A PHOTOGRAPHIC GLOSSARY

A DICTIONARY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
AND DIGITAL IMAGING TERMINOLOGY
© INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE OF MEDIA STUDIES
WWW.ICMSTUDIES.COM

7KLVERRNRISKRWRJUDSKLF
WHUPLQRORJ\LVEURXJKWWR\RX
E\7KH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&ROOHJH
RI0HGLD6WXGLHV
,&06FDQWHDFK\RX
SKRWRJUDSK\LQDQH[FLWLQJ
RQHRQRQHLQWHUDFWLRQZLWK
OHDGLQJSURIHVVLRQDO
SKRWRJUDSKHUV
7RILQGRXWPRUHDERXWRXU
FRXUVHVFOLFNKHUHRUYLVLWRXU
ZHEVLWHZZZLFPVWXGLHVFRP
7KHWH[WDQGSKRWRJUDSKVLQ
WKLVHERRNDUHSURWHFWHGE\
LQWHUQDWLRQDOFRS\ULJKWODZ
+RZHYHUDVORQJDVWKLVH
ERRNLVXQDOWHUHGZH
HQFRXUDJH\RXWRGLVWULEXWHLW
IUHHO\
Œ,&06
Subscribe and win!
,&06SXEOLVKHVDUHJXODU
SKRWRJUDSK\QHZVOHWWHU
FDOOHG3KRWRJUDSKHUV
2QOLQH
3DFNHGZLWKWLSVKLQWVDQG
DGYLFHWKLVQHZVOHWWHU ZLOO
EULQJ\RXWKHODWHVWPRVW
XSWRGDWHLQIRUPDWLRQRI
ZKDWLVKDSSHQLQJLQWKH
ZRUOGRISKRWRJUDSK\ 
In subscribing to our
newsletter your name is
automatically entered into Free Photo Tips e-Books
draw which could win you Fully illustrated, Top Photo
a free photography course
Tips Volume I and Volume
from the International
II are now available for you
College of Media Studies.
to download from the
To subscribe just send a International College of
blank e-mail to: Media Studies website at
subscribe@icmstudies.com www.icmstudies.com

Glossary
aberration An optical defect in a lens
which causes unsharp or distorted
images. While a lens with an
aberration may still make sharp
images, the defect might be in the
way it renders colour due to what is
called chromatic distortion.
abrasion marks on lens coatings These
can be caused by the careless
polishing of the front or back
elements of a lens
abrasion marks on negatives or
transparencies These can be caused
by poor storage, grit in the camera
or a damaged camera pressure plate.
They are difficult to remove but can
sometimes be reduced in printing by
using a diffusion enlarger, by using
“nose grease” or by digitally
retouching the image in a computer
and making the print on an inkjet
printer.
acutance a measure of image sharpness
agitation The movement of a solution
in developing to ensure that fresh
chemistry remains in touch with the
emulsion of a film. Regular, but not
too violent agitation ensures even
development.
angle of view Simply put, this is the
angle which a lens on a camera
“sees”. The angle of view of a
50mm lens on a 35mm camera is
approximately 45 degrees and as
this is considered to be close to the
angle of view over which the human
eye sees a sharply defined image,
this lens is referred to as a “normal”
lens. Actually the human eye’s
peripheral vision can take in a much
greater angle than this. However,
the greater the film size, the greater
the angle of view. So for instance on
a 6x7cm film a 50mm lens is
actually a wide-angle lens.
anamorphic scaling disproportionate
scaling of a digital image which is
caused by uneven enlargement of
one or other axis of a picture in
relation to another. The result is
distortion of the image.
anti-aliasing smoothes out the jagged
lines which can sometimes occur in
a digital image by surrounding the
jaggies with shaded pixels. See
jaggies
anti-halation backing This is the
coating on film which on exposure
prevents light from passing through
the emulsion in the camera. Without
it light would be reflected back onto
the film after passing through it, by
the pressure plate, and cause
fogging or halation and a resulting
lack of contrast and unsharpness.
The anti-halation backing dissolves
from the film during developing.
aperture The opening in the lens which
is used to regulate the amount of
light which reaches the film. The
amount of light reaching the film is
controlled by the iris. The actual
aperture is expressed as an f
number. The smaller the number,
the larger the aperture. This number
is arrived at by dividing the
diameter of the aperture into the
focal length of the lens. Therefore
an aperture of F2 on a 50mm lens
has a diameter of 25mm. You do not
have to know this but it helps if you
understand the relationship of
aperture to light transmission. Each
larger aperture number represents a
halving of the amount of light to the
proceeding number. That is f11 lets
in half the light of F8, F16 lets in
half the light of F11 and so on.
aperture priority is where the automatic
function of a modern 35mm camera
is set so that when you set the
camera by taking control of the
aperture, the camera automatically
sets the shutter speed.
Archival scan a unmanipulated high
resolution scan usually in TIFF
format used as the basis for storing
an image for later processing.

 Glossary
artifact any non-image related inclusion
in a digital picture file such as dust,
scratches or digital noise
artificial light This is the term used to
describe any light other than light
from the sun. Artificial light also
includes flash lighting but because
this is daylight balanced this
presents no problems in the
rendition of colour. Other types of
artificial light such as tungsten
lighting, fluorescent light, quartz
halogen lighting present special
situations that either require special
films or filtration in order to render
an accurate colour rendition.
Formerly called “ASA”, the
ASA The now superseded measure of
sensitivity rating of a film is sensitivity of a film. ASA stands for
now described as ISO. American Standards Association but
has been replaced by the
Internationals Standards
Organisation (ISO) rating. To all
intents and purpose both are the
same.
automatic exposure The exposure
system in cameras where the camera
is designed to automatically set the
appropriate aperture or shutter speed
to provide correct exposure of the
film.
automatic focussing A system using
internal servo-motors whereby a
lens automatically focuses itself to
the correct distance required for a
picture.
autowinder The detachable or inbuilt
motor which winds and rewinds the
film in most modern cameras. As
opposed to a motor-drive which can
make multiple exposures when the
shutter is released an autowind
usually only makes a single
exposure with each pressure of the
shutter.
B setting Standing for “Bulb”, the B
setting enables a photographer to
hold the shutter open for as long as
he or she holds down the shutter
button or cable release.
back focus Actual distance between the
rear lens element and the film when
the lens is focused at infinity.
back lighting Light coming from
behind the main subject to produce a
light fringe or halo effect.
Additional exposure is usually
required for such a scene, and some
automatic cameras have a
"backlight" button to include this
compensation automatically.
back projection Projection of a picture
onto a translucent screen behind the
main subject to give the illusion of a
location shot in the studio.
bag bellows Soft flexible sleeve used
on large-format cameras in place of
standard bellows when using wide
angle lenses.
bare bulb The use of a flash tube
without a reflector so that the light is
dispersed in all directions.
barn doors Hinged panels on either side
of a light to control the direction of
the light
barrel distortion A common lens
aberration causing the corners of the
picture to appear to bend inwards.
batch numbers The manufacturers
number used to identify a single
batch of film made from the same
emulsion.
batch scanning The ability of a scanner
to scan a number of images at one
time. Most scanners will handle
between four to six pictures at a
time, but some makes have
attachments that will allow
automatic scanning of up to 50
pictures
bayonet mount The type of lens mount
most commonly in use today in
which an interchangeable lens is
inserted into a camera body and then
locked into place with a partial turn.

 Glossary
bellows Collapsible light-tight sleeve
fitted between the lens and the film
holder. Used with nearly all large-
format and some medium format
cameras, the use of bellows with
35mm cameras is normally to permit
extremely close focusing with
standard lenses.
between the lens shutter Shutter
normally consisting of a number of
blades or leaves, placed within the
elements of a lens
35mm film cassette
blur Blur can be as much an asset as a
fault. Blur in a photograph can be
caused by using too low a shutter
speed so that you get camera or
subject movement. However, the
creative photographer can often
make use of this to show movement
or speed.
bounced flash If using portable flash
always avoid direct flash if you can.
It is much better to bounce the light
from a light ceiling or other surface
so that you get a soft, even diffused
light that approximates “natural”
lighting. With colour though, you
must avoid coloured ceilings as the
film will end up with a colour cast,
from the reflected light. Good flash
bounce in a white or light coloured
room can be achieved by bouncing
the light over your shoulder and
back into the ceiling corner.
bracketing When you are doubtful
about exposure it pays to bracket
your shots. That is to make
exposures either side of the
indicated exposure, usually in half
stop increments. That way you will
ensure that you have a transparency
of optimum density.
bromide paper A term used to describe
photo-sensitive paper such as
standard black and white printing
papers which rely on silver-bromide
for their light sensitivity.
bulk loader A light-tight device into
which a 30 metre bulk roll of film
can be loaded, for the daylight
spooling of individual cassettes. If
you are careful, bulk-loading of film
can be a good way to cut costs. The
average 36 exposure length of film
is about 1.8 metres so you could
expect to get around 16 rolls from a
30 metre length of film.
burning in Method, in printing, of
giving extra localised exposure to
areas of a print which would
otherwise appear too light.
cable release Flexible cable used for
releasing the camera shutter without
touching the camera itself. When
used with a sturdy tripod this
minimises the possibility of camera
shake.
camera movements A system of
adjustments, generally in large-
format cameras, which allow the
film and lens planes to be moved
independently of one another. This
has the effect of moving the image
plane (see Sheimpflug principle)
enabling a more creative use of
selective focus and the elimination
(or exaggeration) of distortions
caused by viewing angles.
camera shake Movement of the camera
during slow shutter speeds which
will introduce blur into your
pictures. To prevent it you need to
use either a faster shutter speed, a
tripod and a cable release.
cassette The standard 35mm film
cartridge, usually loaded with film
in lengths of either 36, or 20
exposures though some amateur
emulsions are available in loads of
24 or 12 exposures.
catadioptric lens Lens generally of
long focal length constructed with
the use of internal mirrors enabling
the light path to be "folded", so that
the physical size of the lens is much
less than its focal length would

