ARTICLE IN PRESS

Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980

www.elsevier.com/locate/cropro

Fertilizer, manure and compost effects on weed growth and

competition with winter wheat in western Canada
R.E. Blackshaw, L.J. Molnar, F.J. Larney
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research Centre, P.O. Box 3000, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada T1J 4B1
Received 18 January 2005; received in revised form 28 January 2005; accepted 31 January 2005

Abstract

Management of crop fertilization may be an important component of integrated weed management systems. A field experiment
was conducted to determine the effect of various application timing-tillage intensities and nitrogen (N) sources on weed growth and
winter wheat yield. Timing-tillage treatments consisted of applying the various N sources in fall under zero tillage conditions, in fall
under tilled conditions, or in spring under zero tillage. Nitrogen sources consisted of granular ammonium nitrate fertilizer applied
either surface broadcast or subsurface banded 10 cm deep between every second wheat row, fresh cattle manure, and composted
cattle manure. An unfertilized control also was included. Treatments were applied in four consecutive years to determine annual and
cumulative effects. Subsurface banded N was often better than broadcast N fertilizer in terms of N uptake by wheat versus weeds,
weed biomass production, and winter wheat yield. Weed N uptake and growth with fresh and composted manure tended to be
intermediary between banded and broadcast N fertilizer in the initial year but more closely approximated that which was attained
with broadcast N fertilizer in latter years. The gradual N release from manure and compost with time appeared to benefit weeds
more than winter wheat. The ranking of the weed seedbank at the conclusion of the 4-year experiment was composted
manure ¼ broadcast N fertilizer4fresh manure4banded N fertilizer. Information gained in this study will be utilized to develop
more efficient fertilization strategies as components of improved weed management programs in winter wheat.
Crown Copyright r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fertilizer placement; Weed nitrogen concentration; Weed seedbank; Wheat yield

1. Introduction directly or it may be composted before application to

Fertilizer and herbicides are major input costs in
many cropping systems worldwide (Raun and Johnson,
1999; Derksen et al., 2002). Farmers are cognizant of
these costs and thus are interested in alternative
approaches to supplying crops with nutrients and to
managing weeds. Crop fertility efficiencies can be gained
through appropriate fertilizer timing and application
methods (Raun and Johnson, 1999) but perhaps also
through greater use of livestock manure (Janzen et al.,
1999; Mooleki et al., 2004). Manure may be used
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 403 317 2268;
fax: +1 403 382 3156.
E-mail address: blackshaw@agr.gc.ca (R.E. Blackshaw).
crop land. Composted manure has several advantages
over fresh manure such as reduced numbers of viable
weed seeds, reduced volume and associated cheaper
transportation costs, and smaller particle size that
facilitates more uniform application (Wiese et al.,
1998; Richard and Choi, 1999; Larney and Blackshaw,
2003). Integrated weed management systems have the
potential to reduce herbicide use (and associated costs)
and to provide more robust weed management over the
long term (Swanton and Weise, 1991). Managing for
increased competitive ability of crops with weeds is an
important means of achieving improved weed manage-
ment programs (Liebman et al., 2001).
Manipulation of crop fertilization is a promising
agronomic practice in reducing weed interference in

0261-2194/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2005.01.021
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
972 R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980

