CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Dragonfly wing

Dragonfly is one of the oldest and most maneuverable flying insects on earth. Their flight
performance far exceeds many other flying insect species. The wings of dragonflies are
mainly composed of veins and membranes, a typical nanocomposite material. The veins and
membranes have a complex design within the wing that give rise to whole-wing
characteristics which result in dragonflies being supremely versatile, maneuverable fliers.
The wing structure, especially corrugation, on dragonflies is believed to enhance
aerodynamic performance. Its wings are highly corrugated, which increases the stiffness and
strength of the wing significantly, and results in a lightweight structure with good
aerodynamic performance.

Dragonfly wings possess great stability and high load-bearing capacity during flapping flight,
glide, and hover. Corrugation provokes an early transition to turbulent flow over the two-
dimensional aerofoil, permitting reattachment of the flow over the wing called laminar
bubble, so more lift is produced.

Fig. 1: Corrugation of dragon fly wing

A peculiarity of the dragonfly is its use of a rowing motion along an inclined stroke plane.
During hovering, the body lies almost horizontal. The wings push backward and downward,
and at the end of the stroke, feather and slice upward and forward. In contrast, many other
hovering insects use a symmetrical back-and-forth stroke near a horizontal stroke plane.
The dragonfly’s asymmetric rowing motion allows it to support much of its weight by the
upward drag created during the downstroke; for the more common symmetric motion, the
drag roughly cancels.
The dragonfly belongs to Odonata, one of the most ancient of insect orders. Its fore and hind
wings are controlled by separate muscles, and a distinctive feature of the dragonfly’s wing
movement is the phase relation between those wings during various maneuvers.
When hovering, the fore and hind wings tend to beat out of phase; during take-off, they tend
to beat closer in phase. The fore and hind wings are about a wing-width apart—close enough
for them to interact hydrodynamically.
To determine the amount of interaction, one solves the Navier–Stokes flow equations with
boundary conditions set by the movement of the wings. The resulting flows are spectacular
and complex. They depend on Reynolds number, wing motion, wing shape, and phase
difference.

Fig. 2: Dragonfly wing

1.2 Dragonfly Flight

Dragonflies have survived millions of years of evolution and are one of the most stable and
manoeuvrable flyers in nature. They are also one of the very few species which can capture
preys in air. Their horizontal body posture allows them to change flight modes from hovering
to fast forward or turning swiftly and follow a target closely. Unlike most other insects,
dragonflies can also fly backwards, sideways and even glide. Their flight speed is as high as
90km/h.
The maximum thrust force their wings generate can go up to thirteen times their body weight.
Videos of dragonfly flight also show dragonflies turn 180 degrees in only three wingbeats. In
general, the wingbeat frequency of dragonfly ranges from 20-90 Hz.

The flight kinematics of a dragonfly differ significantly from most insects in that they have
two pairs of independently-controllable wings. The high level of dexterity in wing motion of
the dragonfly allows for its excellent manoeuvrability, and a robot which could effectively
mimic those kinematics would potentially exhibit superior flight performance than existing
designs.

Fig 3: Dragonfly Cross Section Locations (Kesel, 2000)

 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SUREY
A computational fluid dynamics study was conducted to investigate this phenomenon at a
Reynolds number of 14 000 by comparing a corrugated aerofoil with the NACA010 aerofoil.
The results show a clear reduction of the separation bubble and increased lift for the
corrugated aerofoil. The corrugated aerofoil also showed improved lift 5° angle of attack.
Drag was higher for the corrugated aerofoil which is intuitively expected. At higher angle of
attack where pressure drag is more dominant, the reduction in separation bubble results in a
lower overall reduction in drag. (Wei Hua Ho/University of South Africa, New Tze
How/Nanyang Technological University, December 2013)

In the paper titled as- “Simplified dragonfly aerofoil aerodynamics at Reynolds numbers
below 8000” . The results of the corrugated aerofoil analysis were compared to the
performance of a “traditional” low Reynolds number aerofoil, the Eppler-E61.The results
state that, the calculated maximum range coefficient (L/D)max and the maximum endurance
coefficient (L^1.5/D)max of corrugated aerofoil is superior to a similar configuration with the
smooth aerofoils.( David-Elie Levy and Avraham Seifert, Phys. Fluids 21, 071901, 2009)