 Glossary
suggest. This system of lens
construction is also widely used in
astronomical telescopes. Also
known as a mirror lens (q.v.).
catch light A small highlight in an eye
created by the reflection of a bright
light source. Portraits without such
catch-lights can look lifeless and
dull.
CC filters Colour compensating filters
used both in colour photography and
colour printing. These filters are
available in a range of densities in
the three primary colours (red, green
and blue) and the three
complementary colours (cyan,
Kodak gelatin color correction magenta and yellow). Thus a
filers. The filter shown is a CC30M filter is a magenta filter
CC20G(reen) with a density of 0.3 to green light,
and is commonly used to counteract
the overall green cast associated
with pictures taken under
fluorescent lighting.
CCD Charged Coupled Device is a type
of electronic solid-state
semiconductor device that is
extremely sensitive to light.
Basically the CCD is what replaces
the film in the camera. The higher
the number of sensors on the CCD
the higher the resolution of the
images.
centre-weighted exposure meter A
through-the-lens exposure meter
designed to give more importance to
the centre of the picture than to the
edges when determining the correct
exposure.
changing bag A black lightweight
cloth bag designed to permit the
reloading of dark slides or handling
of film in daylight conditions. A
changing bag is like a miniature
cloth darkroom, with sleeves so that
the arms can be inserted. Film, dark
slides or cameras can be inserted
into the changing bag via a light-
tight zippered opening.
chemical fog A veil of metallic silver
deposited over the negative.
Excessive fogging is usually caused
by overactive or prolonged
development, but a certain amount
of fogging always takes place during
development.
chromatic aberration The inability of
a lens to resolve different colours in
the same plane, resulting in colour
fringing, particularly with white
objects close to the edges of the
frame.
Cibachrome A positive-to-positive
colour printing process. In a
Cibachrome print Azo dyes are
incorporated into the silver halide
emulsion coated onto a plastic base.
A slide enlarged onto this print
material creates a negative latent
image. This is developed and then
bleached to remove the processed
silver and the accompanying dyes.
What is left after this dye
destruction is the positive image of
dyes which were unaffected by the
light. These Azo dyes are
particularly noted for their stability.
circles of confusion Because the
average human eye is unable to
distinguish between a true point of
light and a disc of light, as long as
the diameter of the disc is very
small, areas in front of and behind
the plane of sharp focus in a picture
will also appear sharp. Once the
circles of light begin to appear as
circles, they will be perceived as
being unsharp. See depth of field.
CMYK The four process colors used in
printing: cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black. Why “K”? Well the
originators of this acronym thought
that “B” might be confused with
blue.
coated lens The surfaces of modern
lenses are nearly always coated with
a thin layer of a transparent material

 Glossary
such as magnesium fluoride. The
purpose of this coating is to reduce
light loss caused by the reflection of
light moving from air to glass or
glass to air within a lens. This light
loss occurs at every glass-air
interface, and if uncorrected can
cause overall fogging of the film,
thereby reducing contrast.
cold cathode enlarger Enlarger using a
fluorescent light source which is
particularly suitable for the purpose
by virtue of its low temperature
Complementary colours operation and its even illumination.
Because it can be used without
condensers, this form of
illumination is particularly suited to
5x4 or bigger enlargers.
collage Composition made out of
pieces of paper, cloth, photographs
or other miscellaneous materials
juxtaposed and pasted onto paper or
fabric, often combined with original
artwork.
colour conversion filters Filters used
to alter the colour temperature of
light for different films. These filters
are available in a variety of
strengths designated by letter: thus
80A, B C etc or 85 series.
Transparency films are balanced for
different light sources, mainly
daylight or tungsten light. To obtain
a more accurate colour balance with
tungsten film in daylight, for
example, an 85 series filter would be
used.
colour head The head or light source
of an enlarger fitted with the range
of colour filters for colour printing.
colour temperature In theory, the
temperature to which an inert body
would have to be heated to glow at a
particular colour. This is expressed
in degrees Kelvin. The lower the
colour temperature of the source, the
richer it is in the red and yellow rays
of the spectrum, the higher the
temperature the richer in the blue-
green end of the spectrum. In
practice every light source has a
colour temperature, and colour films
are balanced to take this into
account. Daylight film is balanced
for a colour temperature of 5500 K,
which is considered to be the mean
temperature of the noon sun.
Tungsten film is balanced at 3200
K. It is possible to use a film other
than in its designated setting to give
a desired effect, so using daylight
film under tungsten light will give a
pleasing "warmth" to the picture.
Conversely using Tungsten-
balanced film under daylight will
result in predominantly "cool" blue
tones.
colour temperature meter A meter
designed to measure colour
temperature. Some of these will
measure only colour temperature,
which is in the amber-blue
spectrum, while the best meters will
also measure in the magenta-green
spectrum. This is particularly useful
when photographing under light
sources such as fluorescents which
have a so-called discontinuous
spectrum.
compact camera A small easily-
portable and self-contained camera,
usually 35mm
Compact Flash cards a type of
removable memory card used for
storing digital images in cameras.
See Memory cards
complementary colours A colour is
said to be the complementary of
another when the light of the two
added together makes white light.
The term is usually applied to the
colours cyan, magenta and yellow as
they are the complementary colours
to the three primaries red, green and
blue.
Compression ratio the ratio a digital
picture file is compressed expressed


A contact print. The un-
enlarged images are used as
reference for selection and
editing.
Glossary
in relation to the original raw file
size. E.g. a file of 2mb compressed
from a 20mb file would be
compressed at a ration of 10:1
compression the packing of a digital
image to create a smaller file
compression, lossless file
compression that makes a file
smaller without degrading the image
compression, lossy this refers to any
compression of a picture file that
reduces the size of the file by
discarding data. JPEG compression
does this, replacing pixels on an
approximate basis when the file is
re-opened. Lossy compressions
usually result in a loss of quality and
some image degradation.
contact print A print made on
photographic paper by exposing the
paper to light with the negatives in
contact with the print. Naturally
these images are same-size.
contrast The difference in brightness
or density between adjacent areas of
tone. The control of contrast is an
important part of photography and is
affected by a number of different
factors. The inherent subject
contrast, the use of lighting, type of
material and processing can all be
used to control the end result.
covering power Term used to describe
the optical coverage of lenses. A
lens may be thought of as projecting
a circular image backwards towards
the film plane. As long as this circle
is larger than the film size used, the
lens may be said to have sufficient
coverage. However if the lens is
moved off axis as with a perspective
control lens or a large format
camera the lens needs to be
designed with a greater circle of
coverage. It is seldom possible to
use lenses designed for one format
on a larger format, as they do not
normally have the covering power
required for the bigger film size.
cropping The exclusion of unwanted
picture areas in printing to improve
composition.
cut film A term used to distinguish
sheet film from roll film. For
example 5x4 cut film is in sheet
format 5 inches by 4 inches and is
loaded into large format cameras
using dark slides.
cyan Blue-green colour
complementary to red.
dark slide A light tight device for the
handling of cut film. Dark slides
containing two sheets of cut film are
loaded into the back of large format
cameras whereby the slide is
withdrawn allowing the film to be
exposed.
data back An interchangeable back for
a camera (mainly 35mm) which
allows the imprinting of information
onto the film.
daylight film Colour film intended for
use with a light source with a
colour temperature of 5500K. This
is considered to be a mean average
daylight colour temperature,
although in practice wide variances
can be expected from daylight. A
late evening light can be closer to
that of tungsten (3200K) while the
light of the Australian sky can be as
blue as 15000K
dedicated flash A flash-gun designed
specifically for use with a particular
camera or range of cameras, Such a
flash will link automatically to the
electronics of the camera to control
exposure and shutter speed.
definition Term used to indicate the
fineness of detail in a photographic
print or transparency. Definition is
a result both of the resolving power
of the lens and the ability of the
material used to render fine detail.