crops (DiTomaso, 1995). Nitrogen (N) is the major Table 1

Monthly precipitation received at the study site at Lethbridge, Alberta,
nutrient added to increase crop yield (Raun and
Canada
Johnson, 1999; Camara et al., 2003) but it is not always
recognized that altered soil N levels can affect crop–- Precipitation (mm)
weed competitive interactions. Nitrogen fertilizer, as
Month 1998 1999 2000 2001 30-year mean
well as fresh and composted manure, can affect weed
germination and establishment (Egley and Duke, 1985; January 14 10 8 13 21
Menalled et al., 2002). Many weeds are high N February 0 7 13 13 13
consumers (Qasem, 1992; Hans and Johnson, 2002), March 74 7 17 16 25
April 42 42 22 44 35
thus limiting N for crop growth. Weeds not only reduce
May 54 58 25 10 48
the amount of N available to crops but the growth of June 148 65 31 43 65
many weed species also is enhanced by higher soil N July 57 64 36 10 40
levels (Supasilapa et al., 1992; Blackshaw et al., 2003). August 36 39 36 0 45
Research has shown that crop–weed competitive September 14 11 30 7 43
October 9 23 25 8 16
interactions can be altered by N dose (Cathcart and
November 15 12 16 10 16
Swanton, 2003), source (Davis and Liebman, 2001), December 20 4 13 2 20
application timing (Angonin et al., 1996), and applica-
Total 482 342 272 176 387
tion method (Kirkland and Beckie, 1998; Mesbah and
Miller, 1999). However, other studies found that N dose
(Satorre and Snaydon, 1992; Gonzalez Ponce, 1998) or
application method (Cochran et al., 1990) had little Available soil N to a depth of 60 cm at the initiation of
effect on crop–weed competition. Additionally, results the experiment was 21 kg ha1. Annual precipitation at
may be crop- and weed specific. Stellaria media the site ranged from 176 to 482 mm over the duration of
(common chickweed) interference with potato (Solanum the study (Table 1). Precipitation received was near or
tuberosum) was reduced with higher N levels but the above the long-term mean (387 mm) in 1998 and 1999
opposite result occurred when it was competing with but well below average in 2000 and 2001.
wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Van Delden et al., 2002). A set of factorial treatments was applied in four
Jornsgard et al. (1996) reported that weed biomass in consecutive years to winter wheat. Treatments consisted
barley (Hordeum vulgare) and winter wheat could be of (a) application timing-tillage intensity, (b) N source,
increased, unchanged, or reduced with increased soil N, and (c) weed species. Timing-tillage treatments consisted
depending on the weed and crop. of applying the various N sources in fall under zero
Greater knowledge of inorganic and organic N effects tillage conditions, in fall under tilled conditions (two
on weeds and crops grown in competitive mixtures may passes with a V-blade cultivator), or in spring under zero
allow for a better understanding of why differences tillage. Nitrogen sources consisted of granular ammo-
occurred among previous studies and would aid devel- nium nitrate fertilizer applied either surface broadcast or
opment of fertilization strategies as components of more banded 10 cm deep between every second wheat row,
comprehensive integrated weed management programs. fresh beef cattle (Bos taurus) manure, and composted
A field experiment was initiated to determine the beef cattle manure. A dose of 50 kg ha1 of N fertilizer
response of selected weed species and winter wheat to was chosen as being representative for winter wheat
N fertilizer, fresh cattle manure, and composted cattle production in this semi-arid region. Manure and com-
manure applied at planting in the fall or in-crop the post were applied at commonly recommended rates of
following spring. Treatments were applied in four 30 tonne ha1 on a wet weight basis each year. Com-
consecutive years to assess both annual and cumulative posted manure was prepared by placing fresh manure in
effects over time. windrows that were approximately 15 m long, 4 m wide,
and 2 m high, and turning windrows seven times over 3
months with a tractor-pulled windrow turner (Fuel
2. Materials and methods Harvesters Equipment, Midland, TX, USA) followed by
curing for an additional 3 months. Selected character-
A field experiment was carried out from 1998 through istics of manure and compost applied in each year are
2001 at Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada. The soil was a given in Table 2. Available N in the year of application
Typic Haplustoll with a sandy clay loam texture, pH 7.8 as a percent of total N was expected to be approximately
and 3.4% organic matter. The experiment was estab- 20% for fresh manure and 5% for composted manure
lished on land that had been in spring wheat production (Larney et al., 2002). Thus, available N in the
in 1995 and 1996, and was fallowed in 1997. The plot application year ranged from 26 to 67 and 12 to
site had very low weed populations due to excellent 18 kg ha1 for fresh manure and composted manure,
weed control attained during these preceding years. respectively. An unfertilized control also was included.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980 973

