[FIELD SCHOOL REPORT, UNIVERSITY OF

July 15, 2010 IBADAN]

Chapter Six
PART B: SPECIALIZATION REPORT

DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES AND PROVENANCE DETERMINATION USING

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS AND HEAVY MINERAL ASSEMBLAGES OF
SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS AND STREAM SEDIMENT SAMPLES FROM IWERE-
ILE AND ITS ENVIRONS.

6.0 General Statement

Iwere-Ile is a town in Iwajowa LGA, Oyo state, south western Nigeria and it is
located within the southwestern Nigerian Basement Complex. The basement
geology is characterized by distinct lithologies and mineralization. The area
covers an aerial extent of about 198 km2 and is surrounded by basement
rocks. It is almost divided into two by the River Oyan which flows throughout
the mapped area from north to south forming the major drainage of the area.
The sediment load of the river is predominantly those derived from the
weathering of the surrounding basement rocks. As a requirement for
graduating from the department of Geology, University of Ibadan, it is
required that every student embark on a field school exercise where he/she
is exposed to the rudiments of geologic mapping. Also a specialization report
is required from each student, that incorporates his area of specialty into the
overall geology of the area mapped area and that constitutes this part of my
report.

The study area was mapped and the geologic map was produced by
petroleum group 2. Fifteen soil samples (surficial sediments) and eleven
stream sediments were collected with a good spread throughout the study
area (see figure 6.1). Not much has been done on the grain size analysis and
heavy mineral assemblages of Iwere-Ile and its environs. This part of my
report incorporates the use of grain size analysis and heavy mineral analysis
to determine the provenance (source) and the maturity index and to
categorize the mechanism and environment of deposition using statistical
parameters derived from the analysis.

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Figure 6.1: Topographic Map of the study area showing Stream

sediment and Soil sampling points

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6.1 Grain size Analysis

This is also known as granulometric analysis is perhaps the most basic
sedimentological technique to characterize and interpret sediments and
sedimentary rocks. Sediment describes “what settles at the bottom of a
liquid”. Surface textures of sediments are a result of transport processes and
may reflect origin of particles or environment of deposition e.g. v-shaped
depression is common in deep sea sands deposited by turbidity current,
concoidal patterns may represent glacial origin, dull surfaces may indicate
etching by sand dunes in arid regions while particles from beaches and rivers
show shiny and polished surface. Sedimentological study commences with
the description of the physical properties of the deposit in question.

Grain size statistical parameters can be related to different environments of

deposition (Folk and Ward, 1957, Friedman 1967, Visher 1969). Such grain
size parameters are very useful in environmental interpretation especially
when they are integrated with other parameters such as sedimentary
structures and geological settings.

6.1.1 Methodology

The fifteen soil samples collected from the field were subjected to grain size
analysis after air-drying them, disaggregating and removing all the roots and
plant materials that may be included in the sample. 100g each of the sample
was weighed out using a weigh balance and the sample was emptied onto
the top sieve of a nest of sieves that ranged from very coarse sand size (-
1.0Φ) to very fine sand size (4.0Φ). The sieve was capped and the stack set
on an Endocotts sieve shaker for a constant time of 15 minutes. The weight
retained in each sieve and the pans were obtained by subtracting the weight
of the empty sieve/pan from that with sediments, then the weight was
recorded. The cumulative weight percentages were determined and
tabulated as shown in table 6.1.

The following precautions were taken during the sieve analysis:

The nest of sieves was held parallel to the base of the shaking
apparatus.
A constant sieving time of 15 minutes was used for all samples.
Sieve residues were checked for particle aggregation with the aid of a
hand lens.

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A toothbrush was used to dislodge grains stuck to the screen.

A sample weight of 100g was not exceeded in order to avoid
overloading and to facilitate particle movement downward.

TABLE 6.1: WEIGHT RETAINED IN THE RESPECTIVE SIEVES FOR ALL SOIL SAMPLES (IN GRAMS).

SIEVE SIZES
<75µ
SOIL 1mm 850µm 600µm 425µm 300µm 212µm 150µm 75µm
m
SAMPLES TOTAL
C001 42.0 9.0 16.0 12.0 7.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0
C002 75.0 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C003 21.0 7.0 15.0 17.0 20.0 9.0 6.0 3.0 2.0
C004 22.0 8.0 11.0 10.0 13.0 13.0 11.0 8.0 4.0
C005 17.0 4.0 7.0 14.0 24.0 15.0 12.0 5.0 2.0
C006 29.0 5.0 12.0 17.0 17.0 10.0 2.0 5.0 3.0
C007 3.0 3.0 2.0 6.0 30.0 35.0 15.0 4.0 2.0
C008 20.0 5.0 5.0 7.0 16.0 14.0 11.0 12.0 10.0
C009 6.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 18.0 34.0 23.0 4.0
C010 20.0 5.0 9.0 12.0 15.0 14.0 15.0 7.0 3.0
C011 27.0 6.0 14.0 14.0 5.0 10.0 8.0 4.0 2.0
C012 17.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 8.0 15.0 23.0 16.0 9.0
C013 43.0 4.0 7.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 11.0 7.0 2.0
C014 25.0 5.0 9.0 10.0 15.0 16.0 10.0 6.0 4.0
C015 35.0 4.0 7.0 11.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 7.0 3.0