 Glossary
density The light-absorbing power of a
processed photographic image. The
amount of silver deposited after a
film has been processed can be
measured quantitatively by a
densitometer. 100% transparency is
expressed as a density of 0
while .01% transparency is a density
of 4.0
depth of field This term defines the
extent of acceptable sharpness
behind and in front of the point of
focus of the lens. While a lens may
only be truly focused in a single
plane, the inability of the eye to
differentiate between a point and a
disc (see circles of confusion) means
A diffusion filter has been that an area on either side of this
used here to soften this plane may be rendered acceptably
portrait sharp, generally in a ratio of 1/3 in
front of the plane and 2/3 behind.
This area of apparent sharp focus
may be increased by the use of a
smaller aperture.
diaphragm An arrangement of blades
or leaves within a lens used to
control the aperture or lens opening.
dichroic fog Veil of metallic silver
deposits on negatives which looks
purplish by transmitted light and
greenish by reflected light. Caused
by faulty processing, these deposits
can often be wiped off while the
film is still wet, or can usually be
removed with ferricyanide reducer.
diffraction The bending and scattering
of light rays around an opaque
object, particularly one with a sharp
edge. In a photograph this may be
seen as the blurring of a sharp edge
of shadow, while in the camera it
may adversely affect image quality
when a lens is stopped down below
its optimum aperture.
diffusion The scattering of light in all
directions when passed through a
translucent (but not transparent )
material. This has the effect of
softening the light source. So-called
diffusion filters may also be used on
the front of a camera lens to soften
the image.
digital zoom the ability of a digital
camera to “zoom” an image by
cropping the picture in the camera.
It offers a much lower image quality
than a true optical zoom. Unlike an
optical zoom, the digital zoom takes
the central portion of the camera
sensor's image to achieve the effect
of a zoom. The existing data is not
enhanced or added to, only
displayed at a lower resolution,
thereby giving an illusion of an
enlarged image.
DIN Deutsche Industrie Normen
(German Industrial Standards). A
method of expressing film speed,
now superseded by ISO
(International Standards
Organisation) rating.
diopter Unit used to express the power
of a lens. In photography, this unit
is generally used to express the
strength of an accessory close-up
lens, or an eyepiece correction lens.
dispersion The breaking up of white
light into its component colours by
passing it through a material having
a refractive index which varies
according to the wavelength of the
light, or in other words bending the
rays of some colours more than
others. All lenses will exhibit this
property to some extent or another.
The better lens designs use different
glasses to try to cancel out its effects
distortion An alteration in the shape or
proportions of an image which may
occur at any point in the
photographic process. A lens
suffering from distortion produces
straight lines away from the centre
of the image as curves. These may
either curve inwards (pin-cushion
distortion) or outwards (barrel
distortion). Other types of

 Glossary
distortion may be deliberately
introduced for effect.
dodging Method, when printing, of
holding back exposure on localised
areas which would otherwise appear
too dark.
double exposure The superimposition
of one exposure onto another in the
camera. Modern cameras do not
normally allow this to happen
accidentally.
Dpi dots-per-inch; term used to
describe the resolution of a digital
picture or the resolution capability
of a camera or scanner
dry mounting Method of attaching
prints to a mount with shellac tissue
Durst M670 enlarger (or similar), using a hot iron or a
press.
dupe A colloquial term used to
describe either a duplicate negative
or transparency i.e. a duplicate of
the original. While they can be of
very high quality they will almost
never match the original image,
there being a loss of quality in the
copying process.
DX coding Coding placed by the film
manufacturer on the outside of the
film cassette which can be read by
the camera, enabling the film speed
to be set automatically.
dye transfer process A process of print
making in which the dyes from three
separately prepared images are
transferred to a single sheet of paper
to form the colour print. This
method of printing is considered to
be the most accurate in terms of
colour rendition, the most
controllable and the most long-
lasting. It is also, unfortunately, by
a very long way the most expensive.
dynamic range the gradations of light
and dark that a digital camera or
scanner can capture where details
are neither washed out by light nor
concealed by shadows. The greater
the dynamic range of the hardware
the greater the range of contrast the
camera or scanner can handle.
Ektachrome Proprietary name of a
range of colour transparency films
in a variety of film speeds for both
professional and amateur
photographers from Kodak. Present-
day Ektachrome films are all
developed using the E-6 process
electronic flash Artificial light source
which uses the discharge of a high
voltage pulse of electricity through a
gas-filled tube.
emulsion A stable mass of finely
divided particles evenly spread
through a liquid in which they
remain suspended without
dissolving. A photographic
emulsion is a suspension of silver
halide grains in gelatin
endoscopic photography An
endoscope is a device for viewing
and photographing in small and
inaccessible places, normally within
the human body. It usually consists
of a tube of fibre optics with a lens
at one end, together with some form
of light source, and a camera
attachment at the other end.
enlarger A device for the production
of photographic prints from
negatives or transparencies, by
projecting them onto sensitised
paper or other materials. Generally
the prints produced are larger than
the original negative or
transparency, although most
enlargers have the facility to make a
print smaller than the original.
existing light Term used to describe
photography in generally poor
lighting conditions without the aid
of artificial lights. Also referred to
as available light photography
expiry date Date printed on most film
cartons before which the material
should be processed. The

 Glossary
manufacturer's guarantee will not
normally extend beyond the expiry
date, but in practice storage
conditions can have a great effect on
the useful life of sensitised
materials.
exposure Exposure is a measure of the
quantity of light reaching a film or
printing paper, controlled by the
aperture through which the light
passes and the length of time for
which it travels, controlled by the
shutter speed or enlarger timer.
exposure factor Number by which the
exposure of a scene must be
multiplied to compensate for the
absorption of light by the use of
extension bellows or extension
rings. In practice most through-the-
lens metering systems will
automatically make this adjustment
but a painstaking photographer
should still be aware of the fact that
compensation is required..
A Gossen exposure meter
exposure latitude The amount by
which a negative or transparency
may be over- or under-exposed and
still yield an acceptable result with
normal processing
exposure meter An instrument for
measuring light intensity and
translating it into a range of
exposure settings for a camera. This
measurement may occur in a
number of ways. Most common is
the measurement of reflected light
from the subject, which is the
method used by in-camera exposure
meters. Also available are incident
light meters that measure the
amount of light falling on the
subject. Such meters are potentially
more accurate as they do not take
into account the tones of the subject,
but rather base their readings on an
18% grey. Other meters commonly
used are spot-meters, which measure
the light reflected from a 1° spot on
the subject. These allow the
building up of an extremely accurate
picture of an exposure before ever
taking a photograph, and are often
used in large-format photography.
extension tubes Metal tubes inserted
between the lens and the camera,
thus increasing lens-to-film distance
and enabling close-up photography.
Performing a similar function to
extension bellows, extension tubes
are in practice much easier to use in
the field, but with a trade-off in
terms of flexibility.
f number A numerical expression of
the relative aperture of a lens at its
different stops. The f-number of a
lens is equal to its focal length
divided by its effective aperture - in
other words a 50mm lens with a
maximum aperture of f 2 will have
an aperture of diameter 25mm.
Each higher f-number halves the
size of the effective aperture.
fast film A film with an extreme
sensitivity to light. Such films have
high ISO numbers.
fast lens A lens with a large maximum
aperture. Such lenses have low f-
numbers.
field camera A large-format camera,
often of wooden construction, which
can be folded flat for easy transport
on location.
fill-flash The use of flash to lighten
shadow areas created by a strong
main light source (often the sun
outdoors). A means of reducing
overall contrast in a photograph, the
flash is often set to give 1/2 to 1 stop
less than the main light so that the
overall effect remains close to the
original.
fill-light Any light used to fill in
shadow areas in a photograph.
film Photographic material consisting
of a flexible acetate base coated
with a light-sensitive emulsion.

 Glossary
film base The flexible base onto which
the film emulsion is coated. Two
kinds of base are in normal use -
cellulose tri-acetate for the more
flexible films such as 35mm or roll
film, and polyethylene teraphthalate
or polyester for sheet film which
requires a greater stiffness.
film speed The speed of a film is a
measure of its sensitivity to light.
This is normally expressed as an
ISO rating - the higher the number
the faster the film, or the greater the
sensitivity.
filter Transparent material attached to a
camera lens or a light source with
the intention of changing the way in
which the light reaches the film.
Camera filters are normally made
A modern tilt head flash out of glass, plastic or gelatin, and
unit with secondary fill are available in a vast range of
colours and styles.
flash below the main
head. filter factor Number by which the
exposure of an unfiltered scene must
be multiplied to compensate for the
absorption of light by a filter. In
practice most through-the-lens
metering systems will automatically
make this compensation, but a
painstaking photographer should
still be aware of the reactions of
different metering systems to light
from different parts of the spectrum.
fixed focus lens Lens set at a fixed
distance from the film plane,
offering no adjustment. Such lenses
are generally found on cheaper
cameras, where they are combined
with a small aperture, typically
around f11, to render everything
from approximately 2m to infinity
acceptably sharp.
fixer Chemical solution which removes
undeveloped silver halides from
processed film or paper and renders
the images contained on the material
permanent under white light
flare Reflections inside the lens or the
camera causing image degradation,
often caused by the inclusion of a
light source in the picture. Flare can
be minimised by the use of coated
(particularly multi-coated) lenses
and the use of a lens hood
flash The use of artificial light sources
is as old as the history of
photography itself. The forerunner
of today's electronic flash unit was
the use of burning magnesium,
either in the form of ribbon, foil or
powder. Magnesium powder was
used in a glass bulb for the first time
in 1925, giving rise to the disposable
flash bulb, which still has a place in
photography today. "Portable"
electronic flash units weighing
around 14-18 kg began to make
their appearance in the 1940s. All
of these have one aim in common -
to produce a brief burst of intense
light for the purpose of illuminating
a photographic subject.
Flash card a non-volatile memory card
used to store pictures in a digital
camera for later transfer to a
computer. Non-volatile means that
the picture data remains stored on
the card when the camera power is
switched off.
flashing Method of giving a brief burst
of even light to sensitised material
in order to reduce the contrast
floodlight Artificial light source with a
large shallow reflector giving a soft,
even light
fluorescent light Type of vapour
discharge lamp in which ultra-violet
light is converted into visible light.
The inside of a mercury vapour tube
is coated with substances that
fluoresce, or convert some parts of
the spectrum to a longer wave-
length. By a suitable choice of
coating materials a number of
different "daylight" colours can be
produced. However, as a