Table 2 moxynil/MCPA at 560 g ai ha1 in the B. tectorum plots,

Characteristics of beef cattle feedlot manure and composted feedlot grass weeds were controlled with tralkoxydim at
manure applied during the 4-year experimenta,b
200 g ai ha1 plus Turbocharge adjuvant at 0.5% v/v in
Application timing and sourceAmount (tonne ha1)Total (kg ha1) the broadleaved plots, and these herbicides were
combined to control weeds in the weed-free plots.
Wet Dry C N C/N
Herbicides were applied in early May with a small plot
1997-fall sprayer delivering 100 L ha1 at 205 kPa. Additionally,
Fresh manure 30 9 2830 182 16 undesired weeds were removed by hand every 2 weeks
Composted manure 30 14 2530 229 11 during the growing season.
1998-fall Wheat and weed counts were made in two 0.5 m2
Fresh manure 30 15 6020 324 16 quadrats in May in all plots. At wheat anthesis, shoots
Composted manure 30 19 3330 354 10 of six representative plants of each weed species plus
1999-spring wheat were harvested for determination of N concentra-
Fresh manure 30 19 5400 327 12 tion. Plant samples were oven-dried at 70 1C, finely
Composted manure 30 20 3030 321 12 ground, and analyzed for N concentration using an
1999-fall automated combustion analyzer (CE Instruments, Mi-
Fresh manure 30 13 3930 333 18 lan, Italy) coupled with a mass spectrometer (Micro-
Composted manure 30 15 4560 368 14 mass, Manchester, UK). At maturity, weed shoot
2000-spring biomass was determined by cutting plants at ground
Fresh manure 30 7 2740 149 15 level in 1 m2 and oven-drying at 35 1C for 2 weeks. Any
Composted manure 30 19 4100 276 10 weed seed from these biomass samples was returned to
2000-fall their respective 1 m2 areas in each plot before snow
Fresh manure 30 13 4130 268 15 accumulation each fall. Wheat grain yield was deter-
Composted manure 30 16 2460 240 11 mined by hand-harvesting 2 m2 in each plot. Grain
2001-spring protein content was determined using a near-infrared
Fresh manure 30 7 2890 128 22 transmission spectrophotometer (Foss Electric Multi-
Composted manure 30 17 3890 313 12 spec Division, Brampton, ON, Canada).
a
pH of fresh manure and composted manure ranged from 7.2 to 8.5
Weed seed in the soil seedbank was determined at the
and 6.9 to 7.7, respectively. Electrical conductivity of fresh manure and conclusion of this 4-year experiment. Seven soil cores
composted manure ranged from 9.2 to 19.1 and 9.9 to 14.4 dS m1, (8 cm diam  10 cm deep) were randomly collected from
respectively (1:4 manure/compost:water ratio). each plot, bulked, air-dried, placed in polyethylene bags
b
Available N in the year of application as a percent of total N was and stored for 3 months at 1 1C. Seed determinations
expected to be approximately 20% for fresh manure and 5% for
composted manure (Larney et al., 2002).
were conducted using the greenhouse emergence method
(Cardina and Sparrow, 1996; Blackshaw et al., 2000).
Soil was spread onto plastic trays, placed in a green-
house with a day/night temperature of 24/17 1C, and
Weed treatments consisted of Bromus tectorum (downy watered as necessary to keep moist. Weed emergence
brome), a combination of Thlaspi arvense (field penny- counts were made twice weekly for 1 month. Soil was
cress) and Descurainia sophia (flixweed), and a weed-free then air-dried, re-mixed, placed in polyethylene bags,
control. Treatments were organized in a split-split-plot and stored at 1 1C for a minimum of 1 month before
design with four replications. Main plots were applica- conducting the second cycle of emergence counts. The
tion timing-tillage intensity, sub-plots were N source, cycle of cool storage/emergence counts was conducted
and sub-sub-plots were weed species. Sub-sub-plot size three times and emergence values were combined.
was 2 m wide  5 m long. Data collected over the 4 years were statistically
Weed seed was broadcast by hand on the soil surface analyzed as a split-split-split-plot design (Steel and
of respective plots at the initiation of the experiment Torrie, 1980) with N application timing-tillage intensity
immediately prior to planting winter wheat. In each as the main plot, N source as the split-plot, weed species
year, glyphosate was applied at 450 g ae ha1 1 week as the split-split-plot, and year as the split-split-split-plot
before seeding wheat to kill any existing vegetation. factor. All interactions among these four factors also
Winter wheat cv.‘Readymade’ at 90 kg ha1 plus were included in the model. Analyses were performed
11 kg ha1 phosphorus was placed 4 cm deep in 23 cm using the MIXED procedure in SAS (1999) and year
rows in mid-September with a double-disc zero-till drill was treated as a repeated measure. The UNIVARIATE
capable of simultaneously mid-row banding N fertilizer. procedure within SAS was used to examine the residuals
Wheat seed was always treated with carbathiin/lindane for normality and to check for outliers in the data.
at 30 g ai kg1 seed for protection against diseases and Any outliers in the data were deleted and the remaining
insects. Broadleaved weeds were controlled with bro- data re-analyzed. A number of variance–covariance
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
974 R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980

