INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

Book-1
THE BEST ETHERNET PROTOCOL FOR YOUR PLC
For many years, Ethernet and the TCP/IP protocol have been used in the manufacturing arena
to network control systems, management systems, and manufacturing cells on a manufacturing
shop floor, but not for the controlling communications inside the actual machines and
equipment. The machine controller itself and the communications to the actuators invariably
demand the use of deterministic fieldbus, so TCP/IP is not suitable. Trying to use traditional
TCP/IP protocol from machine control to the sensors and actuators has failed due to the inability
to satisfy deterministic, real-time demands. It is simple as that.
The economics of adopting Ethernet as a fieldbus are compelling because Ethernet
components offer dramatically lower costs and are universally available.
The industry soon realized that while TCP/UDP/IP protocol could never deliver the real-time,
deterministic response required by industrial machine controllers.
All that was needed was a new real-time protocol that was designed from the ground up to use
the physical layers of the hardware, but could deterministically connect and communicate the
machine controller to all the sensors and actuators in a machine.
• EtherCAT
• EtherNet/IP
• Powerlink
• PROFINET IRT
• SERCOS III
Proprietary products deliver competitive differentiation in early stages of technology
development. But there comes a point when open, standards-based solutions are necessary to
establish the technological foundation on which more innovators can participate at lower cost,
toward the goal of growing a richer and more robust market.
Specifically in the context of real-time deterministic fieldbuses, there are three different
approaches that have emerged that allow the standard to deliver determinism on an Ethernet-
based infrastructure.
STANDARD SOFTWARE / STANDARD ETHERNET
Based on TCP/IP: Protocols are based on standard TCP/IP layers with real-time mechanisms
embedded in the top layer. These solutions usually have a limited performance range.
OPEN SOFTWARE/ STANDARD ETHERNET
New standard protocols are implemented on top of standard Ethernet layers. These solutions
benefit from Ethernet evolution without further investment. However, to deliver the determinism,
the standard must include a proprietary software controller at the OSI Layer 3&4 to reserve time

1
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

on the network, otherwise latency can occur.

OPEN SOFTWARE / MODIFIED ETHERNET
These solutions effectively create a new standard to take advantage of the existing Ethernet
hardware, but require a new protocol and some hardware that guarantees determinism. The
software is published freely and in the public domain. The hardware can be as complex as a
special switch or as simple as an ASIC that fits into the slave device.
EtherCAT
ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHY: OPEN SOFTWARE/MODIFIED ETHERNET
EtherCAT delivers the most deterministic response of any industrial real-time Ethernet system
available. Being able to process 1,000 I/Os in 32.5 μs or 100 axes in 125 μs offers machine
builders the opportunity to deliver breakthrough in machine performance at a lower price.
With EtherCAT, all devices are networked with the bus master in a ring formation. During each
cycle, relevant output data is extracted by the devices from the Ethernet data packets sent by
the bus master. EtherCAT uses the telegram structure of Ethernet, but with an entirely different
basic mode of operation. a telegram is not sent to each station separately as in other Ethernet
approaches, but rather a single Ethernet telegram runs through all stations/slaves.
The entire protocol processing is hardware-based.
EtherNet/IP
ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHY: STANDARD SOFTWARE/STANDARD ETHERNET
The “Ethernet Industrial Protocol” is essentially a port of the CIP application protocol (Common
Industrial Protocol), which was already used by ControlNet and DeviceNet, to the Ethernet data
transfer protocol. EtherNet/IP is particularly well established on the American market and is
often used with Rockwell control systems.
EtherNet/IP is an application-layer protocol on top of TCP/IP. EtherNet/IP uses standard
Ethernet physical, data link, network, and transport layers, while using Common Industrial
Protocol (CIP) over TCP/IP.
CIP provides a common set of messages and services for industrial automation control
systems, and it can be used in multiple physical media. For example, CIP over CAN bus is
called DeviceNet, CIP over dedicated network is called ControlNet, and CIP over Ethernet is
called EtherNet/IP.
EtherNet/IP uses the standard Ethernet and switches, thus it can have an unlimited number of
nodes in a system. This enables one network across many different end points in a factory floor.
EtherNet/IP offers complete producer-consumer service and enables very efficient slave peer-
to-peer communications.
EtherNet/ IP is compatible with many standard internet and Ethernet protocols but has limited
real-time and deterministic capabilities