The focal plane shutter of a
Nikon F4s. The focal plane
shutter is so called because
it is located just in front of
the focal plane of the lens.
Glossary
fluorescent light source does not
contain all the colours of the
spectrum, filtration is normally
required to create a correct colour
balance.
focal length An optical term for the
distance between the rear nodal
point of a lens and the focal plane,
when the lens is set at infinity. In
photographic terms, the focal length
of a lens determines the degree of
image magnification - a longer focal
length lens will have a greater
degree of magnification and a
smaller angle of view
focal plane The plane in which a lens
brings an image to sharp focus,
when correctly focused.
focal plane shutter Shutter consisting
of one or more curtains of either
fabric or metal with a variable slit to
pass light, located just in front of the
film plane. The length of the
exposure is determined by the size
of the slit.
focal point The point in a lens at
which all the rays of light
transmitted by an object intersect.
focusing Adjusting the distance
between the lens and the film plane
to bring the image in front of the
camera into sharp focus.
focusing cloth Opaque cloth, often
lined with black velvet, which is
draped over the viewfinder of a
large-format camera and the head
and shoulders of the photographer to
shield the focusing screen from
extraneous light
focusing hood Folding metal hood
used mainly with medium format
reflex cameras to shield the focusing
screen from extraneous light. Most
focusing hoods also incorporate a
fold-away magnifying lens to aid
focusing
focusing screen Ground glass or
plastic screen on which an image
can be accurately focused
fog Any visible deposit or density in
the negative or print not forming
part of the photographic image.
Fogging may be caused by light, by
development causing excess silver
deposits, or by other chemical
means.
format Size and shape of a negative,
transparency or print or the camera
used to produce them. The most
common use of the term is to define
cameras as being small or miniature
(35mm), medium format (6x4.5,
6x6, 6x7, 6x8, or 6x9) or large
format (5x4in or 10x8 in).
frame counter Built in mechanism to
determine the number of frames
taken on a film.
gel Commonly used term for
photographic filters made from
gelatin. These filters are
manufactured by dissolving suitable
dyes in gelatin, which is then coated
on glass, allowed to dry and then
stripped off. Optically flat and
accurately coloured, these filters are
easily marked and must be handled
with great care to prolong their lives
gelatin A naturally occurring protein
which is used as the medium for
holding silver halide crystals in
suspension to form the most
common photographic emulsions.
ghost image Unwanted image of a
bright light source caused by a
double reflection within the lens. A
type of flare producing an actual
image, generally distorted.
GIF Graphic InterFace: a digital image
format devised by Compuserve for
using pictures online. GIF images
are the most commonly used image
format on websites.
glossy paper Printing paper with a
smooth shiny finish to maximise
detail and tonal range. Because the

 Glossary
glossy surface has no surface texture
it is invisible like the surface of a
mirror. It is therefore able to show
up all the detail in the photograph.
Because the smooth surface does not
scatter light, it is also able to
reproduce much deeper blacks, and
so can show a greater brightness
range than a matt print, or one on a
textured surface.
gradation Term referring to the tonal
scale or contrast range found
throughout an image. An image that
shows a large range of grey tones
between extreme white and extreme
black is said to have a soft
gradation. An image showing a
restricted range of tones is said to
have a hard gradation.
grade Classification of the contrast
inherent in black and white printing
papers. Lower numbers (0-1) are
soft, higher numbers (4-5) very
hard.
grain When a photographic image is
developed, silver halide crystals
within the emulsion are converted to
metallic silver, which then appears
This is a greyscale, black. The density of these silver
showing a range deposits determines the lightness or
darkness of the tones in a negative.
from pure white However, because the silver is not
through to a solid
black
absolutely evenly distributed
throughout the image some of these
silver deposits will clump together
to form visible grain. In general
faster films are more susceptible to
this phenomenon, as the larger the
silver halide crystals the more
sensitive to light, and the greater the
tendency to clumping.
grey card A card with the equivalent of
an 18% grey tone, which may be
used for taking accurate reflected
light meter readings, by reading the
light reflected from it. An 18% grey
has been determined as an average
reading from an average scene,
when reduced to black and white.
grey scale Print or transparency
consisting of a series of grey tones
of regular increasing depth from
white to black. Such a scale is used
in sensitometry, and for determining
accurate colour balance when
making three colour separation
negatives.
Greyscale image Term used to describe
a black and white picture consisting
of up to 256 levels or grey, with 8
bits of colour data per pixel
ground glass Sheet of glass which has
been etched on one side to create a
translucent , light-arresting surface
on which a visible image is formed.
It is used to make focusing screens
for large format and reflex cameras.
guide number An indication of the
power of a flash unit, by which the
appropriate aperture may be
determined. A guide number is
normally specified in both feet and
meters, and is given for a specific
film speed. The guide number of the
flash unit is divided by the flash-to-
subject distance to give the aperture.
halation A bright light source in a
photograph may often be
surrounded by a diffuse ring. This
so-called halation is caused by the
light from the subject penetrating
the emulsion and being reflected
back from the film base. This
phenomenon has largely been
eliminated by the use of anti-
halation dyes between emulsion and
film base.
hardener Chemical used to harden the
gelatin emulsion and make it less
susceptible to scratching or rubbing.
Normally such hardeners are now
incorporated into the fixer,
particularly for fixing negatives.
high-key Photograph in which the
lighter tones predominate.

 Glossary
Histogram this is a graph of the
brightness range of a digital image.
By adjusting the histogram one is
able to influence the exposure of a
picture. Most professional cameras
have built-in histogram displays and
most image editing software
programs use a histogram for
adjusting pictures in the computer.
hot shoe Accessory shoe built into the
camera with the electrical contacts
necessary to trigger a flash-gun.
Most modern 35mm cameras which
are part of a larger system will also
have flash guns available with a
variety of different functions linked
through the hot shoe, such as setting
the appropriate shutter speed on the
camera when the flash is to be used,
Usually positioned on top of setting the flash output for a
the reflex prism of an SLR, particular aperture or even
determining when the flash is
the hot shoe is used for
required for daylight fill-in.
mounting a flash unit
hue The quality that distinguishes one
colour from another. Each hue can
vary over a continuous range of
saturation, thus determining the
apparent vividness of the colour.
hyperfocal distance A lens focused at
infinity has a depth of field which
reaches significantly closer to the
camera. When the lens is then
focused at this closer point, known
as the hyperfocal point, the depth of
field will reach from half the
distance to the point, to infinity on
the other side. Obviously this will
change according to the aperture
employed. The distance from the
camera to the hyperfocal point is the
hyperfocal distance.
hypo Colloquial term for fixer, derived
from hyposulphite of soda, a name
incorrectly given to sodium
thiosulphate.
hypo eliminator Solution for the
removal of small traces of "hypo"
from negatives and prints, thereby
drastically reducing washing times.
image fall-off The failure of a lens to
resolve satisfactorily to the outer
corners of a negative, transparency
or print. All lenses project a circular
image onto the film, but only the
centre of this circle is actually used.
However some lenses have
insufficient covering power when
used wide open to cover the frame
properly, causing a fall-off of both
light intensity and image quality at
the corners of the frame. This can
generally be improved by stopping
the lens down.
incident light Incident light is the light
falling on a subject, as opposed to
the light reflected from it. It can be
measured with an incident light
meter.
infinity Mathematical term for a
dimension or quantity of sufficient
size to be unaffected by finite
variations. In practice a position
marked "∞" on the lens which
brings the lens to its rearmost
position and into focus on very
distant objects, 1000 meters or so
from the camera.
infra-red Infra-red is the band of
invisible rays beyond the red end of
the visible spectrum. Some of these
rays may be used to record on
suitably sensitised film.
inspection development Technique
now largely superseded of
developing orthochromatic film by
inspection under an appropriate
safelight. Orthochromatic films
have now mainly been replaced by
panchromatic film which is sensitive
to light throughout the visible
spectrum.
interchangeable backs The more
popular medium format SLRs
feature removable backs which may
be changed without the removal of
the film, enabling greater versatility
when shooting.