structures were modelled for each variable in order to

account for differences in variance and possible correla-
tions among years and the best model was selected on
the basis of the smallest Akaike’s Information Criterion
(AIC) value (SAS, 1999). Weed seedbank data collected
at the end of the study were highly variable and thus
were log-transformed in order to stabilize the variance
among treatments before conducting the split-split-plot
analysis. Least-squares means were generated for
significant effects and treatment means were compared
using Fisher’s Protected LSD test at the 5% level (Steel
and Torrie, 1980).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Weed nitrogen concentration

Weed shoot N concentration was not affected by N

application timing-tillage intensity (P40:05) but was
affected by N source in all years (Po0:05). The
unfertilized control was always among treatments
resulting in the lowest N concentration in all weeds
(Fig. 1), indicating that N uptake by weeds increased
with added N. T. arvense and D. sophia shoot N
concentrations were greater than those of B. tectorum
(Po0:05), indicating that broadleaved, as well as grass
weeds, potentially are serious competitors with crops for
soil N.
Surface broadcast N fertilizer was among treatments
with the highest B. tectorum shoot N concentration
throughout the 4-year study (Fig. 1). In contrast,
banded N fertilizer was among N treatments with the
Fig. 1. Weed shoot nitrogen concentration response to nitrogen source
lowest B. tectorum N concentration in all years. Kirk-
in four consecutive years. D. sophia data were not collected in 1998 due
land and Beckie (1998) reported that N uptake in Avena to insufficient plants being present in the plots. Bars on the graph
fatua (wild oat) competing with spring wheat was within a weed species and year with the same letter are not significantly
reduced in 3 of 6 site-years with banded compared with different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test at the 5% level of
broadcast N fertilizer. probability.
B. tectorum shoot N concentration with fresh cattle
manure was lower than with broadcast N fertilizer in 3 greater with broadcast N fertilizer than with either
of 4 years, and was at similar levels to that of banded N banded N fertilizer or manure in all years. Composted
fertilizer in 2 of 4 years (Fig. 1). Eghball and Power manure was among treatments with the lowest T.
(1999) found that plant available N is often lower with arvense N concentration in the initial year (1998) but
manure than with inorganic fertilizer in the year of gave the highest N levels of all treatments in the latter 3
application. In contrast to fresh manure, composted years. Composted manure gave similar, but not higher,
manure resulted in similarly high B. tectorum N levels to T. arvense N levels to those attained with broadcast N
those attained with broadcast N fertilizer in the latter 3 fertilizer in the latter 2 years.
years. Nitrogen release is slower from composted
manure than from fresh manure, resulting in lower 3.2. Winter wheat nitrogen concentration
plant available N in the application year but greater
available N in succeeding years (Eghball and Power, Winter wheat shoot N concentration was affected by
1999; Eghball et al., 2004). the interaction of N source by weed treatment in all
T. arvense shoot N concentration was greater with years (Po0:05). However, further examination of the
broadcast N than with banded N fertilizer in 3 of 4 data revealed that there were no differences among weed
years, and was also greater than with manure in 2 of 4 species in their effect on wheat shoot N concentration;
years (Fig. 1). D. sophia shoot N concentration was differences only occurred between the weed-free control
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R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980 975

with compost in the year of application (Eghball and

Power, 1999; Rodd et al., 2002), likely due to faster
decomposition rates of manure. Weed-free wheat N
concentrations were higher with composted manure
than all other N sources in the latter 2 years. This result
reflects cumulative N availability with annual compost
applications as N release from compost occurs over
several years (Eghball and Power, 1999). Indeed, soil
tests indicated that available soil N was 19–24 kg ha1
greater with composted manure than with all other N
treatments in the latter 2 years (data not shown).