An experimental study which was conducted to investigate the aerodynamic characteristics of

a bio-inspired corrugated aerofoil compared with a smooth-surfaced aerofoil and a flat plate
at the chord Reynolds number to explore the potential applications for micro air vehicle
designs revealed that, compared with the smooth-surfaced aerofoil and flat plate, the
corrugated aerofoil could generate higher lift and delay aerofoil stall to much higher angle of
attack for low Reynolds number flight applications. The corrugated aerofoil was found to
have very comparable drag coefficients as the smooth-surfaced aerofoil, while maintaining a
higher lift coefficient, at relatively high angles of attack. (Jeffery T. Murphy Hui Hu, Exp
Fluids, 2010)

In the paper titled as- “Aerodynamic Bio-Mimetics of Gliding Dragonflies for Ultra-Light
Flying Robot”, A low-speed flow study is presented on the development of ultra-light
dragonfly mimetic flying robots with a focus on the dragonfly’s remarkable gliding
capability. It is seen that the corrugated wing profiles provides us stable flight at low
Reynolds no. The dragonfly configuration with propellers makes possible a continued high
angle of attack flight, improves resistance to gusts, and reduces induced by drag. (Akira
Obata , Shotarou Shinohara, Kyohei Akimoto, Kakeru Suzuki and Miyuki Seki,
Robotics 2014)

The paper titled as – “Optimal morphology and performance of a modelled dragonfly aerofoil
in gliding mode” discusses the effect of wing morphology of the dragonfly to understand its
influence on the aerodynamic performance. It was successfully demonstrated that the position
and presence of corrugation affects the nature of flow and aerodynamic performance. ( Md.
Imran Ansari, Mohammed Hamid Siddique, Abdus Samad , and Syed Fahad Anwer, 2019)

An experimental study conducted on Dragonfly wing section in gliding mode demonstrate that the
pleated aerofoil produces comparable and at times higher lift than the profiled aerofoil, with a drag
comparable to that of its profiled counterpart.The primary cause for the reduction in the overall
drag of the pleated airfoil is the negative shear drag produced by the recirculation zones which form
within the pleats.(Abel Vargas, Rajat Mittal and Haibo Dong, Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, The George Washington University)
 CHAPTER 3
DRAGONFLY AERODYNAMICS AND MECHANICS

3.1 Aerodynamic Characteristics

Since dragonflies flap in a close to vertical stroke plane for hovering, most of the lift
generation is caused by pressure drag on the downstroke. The wing acts like an oar dragging
through the water; the drag force on the wing is directed upwards while the wing is pushing
down.

This flapping regime has the benefit of lowering the specific power required for flapping by
minimizing the force on the wing for the upstroke. For normal (horizontal stroke plane)
hovering, the drag is a parasitic force: it does not contribute to the vertical force, and
therefore should be minimized.

The contribution of drag forces to net vertical force is explored and analysed by
computational fluid methods in. Unsteady aerodynamic mechanisms have been found in
insect flight . The introduction of quasi-steady analytical models into the aerodynamics of
insect flight has seen much progress over the past decade.

The extent to which these unsteady terms are applicable to dragonfly kinematics has yet to be
determined since dragonflies assume different wing kinematics, especially the high stroke
plane angle resulted drag based lift.

While some of the unsteady phenomena are markedly absent for dragonflies (most obviously
clap-and-fling), others probably play a role in lift generation such as wing-wing interactions.
 Fig 4: Aerodynamic moments

3.2 Wing Mechanics

Dragonflies adjust their wing motion while hovering to conserve energy, according to a
Cornell University study of the insect's flight mechanics. The revelation contradicts previous
speculation that the change in wing motion served to enhance vertical lift.

The Cornell physicists came to their conclusions after analysing high speed images of
dragonflies in action. The insects have two pairs of wings, which sometimes move up and
down in harmony. At other times the front set of wings flap out of sync with the back set.

The physicists found that dragonflies maximized their lift, when accelerating or taking off
from a perch, by flapping both sets of wings together. When they hover, however, the rear
wings flap at the same rate as the front, but with a different phase (imagine two people
clapping at the same speed, but with one person's clap delayed relative to the other).