 Glossary
internegative Negative, generally
made on a special film, for
producing colour prints from colour
transparencies.
Interpolation is the process where the
software calculates the new value of
a pixel based on an examination of
the surrounding pixels. JPEG
compressions work in this way with
the software stripping out inessential
information to compress a file, then
replacing it with pixels matched to
those nearby when the file is de-
compressed. Because the software
can only make an educated guess on
the colour of the pixels that were
there before, there is a loss of image
quality.
inverse square law In practical terms
the inverse square law refers to the
Jaggies. The pixel pattern relationship of light to the subject
that occurs when a digital and the distance between them. If
the distance from a light source is
image is enlarged too
doubled, the light falling on the
much. subject is reduced to a quarter. At
three times the distance the light is
reduced to one-ninth.
IrfanView a superb little freeware
program for simple picture
manipulation. Especially useful for
batch processing of large numbers
of images where they may require
resizing, renaming or converting
from one format to another.
Available from: www.irfanview.
com
ISO Initials of the International
Standards Organisation. Normally
used to indicate the speed of
photographic materials.
Jaggies the stair-like lines that appear
in a digital image where there
should be smooth straight lines or
curves. Jaggies can occur for a
variety of reasons; the most
common being that the output
device (display monitor or printer)
does not have enough resolution to
portray a smooth line. In addition,
jaggies often occur when a bit-
mapped image is converted to a
different resolution. The effect of
jaggies can be reduced somewhat by
a graphics technique known as
antialiasing. Antialiasing smoothes
out jagged lines by surrounding the
jaggies with shaded pixels. Some
inkjet printers jaggies with a
technique known as smoothing.
Joule Unit of energy equal to 1 watt-
second. The joule is used to
measure the energy provided by
electronic flash, particularly studio
units.
JPEG popular digital camera file
format that uses lossy compression
(see Compression, lossy) to reduce
file sizes. The file algorithm was
developed by the Joint
Photographic Experts Group, hence
the name
Kelvin Scale Units of the absolute
scale of measurement, which uses
the same increments as the Celsius
scale but has as its zero point -273°
C, or absolute zero. Used to
indicate colour temperature.
key A photograph does not have to
include a full range of tones to be
acceptable. An image which uses
either the lighter or the darker range
of tones is said to be in either a high
or a low key.
key light The dominant or principal
light illuminating the subject.
Kodachrome For many years the
standard by which all other colour
film was judged, Kodachrome uses
a system which put simply adds the
colour in the processing rather than
having it integral in the film
lamphouse Light -tight container of a
light source in either a projector or
an enlarger.

 Glossary
large format camera Term for a
camera using sheet film of 5x4in or
larger
latent image Exposure to light in a
camera does not normally bring
about visible changes in a sensitised
material. It does, however, cause
invisible changes which can be
revealed by development. The
image waiting for development is
the latent image.
latitude The amount by which a
A 5x4 large format negative or transparency may be
over- or under-exposed and still
Toyoview studio
yield an acceptable result with
camera
normal processing
LCD screen Liquid Crystal Display
screen used on most digital cameras
to allow previewing or reviewing of
images. The screen also often serves
as a display for the camera controls.
leaf shutter Shutter consisting of a
number of leaves or blades which
open and close to expose the film.
Leaf shutters are normally mounted
within the lens.
LED Light-emitting diode, commonly
used for in-camera display of
information concerning exposure,
focus etc
Leica The first modern 35mm camera,
designed by Oskar Barnack in 1913
to use the standard film for movie
photography. Production of the
LEItz CAmera began in 1924.
lens Optical device capable of bending
light to form an image.. A lens is
simply a glass or plastic disc
through which light passes, and as it
does so it is bent in such a manner
as either to converge at a point or to
diverge as though coming from a
point closer than the subject. Nearly
all lenses used for photographic
purposes consist of more than one
element, or piece of glass, all of
which work together to bring an
image into sharp focus at a plane
( the film plane). While lens design
and construction has improved
enormously with the advent of the
computer and the use of special
glasses, many modern lenses can
trace their design back to the
beginning of 35mm photography
lens hood Device, normally a metal or
rubber tube, fitted to prevent
extraneous light from falling on the
lens. While light from just off-axis
may not directly fall upon the film,
it may set up internal reflections
within the lens causing flare
lens mount The metal housing within
which the glass elements of a lens
are held. A lens mount may also
incorporate a between-the-lens
shutter and/or an iris diaphragm.
Lens mount is also the term used to
describe the way in which
interchangeable lenses are attached
to the camera body.
light The visible part of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. Visible light
has a range of wavelengths from
approximately 400 to 720
nanometers, a tiny part of the whole
spectrum.
light box A box with an internal source
of illumination and a translucent
side for the viewing of
transparencies and negatives
line film Film of such high contrast
that it is only capable of rendering
black and white without
intermediate tones. Used for
copying line drawings.
Lossless compression see
Compresssion, lossless
Lossy Compression see Compression,
lossy
LZW Compression a non-lossy
compression used in conjunction
with TIFF images to produce a
smaller file size. While nowhere

 Glossary
near as efficient as JPEG
compression in redicing files, it does
not discard data and therefore
retains the integrity of the original
image.
macro lens Lens designed for use in
macrophotography without any
additional attachments or
supplementary lenses. In practice a
name given to any lens with a close-
focusing facility allowing
photographs with a reproduction
ratio of about 1:4, or a quarter life-
size. Most specifically-designed
focusing macro lenses will allow
focusing to a ratio of at least 1:2
while a true macro lens must be
Digital memory used with an extension bellows, but
card. The “film” will allow focusing to a ratio as
used for the great as 20:1.
macro-photography Macro-
storage of images
in digital cameras. photography is normally considered
to be photography of subjects from
life-size (1:1) down to ten times life-
size (10:1) In practice any form of
close-up photography is often
referred to as macro-photography.
magazine Light-tight container for film
which can be attached or detached
from the camera body, allowing
instant interchangeability of film.
Normally used with medium format
SLR cameras, but bulk magazines
containing up to 250 exposures are
available for some 35mm cameras.
magenta Purplish-red colour, the
complementary colour to green.
magnification Relationship between
the size of the subject and the size of
the image.
masking Method, when printing, of
reducing the quantity or quality of
the light forming an image. In
monochrome masking this is
normally done to control the
contrast range of a negative, while
in colour the technique is more often
used to alter the relative colour
saturation of the different colours.
masking frame Adjustable holder for
printing paper, used to keep the
paper in position on the enlarger
easel.
matte Term used for a non-reflective
surface without a visible texture.
Also used to describe the cardboard
mount used to frame a print
Megapixel a digital image or image
sensor (CCD) made up of over a
million pixels
Memory cards the removable storage
card in a digital camera that acts as
the “film”. When the card is full it
can be removed and another card
inserted. The memory on these cards
is non-volatile- that is, the images
remain on the card when it is
removed from the camera. The
images can be later downloaded
from the card, either direct from the
camera or by using a card reader.
When the images are erased from
the card it is ready to be reused.
There are four types of memory
cards at this time: Compact Flash,
Smart Media, Intel Miniature
mercury vapour lamp Arc lamp in
which the glowing arc is contained
in a tube of vaporised mercury,
giving a bluish light.
microphotography The production of
very small photographs, to be
viewed with special equipment such
as a microfilm reader. The term
should not be, but often is, confused
with photomicrography which is
taking photographs of very small
objects through a microscope.
mirror lens Lens generally of long
focal length constructed with the use
of internal mirrors enabling the light
path to be "folded", so that the
physical size of the lens is much less
than its focal length would suggest.
This system of lens construction is

 Glossary
also widely used in astronomical
telescopes. Also known as a
catadioptric lens
mirror lock Many modern SLR
cameras have the facility for locking
the instant-return mirror up out of
the light path by means of a mirror
A colour print film negative lock. This technique is often used to
minimise vibration with slow shutter
speeds or extreme close-ups.
monochromatic Literally, single-
coloured. The term is most often
used to define black and white
photography, but may also be
applied to photographs taken with
an absence of strong colours.
Monochromatic illumination is the
use of a light source containing only
a single wavelength, in order to
A black and white negative eliminate chromatic aberration ,
mainly in scientific photography
monopod An extendable tube used as a
camera support. While never as
stable as a tripod, a monopod is
often useful in situations requiring
maximum possible stability with
extreme portability.
monorail camera A large format
camera based around a long rail, to
which standards to hold lens and
film are attached and linked with a
Positive print from the black bellows. The standards consist of a
and white negative
front or lens standard and a rear
standard in which the film holder is
mounted. A monorail camera is
normally capable of extension by
the inclusion of intermediate
standards and additional bellows, or
of wide-angle photography using a
bag bellows.
montage Technique of combining a
number of photographs on a
common base, often for the purpose
of panorama or aerial survey
photographs.
motor-drive Device, usually battery-
powered, for automatically
advancing film through a camera.
Unlike an autowinder, which is
normally only capable of making a
single exposure each time the
shutter release is pressed, a motor-
drive is normally able to make
continuous exposures.
MPEG A digital video format
developed by the Motion Pictures
Expert Group
multigrade paper Paper used for black
and white printing which has a
variable contrast range controlled by
the use of coloured filters, instead of
the more traditional single grades of
paper contrast.
multiple exposure Technique of
making more than one exposure on
a single frame. Most modern SLR
cameras have a facility for allowing
multiple exposures.
negative Processed photographic
image with reversed tones, so that
light becomes dark and dark light .
In colour negative, colours are
represented by their comp-
lementaries, although this is not
always as easy to see because of the
overall orange masking of most
colour negative film.
negative carrier Metal or plastic frame
used to hold the negative flat in an
enlarger between the light source
and the lens.
Newton's rings Rings of coloured light
often seen when two or more
transparent surfaces are not quite in
contact. Newton's rings are often
seen in glass negative carriers and
glass slide mounts, where the
sandwich of glass and film in not
tightly squashed together. Special
glass, lightly etched with acid, may
be used to get rid of these rings.
NiCad (batteries) rechargeable nickel
cadmium batteries. NiCad batteries
are useful, but suffer from a
“memory” problem. If recharged
before they are fully discharged,