3.3. Weed density and biomass

Weed densities were not affected by N application

timing-tillage intensity in any year (P40:05) but were
affected by N source (Po0:05). Densities of each weed
species were similar with all N sources in the establish-
ment year (1998) but differences often occurred in
subsequent years with these N treatments being applied
in consecutive years (Table 3).
Fig. 2. Winter wheat shoot nitrogen concentration response to Densities of all three weed species were consistently
nitrogen source in four consecutive years when grown weed-free or lower with banded than with broadcast N fertilizer in
weed-infested. Bars on the graph within a weed treatment and year the latter 3 years (Table 3). Manure often resulted in
with the same letter are not significantly different according to Fisher’s
Protected LSD test at the 5% level of probability.
weed densities similar to those with banded N fertilizer.
In contrast, composted manure was often among
treatments with the highest weed densities, sometimes
and the weed-infested treatments. Thus, the effects of N having higher weed densities than with broadcast N
source on wheat shoot N concentration data are fertilizer. It should be noted that this result was not due
presented when grown weed-free or with all weeds
combined. Table 3
The four N sources increased winter wheat shoot N Weed density response to nitrogen source in four consecutive years
concentration above that of the unfertilized control in
Nitrogen source Plants m2 a
all years when grown weed-free but a similar result
occurred only in 1 of 4 years when weed-infested (Fig. 1998 1999 2000 2001
2), indicating that weeds were effective competitors with
wheat for soil N. Mason (1987) reported that wheat N Bromus tectorum
Unfertilized control 9a 216b 648c 179b
uptake was often reduced by competing weeds. Broadcast fertilizer 11a 273a 889b 291a
Wheat shoot N concentration was greater with Banded fertilizer 17a 211b 690c 182b
banded N than with broadcast N fertilizer in 2 of 4 Manure 10a 209b 823b 201b
years under weed-free conditions and in all 4 years when Compost 8a 296a 1229a 286a
competing with weeds (Fig. 2). Rao and Dao (1996) Thlaspi arvense
previously reported higher winter wheat leaf N content Unfertilized control 17a 76bc 75c 54c
with banded than with broadcast N fertilizer. It is Broadcast fertilizer 26a 189a 222a 200a
noteworthy that broadcast N fertilizer did not increase Banded fertilizer 17a 83b 141b 144b
Manure 23a 03b 180ab 103b
weed-infested wheat N concentration above that of the Compost 19a 224a 197a 105b
unfertilized control in 3 of 4 years.
Manure increased weed-free wheat shoot N levels but Descurainia sophia
Unfertilized control 1a 40c 245c 74c
rarely did so in the presence of competing weeds (Fig. 2). Broadcast fertilizer 3a 64b 368b 191a
Wheat N concentration was similar with fresh and Banded fertilizer 1a 26c 175d 56c
composted manure in the initial year (1998) but was Manure 1a 37c 129d 42c
often higher with composted than with fresh manure, Compost 2a 81a 449a 146b
under both weed-free and weed-infested conditions, in a
Means within a weed species and year followed by the same letter
subsequent years. Previous studies have documented are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test
higher wheat shoot N concentrations with manure than a the 5% level of probability.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
976 R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980

Table 4 Table 5
Weed shoot biomass response to nitrogen source Weed shoot biomass response to the interactive effects of application
timing and nitrogen source
Nitrogen source Weed biomass (g m2)a,b
Nitrogen source Bromus tectorum (g m2)a Thlaspi arvense (g m2)
1999 2000 2001
1998 1998 1999
Bromus tectorum
Unfertilized control 114c 88c 29c Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring
Broadcast fertilizer 270b 136a 66a
Banded fertilizer 193bc 102bc 43bc Unfertilized control13c 16a 12c 14a 39c 30b
Manure 240b 129ab 48ab Broadcast fertilizer 38a 26a 46a 20a 96a 39b
Compost 442a 157a 54ab Banded fertilizer 16bc 20a 27b 13a 49bc 30b
Manure 27ab 25a 30b 18a 62b 35b
Thlaspi arvense Compost 19bc 18a 24b 16a 113a 73a
Unfertilized control — 1b 1b
Broadcast fertilizer — 6a 11a a
Means within a weed species, year, and application timing followed
Banded fertilizer — 3b 2b by the same letter are not significantly different according to Fisher’s
Manure — 2b 4b Protected LSD test at the 5% level of probability.
Compost — 2b 8a
Descurainia sophia
Unfertilized control 76b 29c 42c
Broadcast fertilizer 122a 113a 85b Table 6
Banded fertilizer 84b 70b 24c Effect of nitrogen application timing-tillage intensity in four con-
Manure 88b 14c 35c secutive years on the weed seedbank at the conclusion of the 4-year
Compost 133a 118a 115a experiment

