What is a transistor?

It is a three terminal semi-

conductor device, which
normally offers voltage or
current amplification, as
well as switching.

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Inside the Op Amp
Made up of many transistors and circuits…

Model 741

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 What is a BJT?
BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor
BJTs are also commonly referred to simply as Transistors
Three terminals are referred to as: Base, Collector, Emitter
Recall naming convention: e.g. VCE (voltage of C relative to E)
Use capitals to signify DC quantities (as opposed to AC quantities)

Base designed to be
much thinner than
Collector & Emitter
Emitter more heavily
doped than Collector
(i.e. more carriers)
A small current flow into/out of the base (IB) controls a much larger current flowing
between the collector (IC) and emitter (IE)
Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing
 Operation regions of a BJT

IE = I C + I B
VCE = VCB + VBE
Collector characteristic: Family of curves (for each value of IB, an IC-VCE curve can
be generated)
Three regions: Cut off, Active (also referred to as Linear), Saturation
Amplification: Active Switching: Cut off and Saturation

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 BJT characteristics
Active region: Compared to Saturation
IC vs VCE: IC is much _______ sensitive
to changes in VCE.
 Associated resistance is _________
IC vs IB: IC is much _______ sensitive to
changes in IB.
 Associated current gain (β) is ________
Ideal for amplification

Saturation region: Compared to Active

IC vs VCE: IC is much _______ sensitive to changes in VCE.
 Associated resistance is _________ (i.e. fast switching, lower power)
IC vs IB: IC is much _______ sensitive to changes in IB.
 Associated current gain (β) is ________
Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing
 Cutoff mode
In the cutoff mode, the pn junctions at both the emitter-base and collector-base
interfaces are reverse biased. This is similar to having two back to back reverse
biased diodes, where it can be seen that no current can flow between the
emitter and collector terminals. As such, the transistor is simply off. There is
also no current flowing into the base in this mode.
To turn the transistor on, we must forward bias the base-emitter junction

E n+ p n C

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Linear active mode
The active region is characterized by a small base current greatly amplified to
give a much larger collector current, such that IB << IC
It is common to expression their relationship by a parameter symbolized by β:
IC = βIB, where β is typically large in the active region (from 50 to above 400)
As a result of this large current gain, we find that IC ~ IE
Holes in the base are
injected into the emitter Vγ B VCB > 0
IB

IE
n
E p IC C
n+ Electron flow
Electrons in the emitter Some of the emitter electrons recombine
are injected into the in the base but most it is swept into the
base collector
Large electric field across the junction sweeps electrons in the base into the
collector with minimal recombination occurring in the thin base layer.
Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing
 Saturation mode
The saturation region is characterized by low current gain between the base
and collector.

Base current is now larger Holes in the base are

due to hole injection into Vγ B VCB < 0 also injected into the
the collector from the collector now
base IB

n+ IE n
E p IC C
Electron flow
Potential gradient between collector and
emitter is greatly reduced since VCE < Vγ
(but still positive), having an effect on the
collector current
Accelerating electric field across the junction is now switched off. Electrons
diffuse into collector.
Animation: http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/Semiconductors/bjt_04.php

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Operation regions of a BJT
Both junctions are forward-biased, VCE BE forward-biased, CB reverse-
is small (preferred for switch mode) biased (amplifier operation)

Collector Characteristic: Family of

curves (for each value of IB, an IC-VCE
curve can be generated)
Both junctions are Breakdown region: Physical
reverse-biased limit of operation of the device

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Why apply DC biasing and how?
• Semiconductor devices normally operate in different
operation regions.
• Each region has its own electrical properties.
• It is necessary to provide appropriate direct potentials
and currents, using external sources to set the transistor
to a certain operation region.
• DC input provides an operating or quiescent point
(called the Q-point)

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Biasing a BJT as an amplifier ?
1. When a BJT is used as an amplifier, it is biased to
operate in the active (linear) region.
IC = βIB
2. The zero-excitation operation point is called the
quiescent point Q.
3. The large-signal response of a BJT is obtained
graphically.
4. For small signals the BJT operates with reasonable
linearity. Under this condition, small-signal linear
models are used (coming up in Transistors 2).