 Glossary
they will no longer accept a full
charge.
NiMH (batteries) rechargeable Nickel
metal-hydride batteries excellent for
use in digital cameras or other
equipment with high-energy demand
nodal point The nodal point of a lens
is the point at which all the rays of
A pan & tilt tripod head light passing through it converge for
the rear nodal point, or from which
all the rays of light appear to come
for the front nodal point. Although
each individual element of a lens
will have its own nodal point, in
practice the nodal point is treated as
the combined points of all the
different elements.
noise any unwanted data that occurs in
a digital image whether caused by
exposure problems, aliasing or
signal problems. Noise can be
likened to static in a radio signal.
notches Sheet film for large format
cameras needs to be handled in
complete darkness. Because it is
difficult to tell the front of the film
from the back simply by feel,
notches are cut into one corner of
the film. These notches are coded
with different shapes to differentiate
one film from another. When the
notch of the film is in the right hand
top corner, the emulsion is face up.
opacity A measure of the light-
transmitting characteristics of a
material. The greater the opacity,
the less light is transmitted.
open flash A technique of firing the
flash while the shutter is held open.
This technique allows the use of
repeated firing of the flash to "paint"
the subject with light.
optical glass Modern lens design
demands the use of extremely pure
glasses of different characteristics.
The main reason for this is the
reduction of aberrations, mainly
chromatic aberration, which is
achieved by using glasses of
different refractive indexes and
different dispersion characteristics.
optical resolution the actual resolution
of a digital imageas opposed to
interpolated resolution
orthochromatic Orthochromatic film is
sensitised to all the colours of the
visible spectrum except for deep
orange and red. Before the
introduction of modern
panchromatic black and white films,
which have a balanced sensitivity to
all colours, "ortho" was the
standard. The characteristic look of
this film is to show reds as blacks.
overdevelopment Processing fault
which increases density and contrast
in a negative, caused either by
processing for too long, at too high a
temperature, or by too much
agitation. For a print
overdevelopment is seldom a
serious problem
overexposure The result of giving a
sensitised material too much
exposure to light. An overexposed
negative will be excessively dense
in the highlight areas, and a print
from such a negative will be
generally flat and lacking in
contrast.
oxidation Chemical reaction which
increases the proportion of oxygen
or similar electro-negative
components of a chemical
compound. Photographic
developers are prone to oxidation,
which reduces their effective
working life, and should therefore
be stored in sealed bottles.
pan and tilt head Tripod attachment
which allows the camera to be
rotated through 360° and tilted
vertically up and down, or in the
case of a 3-way pan-and-tilt head
from side to side about its axis as
well . The camera may then be

 Glossary
locked in any position.
panchromatic Sensitised materials that
respond equally to all colours of the
visible spectrum.
panning Technique of swinging the
camera with a moving subject, in
order to record a sharp image of the
subject but a blurred background.
panorama camera Special type of
camera designed to take pictures
over a wider than normal horizon.
The lens rotates around its rear
nodal point while the film is
transported past a slit, the size of
which determines the exposure. In
some versions of panorama camera
the whole camera moves around the
axis, while the film is transported in
the opposite direction.
parallax error The inability of a twin-
lens or rangefinder camera to line up
PhotoShop tool menus the viewfinder exactly with the
taking lens. Parallax error does not
exist with single-lens reflex cameras
because you are viewing directly
through the taking lens.
permanence Film or paper after
developing and fixing contain a
number of chemicals which must be
removed by washing, otherwise the
image will deteriorate very quickly.
For maximum archival permanence
a hypo clearing agent should be
used, and washing should be as
extensive as time and water will
allow. The removal of all silver
compounds may be tested for with a
sodium sulphide solution.
photoflood Tungsten light source
designed to run at a higher voltage
than normal in order to burn
brighter. Thus the lamp is over-run
when used on the normal household
current. The extra brightness is
obtained at the expense of
longevity - a photoflood will
normally only work for a few hours
before burning out.
photogram Word used to describe a
photographic image made without
the use of a camera. Normally
photograms are made by placing
opaque or semi-opaque objects
directly onto printing paper which is
then exposed to light and processed.
PhotoShop the industry standard photo
manipulation software program
created by Adobe. There are a
number of programs that come close
to the capabilities of Photoshop, but
it is considered the best and the
price reflects that.
pinhole camera Camera without a
lens, but with a very small hole
which projects an image. The
quality of the image will largely be
determined by the size of the hole,
and within the limits of its
sharpness, depth of field runs from
the front of the camera to infinity.
Pixel an abbreviation of “picture
element”; a single dot within the
display of a computer monitor or in
a digital image
Pixelation, pixelisation the blocky
effect which occurs when an image
is enlarged to a size where the pixels
become obvious
plate camera Camera designed to take
pictures on sensitised glass plates.
Nowadays the term is used to
describe any large-format camera
taking single sheet film.
polarised light Light is considered to
be a wave form vibrating in all
directions about its axis. If the light
can be made to vibrate in one
direction only it is said to be
polarised. Most reflective surfaces
will polarise light to some extent.
polarising filter A polarising filter is
designed to reduce the reflection of
polarised light from reflective
surfaces. Used outdoors they may
also darken sky, which is polarised


“Red-eye” is caused by
flash reflecting back from
the blood cells on the back
of then eyeball, when the
pupils are dilated under low
light conditions.
Glossary
with the sun at a certain angle, and
may generally enhance the richness
of other colours
Ppi abbreviation for pixels-per-inch
Prescan initial low-resolution digital
scan performed by a scanner to
provide a thumbnail image to which
the scanner operator can adjust and
crop the final scan beforehand
primary colours The primary colours
of light are red, green and blue,
which when mixed together in equal
quantities will form white.
prime lens Lenses of fixed focal length
are referred to as prime lenses, as
opposed to zoom lenses (variable
focal length). While zoom lenses
have the advantage of flexibility,
many photographers prefer to use
prime lenses as they believe them to
be optically superior. Prime lenses
also normally have greater
maximum apertures than zoom
lenses.
prism Transparent glass or plastic
block with plane polished surfaces
which are not parallel to one
another. These can be used to
reflect, refract or diffuse light. The
most common use in photography is
as a reflecting prism in the
viewfinder of a single-lens reflex
camera, where a prism is much more
efficient than a mirror in that it loses
virtually no light.
push-processing or pushing Pushing is
the intentional extending of the
development of a film to increase its
speed and contrast. Pushing is often
a useful technique in dim flat
lighting conditions
rangefinder Device for determining
the distance of a camera from its
subject, utilising two reference
points at the camera. The accuracy
of such a system depends largely on
the base length of the rangefinder, or
the distance between the two
reference points, and becomes
increasingly less accurate as the
subject moves further away. Many
single-lens reflex cameras
incorporate a variation on this
system within their focusing
screens, with a split image which
lines up only when the subject is
accurately focused.
Raw data the uninterpolated digital data
collected by a scanner or camera’s
CCD before any processing occurs
RAW image format digital image data
as it comes from the CCD sensor
without any processing interference.
reciprocity law Reciprocity law states
than photographic exposure is a
result of allowing light of a certain
intensity to fall on sensitised
material for a specific time. Thus if
the intensity is halved the time must
be doubled for the same exposure.
reciprocity failure The failure of film
to respond to reciprocity law. In
practice film subjected to extremes
of shutter speed (either very short or
very long exposures) will require an
adjustment of exposure. With
colour materials this failure may
differ for the different colour layers,
resulting in a colour shift.
red-eye The reflection of a flash from
the blood vessels at the back of the
retina of the subject's eyes. Red-eye
may be avoided by getting the
subject to look at a bright light
source just before you shoot, by
moving the flash off axis, or by
giving a brief preliminary flash
causing the subject's pupils to
contract.
reflector Any surface from which light
can be reflected. A reflector used
with a light source may completely
alter the characteristics of the light,
making it harder or softer as
required. Alternatively folding
reflectors are often used to reduce