2
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

ETHERNET Powerlink.
ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHY: OPEN SOFTWARE/STANDARD ETHERNET
ETHERNET Powerlink is a strictly cyclical protocol that organizes the access to a network as
well as the synchronization of the devices. The communication cycle is divided into an
isochronous phase for time critical data as well as an asynchronous phase for transferring ad-
hoc data. All of the devices on the network can always directly read all of the data from the other
devices; detouring over a central bus master is not necessary. This protocol is equally suitable
for local as well as remote control designs.
The master (controller) successively polls the slaves (drives) within an allocated communication
cycle period. The remaining cycle time is left over for asynchronous data traffic, such as for
configuration of the devices. Data transport occurs via a standard Ethernet telegram, with the
Ethertype set to ‘Powerlink’ for the real-time data and to ‘IP’ for the general data. All stations
(master and slaves) within a real-time segment interconnect via a standard Ethernet hub.
PROFINET IRT (IRT = isochronous real time)
ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHY: OPEN SOFTWARE/MODIFIED ETHERNET
In order to cover the different performance classes, PROFINET makes free use of the
producer/consumer principle and resorts to various protocols and services. High-priority payload
data sent directly via the Ethernet protocol travels in Ethernet frames with VLAN prioritization,
whereas diagnostics and configuration data, for instance, is sent using UDP/IP. That enables
the system to achieve cycle times of around 10ms for I/O applications
Clock-synchronized cycle times below one millisecond, as required for motion control
applications, are provided by PROFINET IRT
. Not many drive vendors support PROFINET IRT so it has not been broadly adopted by
machine builders outside of Siemens and GE.
SERCOS III
ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHY: OPEN SOFTWARE/MODIFIED ETHERNET
SERCOS Interface (SERCOS, Serial Realtime Communication System) that was originally
introduced to the market in 1985, Standard Ethernet according to IEEE 802.3 serves as the data
transfer protocol. This communication system is predominantly used in motion control-based
automation systems
SERCOS-III is likewise based on a time slot mechanism in which bandwidth is reserved for the
isochronous (real-time channel) and asynchronous (IP channel) data traffic. SERCOSIII works
without hubs or switches. Each station has a special integrated ASIC or FPGA with two
communication ports, enabling it to be connected via line or ring topology. Eliminating the
switches means shorter cycle times can be implemented, though at the cost of flexibility in the
network topology.
Other Real-Time Fieldbuses that Support Ethernet but Are Not “Open”
There are other fieldbuses, such as CC-Link from Mitsubishi and Mechatrolink from Yaskawa,
that can use Ethernet components but do not meet our definition of open

3
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

Book-2
INDUSTRIAL COMMUNICATIONS AND CONTROL PROTOCOLS
Some protocols used with controllers are for data communications only, usually by sensors and
transmitters. Others are used for both data communications and control applications.
Analog signals were susceptible to being corrupted by electrical noise and unintentional
grounds. Another was that settings and calculated values in control loops tended to drift over
time.
Digital data communications through protocols has the advantages that it is inherently more
stable, reliable, and less susceptible to electrical noise than analog signals.
When any network can transmit data to any other node on the network, the network is called a
peer-to-peer network. Peer-to-peer capability is only possible if the application layer protocol
supports it.

Book-3
DATA COMMUNICATION FOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
Chapter-1
Any communications system requires a transmitter to send information, a receiver to accept it
and a link between the two. Types of link include copper wire, optical fiber, radio, and
microwave.Virtually all modern data communication use serial links, in which the data is
transmitted in sequence over a single circuit.

4
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

Messages or data are generally sent in packets, which are simply a sequence of bytes. The
protocol defines the length of the packet, which is usually fixed. Each packet requires a source
address and a destination address so that the system knows where to send it, and the receiver
knows where it came from.

A packet starts at the top of the protocol stack,the application layer, and passes down through
the other software layers until it reaches the physical layer. It is then sent over the link. When
traveling down the stack, the packet acquires additional header information at each layer. This
tells the next layer down what to do with the packet. At the receiver end, the packet travels up
the stack with each piece of header information being stripped off on the way. The application
layer only receives the data sent by the application layer at the transmitter.
Basic structure of an information frame defined by a protocol.
1.6 Physical standard
The RS-232C interface standard describes the interface between a terminal (DTE) and a
modem (DCE) specifically for the transfer of serial binary digits. It leaves a lot of flexibility to the
designers of the hardware and software protocols.

5
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

RS-232 has a number of inherent weaknesses that make it unsuitable for data communications
for instrumentation and control in an industrial environment. Consequently RS-423, RS-422 and
RS-485 were developed.
RS-423 Interface standard
The RS-423 interface standard is an unbalanced system similar to RS-232 with increased range
and data transfer rates and up to 10 line receivers per line driver.
RS-422 Interface standard
The RS-422 interface system is a balanced system with the same range as RS-423, with
increased data rates and up to 10 line receivers per line driver
RS-485 Interface standard
The RS-485 is a balanced system with the same range as RS-422, but with increased data
rates and up to 32 transmitters and receivers possible per line
1.7 Modern instrumentation and control system
In an instrumentation and control system, data is acquired by measuring instruments and is
transmitted to a controller – typically a computer. The controller then transmits data (or control
signals) to control devices, which act upon a given process.