The physicists' analysis of the out-of-sync motion showed that while it didn't help with lift, it
minimized the amount of power they had to expend to stay airborne, allowing them to
conserve energy while hovering in place.
 CHAPTER 4
MODELLING

4.1 NACA 0012

The NACA aerofoils are aerofoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA aerofoils is
described using a series of digits following the word "NACA". The parameters in the
numerical code can be entered into equations to precisely generate the cross-section of the
aerofoil and calculate its properties.

The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by

1. First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.

2. Second digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the aerofoil leading
edge in tens of percent of the chord.
3. Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the aerofoil as percent of the chord.

The NACA 0012 aerofoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber. The 12
indicates that the aerofoil has a 12% thickness to chord length ratio: it is 12% as thick as it is
long.

The NACA 0012 aerofoil is widely used. The simple geometry and the large amount of wind
tunnel data provide an excellent 2D validation case.

Fig. 5: NACA 0012 Airfoil

4.2 Eppler E209

The method developed by Eppler is an inverse conformal mapping technique that determines
the x and y coordinates from a given velocity distribution. The ζ plane shows the flow about a
circular cylinder, while the z plane represents the flow about the aerofoil. The velocity in the
z plane is given in terms of ζ coordinates determined in the plane. z and ζ are a defined as:
z = x + iy
ζ= ξ + iη = ℜiΦ
The flow in the ζ plane is such that the rear stagnation point falls on the real axis at ζ = 1
There exists a transformation of the plane to the z plane such that the z plane represents
parallel flow about a closed aerofoil at an angle of attack α. Since ζ = 1 represents a
stagnation point, the Kutta condition requires that this must transform to the trailing edge of
the aerofoil.

Fig. 6: The complex mapping planes

 Fig. 7: E 209 Airfoil

4.3 CATIA MODELLING:

CATIA is an acronym for Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application. It

provides the capability to visualize designs in 2D and 3D. It can be used at different stages of
the design – to ideate, draw, test and iterate.

 A few of the important workbenches are Part Design, Generative shape Design, Assembly,
Kinematic Simulation

Part Design: The most essential workbench needed for solid modelling. This CATIA module
makes it possible to design precise 3D mechanical parts with an intuitive and flexible user
interface, from sketching in an assembly context to iterative detailed design.

Generative Shape Design: allows you to quickly model both simple and complex shapes
using wireframe and surface features. It provides a large set of tools for creating and editing
shape designs. Though not essential, knowledge of Part Design will be very handy in better
utilization of this module.

Assembly: The basics of product structure, constraints, and moving assemblies and parts can
be learned quickly. This is the workbench that allows connecting all the parts to form a
machine or a component. 
Kinematic Simulation: Kinematics involves an assembly of parts that are connected
together by a series of joints, referred to as a mechanism. These. This workbench shows how
a machine will move in the real world.

The following are the Catia models of the experimental models:

Fig 8: 2D model of NACA 0012

Fig. 9: 2D model of E209

Fig.10: 2D model of corrugated aerofoil with dimensions

Fig. 11: 3D model of corrugated wing

Fig. 12: 2D model of Inverted Corrugated aerofoil with dimensions

Fig. 13: 3D model of Inverted corrugated Aerofoil

 CHAPTER 5
STABILITY ANALYSIS

The stability analysis is carried out by using the software “XFLR5”.

 XFLR5 is an analysis tool for aerofoils, wings and planes operating at low Reynolds
Numbers. Wing design and analysis capabilities are based on the Lifting Line Theory, Vortex
Lattice Method and on 3D Panel Method.
The parameters considered for the analysis are:
• Kinematic viscosity, ν: 1.46*10−5 m2/s
• Dynamic viscosity, μ: 1.79*10-5 kg/m.s
• Density: 1.225 kg/m3
• Re number: 75000 – 150000
• N crit : 9

• AOA: 00 – 120

5.1 Stability analysis of corrugated airfoil:

Fig. 14(a): Cl vs AoA

 Fig. 14(b): Cl vs Cd

Fig. 14(c): Cl3/2 /Cd

Fig. 14(d): Cm vs AoA

 Fig. 14(e): Cl/Cd vs AoA

5.2 Stability analysis of inverted corrugated airfoil:

Fig. 15(a): Cl vs AoA

Fig. 15(b): Cl vs Cd
Fig. 15(c): Cl3/2/Cd vs AoA

Fig. 15(d): Cm vs AoA

Fig. 15(e): Cl/Cd vs AoA

 CHAPTER 6
CFD ANALYSIS

In a CFD analysis, the examination of fluid flow in accordance with its physical properties
such as velocity, pressure, temperature, density and viscosity is conducted. A mathematical
model of the physical case and a numerical method are used in a software tool to analyse the
fluid flow.