 Glossary
harsh shadows from sunlight on
location.
reflex camera Camera using a mirror
system to produce an upright image
in the viewfinder. In the single-lens
reflex this is combined with the use
of a prism to give an image which is
correctly oriented from side to side.
refraction The change of direction of
light rays as they pass from one
transparent medium to another of
different density
resample to change the resolution of a
digital image. Resampling down
discards pixel information in an
image; resampling up adds pixel
information through interpolation.
resin-coated paper Modern printing
120 roll-film paper is often made with a water-
resistant base. This allows it to be
processed faster, being particularly
effective in cutting down washing
times compared to more traditional
fibre-based paper. Purists still
insist, however, that the quality
obtained from traditional papers is
superior to that of so-called "plastic"
paper.
resolution the resolving power of a lens
or film in terms of sharpness. In
digital imaging this refers to the
picture detail or sharpness,
measured in pixels, or dots per inch.
A picture taken with a 6 megapixel
camera at its highest setting is far
more detailed than a picture taken
with a 1.0-megapixel camera and
can be enlarged much more than the
smaller file.
reticulation Formation of minute cracks
on the surface of an emulsion,
usually caused by extremes of
temperature in processing. Modern
film bases are usually very resistant
to reticulation.
retouching Retouching is work carried
out on a print or negative after
processing. Most prints contain tiny
flaws caused by dust or other marks
on the negative, and these can often
be improved by careful spotting
with coloured dyes. Even better
results are sometimes possible by
working on the negative, but 35mm
negatives are generally too small for
the precision necessary.
reversal film Reversal materials are
those designed to produce a positive
image after processing, without the
use of an intermediate stage such as
a negative.
RGB Red, green, blue. The standard
colour system used for display on
computer monitors.
rim lighting A lighting set-up which
places a light source directly behind
the subject, giving the effect of
outlining it with a rim of light.
rising front Mechanism found in most
large format cameras allowing the
front of the camera to be raised or
lowered from the normal position.
Some medium format cameras have
a similar mechanism and a few
specialised lenses to achieve the
same result are available in 35mm.
The main use for this technique is to
prevent converging verticals when
photographing buildings, or to give
a better apparent perspective when
photographing objects from above.
roll film Refers to 120/220 film, which
is used in medium format cameras,
or, with the use of a suitable holder,
in large format cameras. In spite of
the popularity of 35mm, rollfilm is
still very popular with professionals
because of the larger size of the
image produced.
safelight Darkroom light of a particular
wavelength to which the sensitised
material being used is not sensitive.
In the case of black and white
printing the appropriate safelight is
an orange or olive green.
sandwiching Combination of two or

 Glossary
more negatives when printing, or
two or more transparencies within
the same mount.
saturated colour A colour at its most
intense, without any white or grey
dilution, is said to be saturated.
scanner a device to digitally scan
transparency negatives or prints so
that they can be stored, transmitted
and manipulated on a computer.
Flatbed scanners are used to scan
prints and film scanners to scan
A Nikon film scanner negatives or transparencies. Film
scanners offer the highest resolution
and are the most common way to
scan pictures for the professional
photographer.
Scanner, drum high-end scanner that
depends on the rotation of the
transparency to produce the highest
quality scans available. With a drum
scanner the print or transparency is
rotated past the sensor attached to a
drum
Scanner, film specialised high-
resolution scanner designed to scan
from direct from film (negatives or
transparencies)
Scanner, flatbed a scanner designed to
scan flat art such as photos or other
paper-based images. Some flatbed
scanners can also scan film but
usually not with as high a resolution
as a film scanner
Screen resolution this refers to the
resolution of a standard computer
monitor, it is usually considered to
be 72 dpi
secondary colours An alternative name
for the complementary colours,
cyan, magenta and yellow.
selenium cell Type of cell used in
many older-style exposure meters.
The selenium cell differs from most
other cells in that it generates
electricity in proportion to its
exposure to light, and therefore does
not need a battery, unlike other
meter cells which alter their
resistance to an existing current
according to the amount of light
falling on them.
self-timer A delayed action mechanism
to trigger the shutter. A self-timer is
often used to include oneself in a
photograph, but is also very useful
for exposures with the camera on a
tripod where camera shake may
otherwise be a problem
separation film It is possible to
produce a full colour print by
photographing a colour original
through filters of the three primary
colours in black and white, and then
printing them in register in a process
such as the dye transfer method.
While it is possible to use this
method with a still life subject, the
excellence of modern materials
means that it is seldom used in such
a manner, but more often for the
production of dye transfer prints
from transparencies.
sheet film Film for large format
cameras cut into individual sheets
rather than in roll form. Sheet film
has a stiffer base than rollfilm, and
is available in a very wide range of
emulsions
shutter Mechanical device to control
the amount of time during which the
film is exposed to light.
shutter priority Feature of some
cameras offering automatic
exposure, whereby the photographer
selects the shutter speed and the
camera automatically selects the
exposure.
Signal to noise ratio the ratio of the
usable digital data to unusable noise
in any image. In imaging, this
represents the quality of the scan.
skylight filter Filter, usually a very
pale pink in colour, which is used in
colour photography to correct for

 Glossary
the blue cast of the sky. In practice
a skylight filter is often left in place
on a lens for protection of the front
element
slave unit A slave unit is a device
connected to an auxiliary flash unit
which is triggered by the firing of
the main unit.
snoot Cone-shaped device fitted over
an artificial light source in order to
direct the light in a particular
A flash slave unit direction.
used to trigger a flash soft box Lighting attachment in a box
without cabling to the shape consisting of a reflective
material stretched over a metal
camera.
frame, with a diffusing panel at one
end and a mounting bracket at the
other to enable it to be mounted on a
studio flash head. Such boxes may
vary in size up to a meter square or
more, and in shape from squares to
oblong strips.
soft focus The deliberate diffusion of
an image, often in portraits to
disguise minor blemishes. A large
number of supplementary lens
attachments, and even some lenses
specifically designed for the
purpose, are available to achieve
soft focus of an image.
Solarisation Technically speaking,
solarisation is the reversal or partial
reversal of an image caused by
extreme overexposure. For practical
purposes, however it is the term
used to describe the Sabattier effect,
which is the partial image reversal
caused by the exposure of a negative
to light during development, and
then allowed to continue to develop
in the normal way.
spectrum Term normally applied to the
visible spectrum separated into its
component colours.
specular reflection Reflection of light
from a glossy or shiny surface,
where the light rays reflected retain
their direction relative to one
another.
speed The term given to indicate the
relative sensitivity of photographic
emulsions. Speeds are now
normally given in ISO numbers
(formally ASA) where the higher
the number the greater the
sensitivity.
spot meter Meter designed to read
reflected light from a small portion
of the subject (typically a one
degree spot). A spot meter correctly
used allows a very accurate
assessment of a picture to be made
before any film has been exposed.
spotlight Artificial light source,
normally using a reflector, a lens
and some sort of focusing
mechanism to produce a bright
controllable ring of light.
spotting The use of coloured dyes to
remove pinholes, dust spots and
other blemishes from a print, using a
fine brush.
sprocket holes Regular perforations
along the edges of 35mm film which
engage with the film advance
mechanism.
standard lens Lens which
approximates the "normal" angle of
view, about 45°. The common
method of determining the normal
lens for a particular format is to use
the length of the diagonal of the
film; thus for 35mm film the "true"
normal would be a lens of
approximately 45mm focal length.
step ring A step ring or stepping ring
allows the use of a filter of a certain
thread size to be used on a lens of a
different thread size. It is normally
advisable to use a larger filter on a
smaller lens rather than the other
way around, to avoid image cut-off.
stop bath Chemical bath used in
processing to arrest the action of the
developer.


Telephoto lens. A fast
Nikkor 300mm F2.8
telephoto on a Nikon F2.
The wide maximum
aperture makes this type of
telephoto lens ideal for
sports photography and
other work in low light
conditions.
Glossary
stopping down The use of a smaller
aperture, or stop, to reduce the
amount of exposure and to increase
the depth of field.
Storage cards see Memory cards
strobe light Low-powered flash
pulsing at regular intervals.
Colloquial term also used for any
flash unit.
stroboscopic flash Electronic flash unit
designed to fire repeatedly at high
frequencies, often up to thousands
of times per second. The main
applications of this type of flash are
for analysing motion or for stopping
high-speed action.
studio camera While the term studio
camera may be applied to any
camera used in the studio, it is most
normally taken to mean a large
format monorail camera mounted on
a heavy-duty tripod or a camera
stand.
supplementary lens A supplementary
lens is a lens added to the front of
the prime lens to provide a special
effect. The most common
supplementary lenses are close-up
lenses.
swing back/front The movement of the
front or rear panels of a large format
camera around their vertical axis in
order to control perspective and
focus.
synchronisation This refers to the need
of the flash to fire at the same time
as the shutter is open. In normal
practice the shutter is used to trigger
the flash either through a synch cord
or through a hot shoe. It is
important in the case of a focal
plane shutter that a speed is selected
at which the slit which governs the
exposure time is fully open across
the film plane, otherwise a portion
of the negative or transparency may
be unexposed by the flash.
T setting Stands for "time", on the T
setting the shutter is opened and
remains open until the shutter
release is pressed a second time.
teleconverter An optical device which
is fitted between the prime lens and
the camera body to increase the
focal length. The most used
teleconverter is the 2x, which
doubles the focal length of the lens
in use. The disadvantage is the loss
of light, which with a 2x
teleconverter is 2 f-stops.
telephoto lens Lens of long focal
length, giving a bigger image of a
subject than the standard lens
without a change in viewpoint. The
construction of a telephoto lens is
such that the physical length is
smaller than the focal length, by
virtue of having a short rear focus.
test strip A test strip is a strip of
printing paper on which a number of
different exposures are made from
the same negative for comparison
purposes when printing.
Thumbnail a term used to describe a
small low-resolution digital image
(often as big as the average
thumbnail) used for reference much
in the way a contact print is used in
conventional photography.
thyristor A thyristor is an electronic
device used in the construction of
automatic flash units. Its function is
to quench the flash when sufficient
exposure has been given to the
subject and to save the energy
remaining, in order to speed up the
recycling time
TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) a
popular file format for digital
images. The advantage over other
formats such as JPEGs are that TIFF
files are lossless. However, they can
be subjected to minor compression
(LZW) only