6.1.2 Data Analysis and Presentation

In most cases, grain-size data is given in phi (Φ) intervals rather than in
microns, millimeters, or inches. One phi unit is equal to one Udden-
Wentworth grade. Phi diameter is computed by taking the negative log of the
diameter in millimeters. Statistical computations and graphic presentations
are much simpler when phi diameters are used.

where:
Φ= particle size in Φ units
d = diameter of particle in mm
Note: the negative sign is affixed so that commonly
encountered sand sized sediments can be described
using positive Φ values.

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Cumulative frequency curves and histograms were plotted for sample. Grain
sizes corresponding to the 5th, 16th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 84th and 95th percentiles
were obtained and used to calculate the graphic mean, median, mean,
standard deviation (sorting), inclusive graphic skewness and graphic
kurtosis. The formulae proposed Folk and Ward (1957) were used for the
calculation). The phi values for the various percentiles are given below:

Table 6.2: Phi (Φ) Values obtained from the Cumulative Curves

Φ EQUIVALENT Φ5 Φ16 Φ25 Φ50 Φ75 Φ84 Φ95

SAMPLE NO
C001 -0.90 -0.65 -0.45 0.15 0.90 1.30 2.30
C002 -0.95 -0.80 -0.68 -0.35 -0.05 0.30 1.50
C003 -0.75 -0.20 0.15 0.95 1.60 1.90 2.75
C004 -0.75 -0.25 0.10 1.20 2.15 2.50 3.65
C005 -0.70 -0.05 0.58 1.43 2.03 2.35 3.00
C006 -0.83 -0.45 -0.15 0.90 1.60 1.90 2.35
C007 0.15 1.30 1.45 1.85 2.18 2.35 2.85
C008 -0.75 -0.20 0.25 1.65 2.55 3.25 4.05
C009 -0.10 1.25 1.90 2.40 2.80 3.15 3.70
C010 -0.75 -0.20 0.25 1.40 2.25 2.50 3.35
C011 -0.80 -0.40 -0.08 0.85 1.70 2.15 2.90
C012 -0.70 -0.05 0.75 2.20 2.75 3.25 4.00
C013 -0.88 -0.60 -0.40 0.50 2.00 2.40 3.20
C014 -0.80 -0.35 0.00 1.30 1.95 2.40 3.55
C015 -0.85 -0.55 -0.30 0.95 2.00 2.40 3.45

Mean (Mz): gives the best measure for determining the overall size, it is
calculated using the formula,

It corresponds very closely to the mean as computed by the method of

moments, yet is much easier to find. It is much superior to the median
because it is based on three points and gives a better overall picture. The
value obtained can be read-up from the chart given below.

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Figure 6.2: Chart showing the various grain sizes

Inclusive Graphic Standard Deviation (σI): the standard deviation is a

measure of the sorting of the sediments and can be calculated using the
formula given below,

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Measurement of sorting values for a large number of sediments has

suggested the following verbal classification for sorting for each value of
inclusive graphic standard deviation. Whatever value is obtained from the
calculation can be interpreted using the table below:
Table 6.3: Verbal description sorting
phi (Φ)Size Range Verbal Description of
Sorting
<0 .35 phi very well sorted
0.35 - 0.50 phi well sorted
0.50 - 0.71 phi moderately well sorted
0.71 - 1.0 phi moderately sorted
1.0 - 2.0 phi poorly sorted
2.0 - 4.0 phi very poorly sorted
> 4.0 phi extremely poorly sorted
Inclusive Graphic Skewness (SkI): This is a measure of asymmetry. A
positive skewness denotes calmness in the depositional process and that the
sediments have a lot of fines, while negative skewness indicates that there
was turbulence and the particles are coarser. The formula is given as:

The verbal description for these values is given below in table 6.4:
Table 6.4: Verbal description for Skewness
Skewness Verbal Description
of Skewness
from +1.00 to +0.30 strongly fine skewed
from +0.30 to +0.10 fine skewed
from +0.10 to -0.10 near symmetrical
from -0.10 to -0.30 coarse skewed
from -0.30 to -1.00 strongly coarse
skewed
Gaussian Kurtosis (KG): this is a quantitative measure used to describe the
departure from the normal probability curve which should follow the
Gaussian formula:

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The phi diameter interval between the 5 phi and 95 phi points should be
exactly 2.44 times the phi diameter interval between the 25 phi and 75 phi
points. If the sample curve plots as a straight line on probability paper (i.e., if
it follows the normal curve), this ratio will be obeyed and we say it has
normal kurtosis (1.00). Departure from a straight line will alter this ratio, and
kurtosis is the quantitative measure used to describe this departure from
normality.