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Fixed bias
Simplest configuration to provide DC conditions to the BJT for it to
work in the active region.
Input: Vcc = IBRB + VBE

Output: Vcc = ICRC + VCE

Current gain: IC = βIB

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Solve for IB: 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
Recall from EE2301:
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵
C1 and C2 are decoupling caps
We will ignore these for now Simple: Set IB by choosing e.g. RB.

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Load line for fixed bias
The load line end points are: Load line follows the equation:
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
ICsat (Max IC, which occurs in 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = − +
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶
saturation mode)
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑰𝑰𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 =  VCE = 0 V
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶

VCEcutoff (Max VCE, which occurs

in cutoff mode)

VCEcutoff = VCC  IC = 0 mA

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 The Q-point is the operating point where the value of RB
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 sets the value of IB that controls the values of VCE and IC .

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Fixed bias: Effect of RC on Q-point

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = − +
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶

Assume IB is fixed

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

Fixed bias: Effect of VCC on Q-point

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = − +
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶

Assume IB is fixed

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

Fixed bias: Effect of IB on Q-point
Assume the load line is fixed
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = − +
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Example 1: Fixed bias
Given: RB = 1 MΩ, RC = 4.7kΩ, β = 100, VBE = 0.7V, VCC = 10V
Determine the quiescent point Q : ICQ and VCEQ

Ans: 0.93mA, 5.629V

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Example 2: Fixed bias
Given: VBE = 0.7V, Vcc = 10V, β = 100
Determine RB and RC for Q point: ICQ = 10mA and VCEQ = Vcc/2
ICQ: Value of IC at the Q-point (not a new variable)

Ans: RB = 93kΩ, RC = 500Ω

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Example 3: Fixed bias
Based on the value of RB and RC calculated in example 2, find the new Q-point if β
of the BJT is changed to 200.
Assume VBE and VCC are the same as example 2

Ans: transistor is saturated

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Fixed bias: Voltage swing limits
Given: VBE = 0.7 V
What is the maximum allowable voltage swing at the input?

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Fixed Bias : Pros and Cons
Pros:
• It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the
active region by merely changing the base resistor (RB).
• A very small number of components are required.
Cons:
• Current gain is sensitive to temperature fluctuations
> Unstable to temperature changes
• Current gain can be vary from device to device
• AC input swing range towards 0V limited by VBE (cannot
drop below the minimum biasing voltage).

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Emitter bias circuit
Adding a resistor (RE) to the
emitter circuit stabilizes the
bias circuit.
What is meant by stability?

How is stability achieved?

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Analysis of Base-Emitter loop
If β increases, voltage across RE will increase.
Input: This forces voltage across RB to decrease.
VCC = IBRB + VBE + IERE IB will fall, thus counter-balancing the increase
in IC due to increase in β
Current gain:
IC = βIB

𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Solving for IB: 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

Increase in current gain forces base current

to fall.

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Analysis of Collector-Emitter loop
Output:
VCC = ICRC + VCE + IERE
Stability: When currents and voltages remain fairly
constant over a wide range of temperatures and
transistor Beta (β) values.

Solving for VCE:

𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ≈ 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸
Approximation: IE ≈ IC when β» 1

IC = βIB
𝛽𝛽 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

RE provides stability by introducing feedback to the input

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Example 4: Emitter bias
Given: RB = 1MΩ, RC = 2kΩ, RE = 1kΩ, β = 100, VBE = 0.7V, VCC = 15V
Determine the quiescent point Q : ICQ and VCEQ

Ans: 1.299mA, 11.09V

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Emitter bias: Pros and Cons
Pros:
• The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against
changes in temperature and β-value
Cons:
• In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β: (β+1)RE >> RB
𝛽𝛽(𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ) (𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = ≈
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

• As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor,

this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE fairly large or
making RB very small.
> In either case, voltage swing range at input gets limited as a consequence (see
next slide for illustration)

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Emitter bias limitations
Recall: Stabilization is enhanced by choosing: (β+1)RE >> RB

Analyzing the base-emitter loop:

VCC = IBRB + VBE + IERE

IBRB = VCC - VBE - (1+β)IBRE

How is the DC voltage distributed at the input

as result?

Voltage swing range toward VCC will be much less than towards 0V.

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Emitter bias limits
Consider what happens in the most extreme case for maximum stability
𝛽𝛽(𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ) (𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = ≈
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

Applying the above equation to the input

loop implies:
Voltage across RB → 0V
(Zero voltage swing range)

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Collector feedback
Note: Current through Another way to improve the stability of
RC includes IB a bias circuit is to add a feedback path
from collector to base.