 Control of the processes and alarms

 Control of sequencing, interlocking and alarms.
 An operator interface for display and control.
 Management information
The four devices that have made the most significant impact on how plants are controlled are:
• Distributed control system (DCS)
• Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
• Smart instruments (SIs)
• PCs
Chapter-2
Basic Principles (Page-11)
The OSI model is useful in providing a universal framework for all communication systems.
However, it does not define the actual protocol to be used at each layer.

6
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

Graphical representation of data communications.

Every data communications system requires:

• A source of data (a transmitter or line driver), which converts the information into a form
suitable for transmission over a link
• A receiver that accepts the signal and converts it back into the original data
• A communications link that transports the signals. This can be copper wire, optical fiber, and
radio or satellite link.
The physical method of transferring data across a communication link varies according to the
medium used. The binary values 0 and 1, for example, can be signaled by the presence or
absence of a voltage on a copper wire, by a pair of audio tones generated and decoded by a
modem in the case of the telephone system, or by the use of modulated light in the case of
optical fiber.
Communication modes
• Simplex -A simplex system is one that is designed for sending messages in one direction only
• Half duplex-Half duplex occurs when data can flow in both directions, but in only one
direction at a time
• Full duplex-In a full-duplex system, the data can flow in both directions simultaneously.

7
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

TRANSMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS
Signaling Rate/Baud rate-The signaling rate of a communications link is a measure of how
many times the physical signal changes per second and is expressed as the baud rate.
Data rate-The data rate or bit rate is expressed in bits per second (bps), or multiples such as
kbps, Mbps and Gbps.
Bandwidth- is generally expressed in hertz (Hz), meaning cycles per second. This represents
the maximum frequency at which signal changes can be handled before attenuation degrades
the message.
Signal to noise (S/N) ratio-The maximum practical data transfer rate for a link is
mathematically related to the bandwidth, S/N ratio and the number of levels encoded in each
signaling element. As the S/N decreases, so does the bit rate.

CABLING BASICS
The most common types of cables used in data communications systems are:
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial
• Fiber-optic

ELECTRICAL NOISE AND INTERFERENCE

Sources of electrical noise and the ability of a cable to exclude them are important issues when
selecting and installing data cables.
Definition of Noise-Noise, or interference, can be defined as undesirable electrical signals,
which distort or interfere with an original (or desired) signal.
Examples of noise sources are:
• Internal noise
• Thermal noise (due to electron movement within the electrical circuits)
• Imperfections (in the electrical design)
• External noise
• Natural origins (electrostatic interference and electrical storms)
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) – from currents in cables
• Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) – from radio systems radiating signals
• Crosstalk (from other cables separated by a small distance)

INTRODUCTION TO PROTOCOLS

Simplified OSI model

For many industrial protocols the use of the full seven layers of the OSI model is inappropriate
as the application may require a high-speed response. Hence a simplified OSI model is often
preferred for industrial applications where time critical communications is more important than
full communications functionality provided by the seven-layer model.
Generally, most industrial protocols are written around three layers:
• The physical layer
• The data link layer
• The application layer

When the reduced OSI model is implemented the following limitations exist:

8
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

• As there is no transport layer, the maximum size of the application messages is limited by the
maximum size allowed on the channel
• As there is no network layer, no routing of messages is possible between different networks
• As there is no session layer, no full duplex communications are possible
• As there is no presentation layer, message formats must be the same for all nodes

The MiniMap and Fieldbus protocol standards use the reduced three layer OSI model. Similarly,
other industrial protocols such as the Allen Bradley Data Highway Plus protocol, Modbus Plus
and the HART smart instrumentation protocols have all standardized on the three layers only

One of the challenges when using the OSI model is the concept of interoperability and the need
to define another layer called the ‘user’ Layer.