a
Means within a weed species and year followed by the same letter Seeds m2 a
are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test
at the 5% level of probability. Bromus Thlaspi Descurainia
b
Application timing and nitrogen source interacted to affect Bromus tectorum arvense sophia
tectorum biomass in 1998 and Thlaspi arvense biomass in 1998 and
Fall-zero tillage 21290 a 2730 a 18480 c
1999 (see Table 5). Descurainia sophia biomass was not collected in
Fall-tilled 14620 b 2970 a 30230 a
1998 as few weeds were present.
Spring-zero tillage 21800 a 3350 a 24050 b

to the addition of viable weed seeds in this treatment as a

compost subsamples grown out each year in the
greenhouse indicated few, if any, viable weed seeds in
our source of compost manure.
Nitrogen source affected weed biomass in all years
(Po0:05). The unfertilized control was among treat-
ments with the lowest weed biomass (Table 4), indicat-
ing that weed growth responded positively to higher soil
N levels. Similar to weed density results, weed biomass
was often less with banded N than with broadcast N
fertilizer. Rasmussen (1995) similarly reported that B.
tectorum biomass was lower with banded than with
surface broadcast N fertilizer. Contrary to our findings,
Cochran et al. (1990) found that B. tectorum biomass
was usually similar with banded and broadcast N
fertilizer.
Biomass of T. arvense and D. sophia, but not B.
tectorum, was often lower with manure than with
broadcast N fertilizer (Table 4). In contrast, composted
manure often gave similar or higher weed biomass
values to those attained with broadcast N fertilizer.
Eghball and Power (1999) found that weed biomass in
maize (Zea mays) was usually similar with broadcast
fertilizer, manure, and composted manure.
Nitrogen application timing and source sometimes
interacted (Po0:05) to affect weed biomass (Table 5). B.
tectorum biomass in 1998, and T. arvense biomass in
Means within a weed species followed by the same letter are not
significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test at the
5% level of probability.
1998 and 1999, was more affected by N source when
applied in fall than in spring. This suggests that choice
of N source may be more important when applied at the
time of seeding winter wheat than when applied in-crop
the following spring.
3.4. Weed seedbank
The weed seedbank was estimated at the conclusion of
the 4-year experiment as a measure of the cumulative
treatment effects on weed growth and competitive
ability with winter wheat. Nitrogen application timing-
tillage intensity affected the seedbank of two of three
weed species (Table 6). The seedbank of B. tectorum was
lowest with the fall-tilled treatment. Tillage is known to
stimulate germination of some weed species (Anderson,
1998) and this may have contributed to greater B.
tectorum seed loss over time in our experiment. In
contrast, the seedbank of D. sophia was greatest for fall-
tilled. This weed has a high level of seed dormancy (Best,
1977), thus the germination promotion effects of tillage
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980
Fig. 3. Effect of nitrogen source over four consecutive years on the
weed seedbank at the conclusion of the 4-year experiment. Bars on the
graph with the same letter are not significantly different according to
Fisher’s Protected LSD test at the 5% level of probability.
may be less effective with D. sophia compared with
B. tectorum. Indeed, D. sophia seed on the soil surface in
zero tillage systems may be more vulnerable to preda-
tion by rodents, soil fauna, and pathogens (Brust and
House, 1988; Egley and Williams, 1990).
Nitrogen source affected the weed seedbank (Po0:05)
but there were no differences among weed species, and
thus results are presented for all weed species combined
(Fig. 3).
The unfertilized control had the lowest seedbank,
again indicating that these weeds responded positively to
higher soil N levels. Comparison of the various N
sources indicated that the ranking of seedbank was
composted manure ¼ broadcast N fertilizer4fresh
manure4banded N fertilizer.
3.5. Winter wheat density, yield and protein content
Winter wheat density was not affected (P40:05) by
any of the treatments in any year. Mean wheat density
was 91, 106, 88, and 95 plants m2 in 1998, 1999, 2000,
and 2001, respectively (data not shown).
Nitrogen application timing-tillage intensity and weed
species interacted (Po0:05) to affect winter wheat yield
in some years (Table 7). Winter wheat competing with
B. tectorum had the highest yield in the fall-tilled
treatment in 1999. Tillage may have provided some
control of B. tectorum seedlings that emerged after
applying glyphosate before planting, thus reducing the
competitive effects on wheat. Wheat competing with B.
tectorum in 1999 and 2001, or a combination of the
broadleaved weeds in 2001, had the lowest yield in the