With a CFD analysis, we can understand the flow and heat transfer throughout a design
process. The basic methodology for any engineering CFD analysis is based on a few
procedures:
• Understanding flow model — Flow separations, transient effect, physical interactions;
• Proving assumed model — Experimental results validation, parametric studies, structural
simulations;
• Model optimizing — Reducing pressure drops, flow homogenization, improving laminar
and turbulent mixing.

6.1 CFD ANALYSIS OF CORRUGATED AIRFOIL

6.1.1 V=10 m/s
 AOA= 0 deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 16: Mesh for 0 deg AOA

Fig 16 (a): Convergence plot

Fig 16 (b): Pressure contour

Fig 16 (c): Velocity contour

Fig 16(d): Velocity Streamlines

Fig. 16 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA=4 deg, V=10 m/s

Fig 17 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 17 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 17 (c): pressure contour

 Fig. 17 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 17 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA=8 deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 18 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 18 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 18 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 18 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 18 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA=12 deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 19 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 19(b): Velocity contour

Fig. 19 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 19 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 19 (e): Velocity vectors

6.1.2 V=15 m/s
 AOA= 0 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 20 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 20 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 20 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 20(d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 20 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 4 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 21 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 21 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 21 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 21 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 21 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 8 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 22 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 22 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 22 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 22 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 22 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA=12deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 23 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 23 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 23 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 23 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 23 (e): Velocity vectors

6.2 CFD ANALYSIS OF INVERTED CORRUGATED AIRFOIL
6.2.1 V=10 m/s
 AOA= 0 deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 24 (a): Mesh

Table 1: Details of mesh

Domain Radius: 150mm

Nodes (0 deg) 77661
Nodes (4 deg) 77467
Nodes (8 deg) 77840
Nodes (12 deg) 77710
Fig. 24 (b): Convergence plot

Fig. 24 (c): Velocity contour

Fig. 24 (d): Pressure contour

Fig. 24 (e): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 24 (f): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 4 deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 25 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 25 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 25 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 25 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 25 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 8deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 26 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 26 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 26 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 26 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 26 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 12deg, V=10 m/s

Fig. 27 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 27 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 27 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 27 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 27 (e): Velocity vectors

6.2.1 V=15 m/s

 AOA= 0 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 28 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 28 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 28 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 28 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 28 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 4 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 29 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 29 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 29 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 29 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 29 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 8 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 30 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 30 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 30 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 30 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 30 (e): Velocity vectors

 AOA= 12 deg, V=15 m/s

Fig. 31 (a): Convergence plot

Fig. 31 (b): Velocity contour

Fig. 31 (c): Pressure contour

Fig. 31 (d): Velocity streamlines

Fig. 31 (e): Velocity vectors

6.3 NACA 0012 Plots

Fig 32 (a): Cl Vs AOA

Fig 32 (b): Cd Vs AOA

Fig 32 (c): Cl/Cd Vs AOA

Fig 32 (d): Cl Vs Cd (10 m/s)

Fig 32 (e): Cl Vs Cd (15 m/s)

6.4 E209 plots

Fig 33 (a): Cl Vs AOA

Fig 33 (b): Cd Vs AOA

\
Fig 33 (c): Cl/Cd Vs AOA
Fig 33 (d): Cl Vs Cd (10m/s)

Fig 33 (e): Cl Vs Cd (15 m/s)

6.5 Corrugated Airfoil plots

Fig 34 (a): Cl Vs AOA

Fig 34 (b): Cd Vs AOA

 Fig 34 (c): Cl/Cd Vs AOA

Fig 34 (d): Cl Vs Cd (10 m/s)

Fig 34 (e): Cl Vs Cd (15 m/s)