 Glossary
tilt back/front The movement of the
front or rear panels of a large format
camera around their horizontal axis
in order to control perspective and
focus
time and temperature development The
fundamentals of processing exposed
sensitised materials. The exposed
material is immersed in a chemical
bath of a specific strength, at a
specific temperature and for a
specific time, and given a specific
amount of agitation. Under these
conditions the resulting processed
material will be the same every
A 35mm colour transparency, time. Once consistency can be
obtained with time and temperature
also referred to as a colour slide development, variations may be
included to suit the subject matter or
the particular requirements of the
photographer.
TLR The twin-lens reflex camera, with
one lens for viewing and a matching
lens for taking. Viewing is normally
through a focusing hood, giving an
image which is the right way up but
laterally reversed. Most twin-lens
reflex cameras use roll film, either
in 120 or 220 format, and represent
a comparatively inexpensive way of
moving from 35mm to a larger
format.
toner Chemicals used to change the
colour of the black silver image in a
print. The original image is first
bleached than redyed. Sepia toning
is perhaps the best known form of
toning, but blue, gold, copper and
other colours may be used
depending on the result required.
transparency Positive image produced
on transparent film in colour or
black and white, normally intended
to be viewed by transmitted light or
projected on a screen.
Transparency scanner see, Scanner,
film, and scanner, drum
tripod Three-legged support for a
camera. Tripods come in a range of
sizes and weights, normally with
individually extendable legs for
precise adjustment, and often with
an additional centre column for
extra height.
TTL Through-the-lens metering, a
method which uses light-sensitive
cells within the camera body to take
readings of the reflected light falling
on the subject, exactly as seen by
the taking lens. In automatic
cameras these readings are
translated directly into apertures
and/or shutter speeds.
tungsten film a film designed to give
natural colour when exposed under
tungsten lighting.
tungsten lighting Artificial light
source using lamps with a tungsten
filament, which glows with the
passage of electric current. Then
ordinary household lamp is a
tungsten filament lamp. The colour
balance of this type of bulb is
towards the red end of the spectrum,
which is why tungsten balanced
films are biased to blue to
compensate.
TWAIN an image acquisition interface
developed by a consortium of
software developers as a standard
for communications between
scanners, imaging devices and now
digital cameras and the computer
software. It is the TWAIN interface
that let’s your computer “talk” to
your scanner and vice-versa.
type A film Type of colour transparency
film, now no longer available,
balanced for Photolamps at a colour
temperature of 3400 K.
type B film Colour transparency film
balanced for tungsten light at a
colour temperature of 3200 K.
ultraviolet light Invisible rays from
beyond the blue end of the

 Glossary
spectrum, from around 400nm down
to 1nm . Most photographic
materials are sensitive to UV light
within the range 400-300nm, and
this may cause increased haze in
distant views or at high altitudes. A
UV or skylight filter may be used to
reduce this haze.
umbrella An umbrella with a white or
silver inside surface is often used as
a reflector for an electronic flash
unit. The purpose of this is to
increase the size of the light source,
which has the effect of softening the
light. An alternative type of
umbrella is the "shoot-through",
which is translucent, but has a
Flash umbrellas are used to similar effect. A variety of different
bounce and soften the light sizes and shapes of umbrella are
available.
from an electronic flash or
underdevelopment Fault in which the
other light source.
developer did not act for long
enough on the material being
processed, or the temperature was
not maintained correctly. An
underdeveloped negative lacks both
density and contrast.
underexposure Fault caused by
inadequate exposure, either from the
selection of an incorrect aperture or
an incorrect shutter speed. While
the effects are similar to those of an
underdeveloped negative, an
underexposed negative will
normally be totally lacking in
shadow detail. Of course
underexposure may be partly
remedied by push-processing
Unsharp masking is a process where
by the perceived sharpness of an
image is enhanced by increasing the
contrast along the edges where
different tones meet, or between
pixels
up-rating A technique where the
recommended film speed is
exceeded, giving deliberate
underexposure which is then
compensated for by
overdevelopment or pushing, in
order to increase both speed and
contrast.
USM unsharp masking
variable contrast paper Black and
white printing paper in which the
contrast grade is controlled by the
use of filters of different colours.
viewfinder Device for viewing an
image before photographing, for
composition and/or focusing. Types
of viewfinder include direct vision,
optical, ground glass screen or
reflex.
vignette Printing technique in which
the edges of the print are gradually
faded out to leave a soft white
border. Vignetting may also occur
on film when using a lens of
insufficient covering power or a lens
shade of an inappropriate shape. The
latter will appear as a darkening of
the corners of the picture
wetting agent Chemical used in very
small amounts to reduce the surface
tension of water when washing
negatives. This has the effect of
improving the drainage, speeding up
the drying time and reducing the
risk of streaking.
White balance the setting of the
highlight tone on a camera so that it
records as a true white under
varying lighting conditions.
wide-angle camera Camera built
specifically for wide-angle
photography using either optical or
mechanical means to achieve this.
While all panorama cameras are
wide-angle cameras, not all wide-
angle cameras are panorama
cameras.
wide-angle lens A wide-angle lens is
one which takes in an angular field
of 60° or more across the diagonal
of the film. A wide-angle lens gives

 Glossary
a wide angle of coverage and a
greater-than-normal depth of field
zone focussing A technique, when
photographing fast-moving subjects,
of pre-focusing the camera, having
set a specific aperture, in order that
the depth of field might cover the
zone within which one expects the
action to occur.
Zone system A method of combining
exposure and development to
maximise the range of tones in black
and white photography. The Zone
system is based upon a range of nine
grey tones, or zones, which are
previsualised by accurate metering.
The subject may then be over- or
under-exposed by a predetermined
amount, and the film over- or under-
developed by a similarly
predetermined amount, in order to
adjust the contrast and density of the
negative precisely. Obviously such
a system is designed for single-sheet
photography, where each sheet can
be processed individually, but in
Cutaway view of Tamron practice a working knowledge of the
zoom lens
Zone system can be helpful in
difficult lighting situations.
zoom lens A lens which allows a
continuously variable focal length,
within a specific range, without
altering its focus or aperture.
Subscribe and win!
,f you have found this glossary
useful why not subscribe to our
free newsletter, Photographers
Online? 
Packed with tips, hints and
advice this newsletter will
bring you the latest, most up-
to-date information of what is
happen ing in the world of
photography.
You will also be automatically
notified when new e-Books
appear.
In subscribing to our
newsletter your name will be
entered into a draw which Add to your library of
could win you a course in
photography e-Books
photography from the
You can download more
International College of
books in this series from
Media Studies.
the International College
Just send a blank e-mail to: Media Studies at:
subscribe@icmstudies.com www.icmstudies.com

,&06
5HGHILQLQJGLVWDQFHHGXFDWLRQLQSKRWRJUDSK\
)LQGRXWPRUHDERXW,&06 6RPHXVHIXOSKRWRJUDSK\OLQNV
These links will open in a new This collection of photo links will open in
window in your browser. a new window in your browser.

Show your pictures, enter regular

Visit our website competitions for prizes and get answers
ZZZLFPVWXGLHVFRP to your photo questions.

  

Study the work of the master

For answers to FAQs:


  photographers.

Online stock photo agency marketing the
 




Contact us: work of photographers.

  
Everything you ever wanted to know ZZZR]LPDJHVFRPDX
Download free e-Books about the ins and outs of scanning



 photographs.

Subscribe to newsletter Digital Photography Review offers all the

latest news in digital photography, ZZZVFDQWLSVFRP
1HZVOHWWHU VXEVFULEH excellent equipment reviews and forums.
Enrol online

 

 ZZZGSUHYLHZFRP
 Copyright Notice
All copyright in this brochure and its contents belongs to The International
College of Media Studies. As long as the contents remain unaltered in any
way you may copy this brochure and distribute it freely.
For further information visit our website at: www.icmstudies.com
Email: information@icmstudies.com

© International College of Media Studies 2004