spring-zero tillage treatment. Ball et al. (1996) similarly
reported that spring-applied N compared with fall-
applied N was much less effective in increasing yield of
winter wheat infested with B. tectorum. Nitrogen
application in the spring when these winter annual
weeds were well established may have benefited weed
977
Table 7
Effect of nitrogen application timing-tillage intensity on winter wheat
yield when competing with weeds
Wheat yield (kg ha1)a
With Bromus With Thlaspi arvense
tectorum and Descurainia sophia
1999 2001 2001
Fall-zero tillage 1150 b 1290 a 1390 a
Fall-tilled 1710 a 1450 a 1360 a
Spring-zero tillage 820 c 900 b 1130 b
a
Means within a weed species and year followed by the same letter
are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test
at the 5% level of probability.
growth more than crop growth, thus resulting in greater
reductions in winter wheat yield.
Winter wheat yield was affected by the interaction of
N source by weed treatment in all years (Po0:05).
Weed-free winter wheat yield was greater with all N
sources compared with the unfertilized control through-
out the 4-year study (Fig. 4). This was an expected
finding as wheat is known to respond positively to
higher soil N levels (Raun and Johnson, 1999; Kar-
amanos et al., 2003). Comparison of N sources indicated
that manure was the least effective treatment in 2000
while banded N fertilizer was the most effective
treatment in 1998. Reider et al. (2000) documented that
maize yields were usually similar with composted and
fresh manure but Locke et al. (2004) found that maize
yields were sometimes greater with composted manure.
Previous studies have reported higher winter wheat
yields with banded than with broadcast N, especially
when grown under zero-tillage conditions (Cochran et
al., 1990; Rao and Dao, 1996). However, similar to our
findings in 3 of 4 years, Fowler and Brydon (1989)
reported similar winter wheat yields with banded and
broadcast ammonium nitrate fertilizer.
Nitrogen source often had a greater effect on yield
when winter wheat was grown in the presence of
competing weed species than when grown weed free
(Fig. 4). Broadcast N fertilizer, fresh manure, and
composted manure did not increase the yield of wheat
infested with B. tectorum above that of the unfertilized
control in 2 of 4 years. In contrast, wheat competing
with B. tectorum had higher yields with banded N
fertilizer compared with the unfertilized control in all
years. Additionally, winter wheat yield was greater with
banded N fertilizer than with the three other N sources
in 2 of 4 years. Mesbah and Miller (1999) similarly
documented that winter wheat yield when competing
with the winter annual grass weed Aegilops cylindrica
(jointed goatgrass) was consistently greater with banded
than with broadcast N fertilizer. Additionally, in that 3-
year study, broadcast N never improved weed-infested
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978 R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980
Fig. 4. Winter wheat yield response to nitrogen source in four
consecutive years when grown weed-free or when competing with
various weed species. Bars on the graph within a weed treatment and
year with the same letter are not significantly different according to
Fisher’s Protected LSD test at the 5% level of probability.
winter wheat yield above that of the unfertilized control,
indicating that it was a poor method of applying N.
Unlike the findings with B. tectorum, wheat compet-
ing with the combination of broadleaved weeds had
higher yields with broadcast N fertilizer compared with
the unfertilized control in all years (Fig. 4). However,
higher wheat yields still occurred with banded N than
with broadcast N fertilizer in 3 of 4 years. Manure and
composted manure often had similar wheat yields to
those of surface broadcast N fertilizer in the presence of
T. arvense and D. sophia.
Winter wheat grain protein was affected (Po0:05) by
N source but not by weed treatment (P40:05). Wheat
protein was increased above that of the unfertilized
control by manure in 1 of 4 years, broadcast N fertilizer
in 2 of 4 years, and banded N fertilizer or composted
manure in 3 of 4 years (Fig. 5). Rao and Dao (1996)
reported that wheat grain N often was greater with
banded than with broadcast N but this occurred only in
1 of 4 years in our study. Karamanos et al. (2003)
similarly found that winter wheat grain protein was
Fig. 5. Winter wheat grain protein response to nitrogen source in four
consecutive years. Bars on the graph within a year with the same letter
are not significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD test
at the 5% level of probability.
similar with banded and broadcast N fertilizer. It is
noteworthy that composted manure gave the highest
grain protein in 2 of 4 years, likely due to cumulative N
release over years and gradual N release throughout the