6.5 Inverted Corrugated Airfoil plots

Fig 35 (a): Cl Vs AOA

Fig 35 (b): Cd Vs AOA

 Fig 35 (c): Cl/Cd Vs AOA

Fig 35 (d): Cl Vs Cd (10 m/s)

Fig 35 (e): Cl Vs Cd (15 m/s)

6.6 Comparison of Results
Table 2: Aerodynamic parameters

From the analysis, we can observe that as the angle of attack increases for corrugated airfoil,
the flow separation delays and the also the velocity increases. It gives a better lift to drag ratio
than the lower angles. We now know that higher angle delays the flow separation and
ensuring better L/D ratio.
 CONCLUSION

On Performing the stability and CFD analysis many things have been found. They are listed
below:
 Corrugated airfoil gives highest lift at all AoA when compared to other airfoils.
 Corrugated airfoil gives maximum L/D ratio between 4 and 8 deg AoA.
 E 209 gives the maximum L/D ratio at 8 deg AoA of 10.76 out of all four airfoils.
 NACA 0012 also gives a L/D ratio of 10.73 at 8 deg AoA.
 Inverted corrugated airfoil is the least efficient airfoil.
 With increase in AoA the increase in drag is more for corrugated airfoil than NACA
0012 and E 209.
 Corrugated airfoil should be used between 4 and 8 deg AoA for better efficiency.

After CFD analysis the next step is to fabricate the model and test it in wind tunnel and
compare both the results.
 REFERENCES
1. A computational study of the aerodynamic performance of a dragonfly wing section
in gliding flight. Abel Vargas, Rajat Mittal and Haibo Dong Department of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The George Washington University,
Washington DC 20052, USA, Bioinsp. Biomim. 3, 2008 026004 (13pp)

2. Simplified dragonfly aerofoil aerodynamics at Reynolds numbers below 8000 David-

Elie Levy and Avraham Seifert, Phys. Fluids 21, 071901, 2009

3. Aerodynamic Bio-Mimetics of Gliding Dragonflies for Ultra-Light Flying Robot

Akira Obata , Shotarou Shinohara, Kyohei Akimoto, Kakeru Suzuki and Miyuki Seki,
Robotics 2014

4. An experimental study of a bio-inspired corrugated aerofoil for micro air vehicle

applications Jeffery T. Murphy Hui Hu, Exp Fluids, 2010

5. Optimal morphology and performance of a modelled dragonfly aerofoil in gliding

mode Cite as: Phys. Fluids 31, 051904 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5093230
Submitted: 19 February 2019. Accepted: 22 April 2019. Published Online: 14 May
2019 Md. Imran Ansari, Mohammed Hamid Siddique, Abdus Samad , and Syed
Fahad Anwer
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT
NOMENCLATURE
ABBREVATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER 1........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Dragonfly wing...............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Dragonfly Flight.............................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 2........................................................................................................................................4
LITERATURE SUREY......................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 3........................................................................................................................................6
DRAGONFLY AERODYNAMICS AND MECHANICS................................................................6
3.1 Aerodynamic Characteristics.......................................................................................................6
3.2 Wing Mechanics.............................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 4........................................................................................................................................8
MODELLING......................................................................................................................................8
4.1 NACA 0012....................................................................................................................................8
4.2 Eppler E209....................................................................................................................................9
4.3 CATIA MODELLING:...............................................................................................................10
CHAPTER 5......................................................................................................................................14
STABILITY ANALYSIS..................................................................................................................14
5.1 Stability analysis of corrugated airfoil:......................................................................................14
5.2 Stability analysis of inverted corrugated airfoil:.......................................................................16
CHAPTER 6......................................................................................................................................18
CFD ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................18
6.1 CFD ANALYSIS OF CORRUGATED AIRFOIL....................................................................18
6.2 CFD ANALYSIS OF INVERTED CORRUGATED AIRFOIL..............................................35
6.3 NACA 0012 Plots.........................................................................................................................52
6.4 E209 plots.....................................................................................................................................54
6.5 Corrugated Airfoil plots..............................................................................................................56
6.5 Inverted Corrugated Airfoil plots..............................................................................................58
6.6 Comparison of Results................................................................................................................60
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................61
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................62