The Q-point is only slightly dependent

on the transistor beta, β.

Current gain relation:

IC = βIB

Apply KVL around input loop:

VCC = I’C RC + IB RF + VBE + IE RE

Apply KVL around output loop:

VCC = I’C RC + VCE + IE RE
I’C = IC + IB

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Collector feedback stability
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 + 𝛽𝛽 + 1 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

𝛽𝛽 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 + 𝛽𝛽 + 1 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

If β increases, the increase in IC will cause

the voltage across RC and RE to increase.
Voltage across RF is forced to decrease.
IB decreases accordingly to counter-balance
the increase in IC due to increase in β.

RC appears in the input expression through RF to provide feedback against

changes in β

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Example 5 : Collector feedback bias
Given: VBE = 0.7V, Vcc = 15V, β = 100, RF = 12k, RC = 2kΩ, RE = 1kΩ.
Determine the quiescent point Q: ICQ and VCEQ

Ans: 4.540mA, 1.245V

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Collector feedback: Pros and Cons
Pros:
• Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in
temperature and β (i.e. replacement of transistor)
Cons:
• In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β, (β+1)(RC+RE)
» RF
𝛽𝛽(𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ) (𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 )
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = ≈
𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 + 1 + 𝛽𝛽 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Voltage divider bias
This is a very stable bias circuit.
The currents and voltages are nearly independent of any
variations in β.
R1 and R2 together provide what is approximately
a voltage divider at the input of the circuit (base
of transistor) to fix the voltage at the base.

RE provides stability (recall: emitter bias

configuration)

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Precise analysis 1
Apply KCL at base:
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵
= + 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

Apply KVL at output:

VCC = IC RC + VCE + IE RE

Assuming active mode: IC = βIB

Use current gain relation to substitute IC and IE from above equations.

This leaves you with _______ unknowns to solve for.

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

Precise analysis 2 (using Thevenin)

Output: VCC = ICRc + VCE + IERE Input*: VBB = IBRBB + VBE +IERE Current gain: IC = βIB

*VBB and RBB are the Thevenin equivalent of R1 and R2 seen by the BASE of BJT
VBB=VCC.R2/(R1+R2) and RBB =R1||R2

Note: Please refer to backup notes (EE2301 Block A Unit 3)

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Voltage divider bias key points
Emitter bias alone
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Solving for IB: 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐼𝐵𝐵 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅2
where: 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉 RBB = R1 || R2
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝛽𝛽 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝛽𝛽 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

Expressions almost the same as emitter bias alone except for:

(1) VBB instead of VCC
(2) RBB instead of RB

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Advantages of voltage divider
To keep IC independent of β:

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝛽𝛽 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝛽𝛽 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

Choose (1+β)RE » RBB Choose (1+β)RE » RB

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 ≈ 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 ≈
𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

No limitation on voltage swing Voltage swing for one side of

range due to voltage divider the input (towards VCC) is zero

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Example 6: Voltage divider
Given: R1 = 62kΩ, R2 = 15kΩ, RC = 3.3kΩ, RE = 1.2kΩ, β = 150, VBE = 0.7V, VCC = 18V
Determine the quiescent point Q : ICQ and VCEQ

Ans: 2.178mA; 8.181V

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

 Voltage divider : Pros and Cons
Pros:
• Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.
• Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
• Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.
Cons:
• In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β, (β+1)RE >> R1||R2
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
− 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
1 + 𝑅𝑅1 ||𝑅𝑅2 1 + 𝑅𝑅1 ||𝑅𝑅2
𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝛽𝛽 ≈
𝑅𝑅1 ||𝑅𝑅2 + (1 + 𝛽𝛽)𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸

• How is the above conclusion similar and different to the

emitter bias case?

Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing

Voltage divider with bypass cap

1
𝑍𝑍𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 ||
𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶𝐸𝐸

Circuit seen @ DC Circuit seen @ AC

Select CE such that RE » 1/ωCE

As we will see in Transistors 2, while RE provides feedback to stabilize the

Q-point at DC, RE also provides feedback that reduces the gain at AC.
CE bypasses RE at ω to remove the feedback at ω.
Transistors 1: Characteristics & DC Biasing