5 .039 ] −𝐿 𝑛 [1.108(93) −1 5 .039 ]

q = rate of heat transfer

Types of Higher Order LDE with constant coefficient:

a0Dny + a1Dn-1y + … + an-1Dy + any = 0

Homo DE: y(a0Dn + a1Dn-1 + … + an-1D + an = 0

General Forms of Solutions of LDE:

General Forms of Solutions of LDE:

General Forms of Solutions of LDE:

cemx (a0 mn + a1mn-1 + … + an-1m + an) = 0

a0 mn + a1mn-1 + … + an-1m + an = 0 → auxiliary equation (AE)

A.) Homogeneous Higher Order Linear Differential Equation with

Type I Roots of AE are Real and Distinct

Type II Roots of AE are Real and Repeated if root m is

Type III Roots of AE are Imaginary and Distinct

(𝑚2 −4𝑚 + 13)

4± 16− 52 4± 36𝑖 4±6𝑖

Type IV Roots of AE are Imaginary and Repeated

𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝐶3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥

𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 0𝑥 𝐶3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 0𝑥 ( 𝐶5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝐶6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

B.) Non-Homogeneous LDE with Constant Coefficients

B.) Non-Homogeneous Linear DE Constant Coefficients

𝑌𝑃 = particular solution (particular part of the

B.) Non-Homogeneous Linear DE Constant Coefficients

B.) Non-Homogeneous Linear DE Constant Coefficients