LOCAL AREA NETWORKS(LAN)

A network is a system for interconnecting various devices, usually in such a way that all users
have access to common resources (such as printers) and can communicate with each other.
There are three broad classes of network, although the distinction between them is blurred and
they tend to overlap.
Local area networks (LANs)
Metropolitan area networks (MANs)
Wide area networks (WANs)

CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING

The two basic types of networks are ‘circuit’ switched and ‘packet’ switched. In a circuit switched
network, a connection is established between the two ends and maintained for the duration of
the message exchange (an example is the public telephone system). The advantage is a
guarantee of continuity, while the disadvantage is cost. The circuit is tied up even when no one
is talking or the transmission rate may be slow.
A packet switched network does not establish a direct connection. Instead, the message is
broken up into a series of packets or frames, sometimes known as protocol data units (PDUs).
These are transmitted one at a time, each carrying the destination address. Depending on the
network conditions, they may take different routes to the destination, and may arrive out of
order. It is the job of the protocol software to reassemble the packets in the right order. Packet
switching is cheaper as it makes better use of the resources; the physical communications links
carry packets from multiple sources concurrently.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The way in which nodes are interconnected is known as the network topology. The three most
common topologies are:
• Star
• Ring or loop
• Bus (or multidrop)

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL MECHANISM

The three main methods of controlling access to the medium are:
• Master-slave (or poll-response) mode
• Token passing

9
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

• CSMA/CD

TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
Two main methods used for the transmission of information over a LAN are baseband and
broadband.
Baseband-This is also known as time division multiplexing (TDM). Only one device is allowed
to transmit at any one time and can use the entire bandwidth of the system.
Broadband-Broadband is also known as frequency division multiplexing (FDM). The system
bandwidth is divided into channels that do not overlap, meaning that many pairs of devices can
communicate simultaneously and they usually retain their channel until the message transfer is
complete. As only a part of the system bandwidth is available, data transfer rates for individual
communications are less than for TDM using the same physical setup.

Ethernet is a trade name for a proprietary LAN system Ethernet Version 2, commonly called
‘Blue Book Ethernet’. It uses CSMA/CD as a medium access control method.
Standard and thin Ethernet use a bus topology, in which each node attaches to the
communications cable.

Book-6

ISO/OSI Model-

Instead, the ISO/OSI model represents an abstract definition (independent from hardware or
software implementation) consisting of hierarchical layers Related functions are grouped
together in layers with strict separation between horizontal and vertical communication.

The OSI model defines seven layers, each of which has dedicated functions A brief
description of these functions is given in the following.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
This layer covers the physical part of the communication It contains all
hardware specification data, including the signals used, the electrical and
mechanical characteristics of the connection, and all functional parameters that are
necessary, which include tasks like activating, maintaining, and terminating the
physical connection
Layer 2: Link Layer
The link layer is responsible for providing an error-free connection from one node
to another node in the same network segment (point-to-point communication) It
has to correct errors that occur during the physical transmission by using, for
example, error-correction codes For that, it needs error-correction algorithms and
redundant information in the received data It also adds source and destination
address to the packets that are transmitted

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer defines the path that packets take on their way through the
network A packet that is addressed to a destination address will not always
be transmitted directly to its receiver but will rather be passed from one part of
the network to the other until it reaches its destination This is done by

10
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

routing the packets, an algorithm that can be implemented in different ways,

depending on the capabilities of the components Layer 3 defines addresses,
which are not related to the addresses on layer 2 (if they are implemented)
The network layer also is responsible for establishing and terminating network
connections and reestablishing broken network connections .
Layer 4: transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the flow control of data that is sent from
one end user to the other (end-to-end connection) and for assigning logical
addresses to the physical addresses that are used by the network layer It
uses the network layers’ ability to establish network connections in order to
guarantee that messages really reach their end users, which also includes
retransmission of lost packets.
Layer 5: Session Layer
In order to establish a session, the session layer has to make sure that all the
end users agree on the same session protocol; therefore, the participants first
have to negotiate a common protocol, which is then used throughout the
session The session layer defines how a session is started and terminated,
describes how data-exchange is established, and is responsible for end-user
identification (e g , by password).
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer defines how the information shall be formatted in order to
make it understandable for the end user If, for example, an integer number is
transmitted, the presentation layer knows how to interpret the bytes that make
up the number and is able to provide a mathematical value to the application
layer (e g , by first converting big endian to little endian) Conversion of data
is covered here as well as optional encryption of information
Layer 7: application Layer
The application layer provides an interface that can be used by the application
It contains services for the application, which can, for example, provide access
to distributed databases or other high-level services The application layer
strongly depends on what the applications (or the operating system) above it
need, and is therefore usually designed to meet the requirements of these
applications As stated earlier, the seven layers cannot provide interoperability by
themselves Profiles, which create a layer on top of the ISO/OSI model, can
help to reach the level of interworkability.
Seen from a logical perspective, the layers of entities communicate with each
other (i. e, layer n of one entity communicates with layer n′ of the other entity)
The communication between two adjacent layers can be compared to master–
slave communication, because a master does not communicate with a slave, it
rather requests a service from the slave; the slave itself can again be the
master of underlying slaves.

11
INDUSTRIAL NETWORKING

Communication over subnets

Routing in Wireless Networks

12