growing season (DeLuca and DeLuca, 1997; Eghball et
al., 2004).
Nitrogen source interacted with application timing to
affect wheat grain protein in 2001 (Po0:05); grain
protein was greater with fall- than spring-applied
compost (14.6% vs. 13.5%). This application timing
effect may have been due to slower N release from
spring-applied compost because of the drought condi-
tions in 2001 (Table 1).
4. Conclusion
Farmers growing winter wheat in western Canada
historically have surface broadcast most of the N
fertilizer in spring. Our results indicate that good crop
yields can be attained by applying all of the N fertilizer
as ammonium nitrate at planting in the fall. Indeed, in
the presence of competitive weeds, winter wheat yields
were sometimes greater with fall- than with spring-
applied fertilizer.
Fresh and composted cattle manure exhibited good
potential as N sources for winter wheat production.
Weed-free winter wheat yield and grain protein content
was often similar with N fertilizer, manure, and
composted manure. Additional benefits include im-
proved soil quality over the long term (DeLuca and
DeLuca, 1997; Eghball et al., 2004).
Our study supports previous findings indicating that
many agricultural weeds are equally or more responsive
than crops to higher soil N levels (Lintell-Smith et al.,
1992; Supasilapa et al., 1992; Blackshaw et al., 2003).
Thus, indiscriminate N additions have the potential to
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R.E. Blackshaw et al. / Crop Protection 24 (2005) 971–980
benefit weeds at the expense of crops. However, the
highly responsive nature of some weed species to higher
N levels may be a weakness to be exploited. Species with
the highest relative growth rate under optimal nutrient
conditions often have the largest reductions in growth
rate under deficient nutrient conditions (Shipley and
Keddy, 1988; Harbur and Owen, 2004).
Banded N was often better than broadcast N fertilizer
in terms of N uptake by wheat versus weeds, weed
biomass production, and winter wheat yield. Weeds
often germinate at or near the soil surface, especially in
zero tillage systems (Hoffman et al., 1998), and it is in
this situation that the greatest benefits may be realized
by physically placing N in an area of the soil profile
where crop seed, but not weed seed, is germinating.
N uptake and growth of weeds with fresh and
composted manure tended to be intermediary between
broadcast and banded N fertilizer. In the first study
year, weed shoot N concentration and biomass often
was lower with fresh or composted manure than
with broadcast N fertilizer. However, with repeated
annual applications, weed shoot N concentration,
density, and biomass with the manure treatments
tended to be similar to those of broadcast N fertilizer.
This was especially evident with composted manure;
weeds sometimes benefited more from composted
manure than from broadcast N fertilizer in the latter
years. This was likely due to gradual N release from
compost over years (Eghball et al., 2004). Weed-infested
winter wheat yield with fresh and composted manure
was usually similar to that with broadcast N fertilizer
and was often lower than that attained with banded N
fertilizer. The weed seedbank at the conclusion of
this 4-year experiment was greatest with composted
manure and broadcast N fertilizer, indicating that they
were the least desirable N treatments in terms of weed
management.
Our study indicates that fresh and composted manure
have the potential to increase winter wheat yield but also
the level of weed competition. Menalled et al. (2004)
similarly documented that composted swine manure
increased the competitive ability of Amaranthus rudis
(common waterhemp) without increasing soybean (Gly-
cine max) yield. Realization of maximum manure
benefits to crops may involve alternative application
methods. Petersen (2003) reported that weed N uptake
and weed biomass was 50% lower with subsurface
banded compared with surface broadcast liquid swine
manure. Additionally, weed management programs that
emphasize competitive crops and timely herbicide use
would help achieve the many advantages of manure
application to crop production.
Manipulation of crop fertilization should be consid-
ered an important component of long-term weed
management and sustainable crop production systems.
Information gained in the current study will be used to
979
develop more integrated programs for weed manage-
ment in winter wheat production systems.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank A.F. Olson for laboratory manure
analyses, T. Entz for statistical analyses, and E. Cadieu
for preparing the figures. This research was partially
funded by the Matching Investment Initiative of
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. This is LRC
contribution no. 38704057.
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