Table 6.5: Verbal description for Kurtosis

Kurtosis Value Verbal Description
of Kurtosis
< 0.67 very platykurtic
0.67 - 0.90 platykurtic
0.90 - 1.11 mesokurtic
1.11 - 1.50 leptokurtic
1.50 - 3.00 very leptokurtic
> 3.00 extremely leptokurtic
The table below summarizes the calculated statistical parameters for the
samples.

Table 6.6: The results for Statistical parameters

MEAN SORTIN SKEWNESS
SAMPLE NO KURTOSIS (KG)
(Mz) G (σ) (SKI)
C001 0.47 0.97 0.52 0.97
C002 -0.28 0.64 0.35 1.59
C003 0.88 1.06 -0.03 1.00
C004 1.15 1.35 0.03 1.24
C005 1.24 1.16 -0.12 1.05
C006 0.78 1.07 -0.12 0.74
C007 1.83 0.67 -0.15 0.30
C008 1.57 1.65 -0.04 0.86
C009 2.67 1.05 -0.26 1.64
C010 1.23 1.30 -0.12 0.53
C011 0.98 1.20 0.23 0.85
C012 1.80 1.54 -0.30 0.96
C013 0.77 1.37 0.42 0.70
C014 1.12 1.34 -0.07 0.91
C015 0.93 1.39 0.07 0.46
From the results obtained from the sieve analysis, ogives (cumulative
curves) and histograms were generated. The statistical parameters were
generated from the ogives and used for the computations. Below is an
example of the data presented, while the others are placed in the
appendices. It should be noted that some of the ogives did not have values

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for 5th percentile to 25th; the curves here were extrapolated to the size
corresponding to -1 phi which indicated the top of the coarse sand size scale.
This is a standard practice as has been used successfully by earlier workers
(Kelly and Baker, 1966).

Figure 6.3: Ogive plot for sample C001

Figure 6.4: Histogram for sample C001

6.2 Heavy Mineral Analysis

The term ‘heavy mineral’ generally applies to minor accessory mineral

constituents of rocks having ordinarily specific gravities higher than
2.89g/cm3, which is the SG of bromoform (the preferable liquid used in heavy
mineral separation). The study includes fractions of grains that are
transparent (non-opaque), non-micaceous and detrital heavy fractions in
sediments or sedimentary rocks. Heavy mineral analysis have successfully
been used to solve stratigraphic problems often when fossils are absent in
sandstones and similar rock types. They have also been useful in provenance
studies and maturity determinations in sands and sandstones.

6.2.1 Methodology

Although twenty-six samples were collected from the study area comprising
eleven stream sediments and fifteen soil samples; five stream sediments and
one soil sample were selected for heavy mineral analysis judging by their
distribution throughout the study area. The reason for selecting few samples
was based on the scarcity of analytical chemicals within our reach.

The selected samples were disaggregated and all roots and plant remains
were picked out. 50g was taken for washing with water and decanting all
clay – very fine silt (usually <0.01mm) materials after which the sample is
boiled for half an hour in dilute HCl to remove all carbonates and to set the
grains free and detached. The sample was again washed after acid digestion
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with distilled water to neutralize the effect of the acid. The sample is dried
and screened through 4Φ sieve mesh and only 5g of the residue that passed
through the sieve was taken for the heavy mineral separation. Bromoform is
the only available heavy liquid that could be used (although it is a toxic liquid
and must be used with caution; a more environmental friendly and non-toxic
liquid, sodium and lithium poly tungstate is here recommended). The
bromoform was held up in a separating funnel which was already set-up on a
retort stand. A beaker was held below the separating funnel which had a
filter paper shaped in the form of a cone and held in a funnel to trap the
heavy mineral as they are let out of the separating funnel. The tap of the
separating funnel was initially closed, and the prepared sample was emptied
into the separating funnel and stirred vigorously with a stirring rod. The
quartz and other lighter minerals float while the minerals with SG greater
than 2.89g/cm3 sink to the bottom of the funnel near the tap. The whole
process follows the principle of gravity settling. After all the heavies have
settled, the tap is opened to allow the bromoform flush the heavy minerals
out through the tap and collect in the filter paper and the tap is closed again.
In this way, the bromoform can be recycled and used again. The residue in
the filter paper was wetted with acetone to remove the bromoform and to
quicken drying. The heavy mineral concentrates was then mounted on slides
using DPS mountant (or some may prefer Canada balsam). The prepared
slides was left on a hot plate for fifteen seconds and then viewed under the
microscope for mineral identification and counting.

6.2.2 Data Analysis and Presentation

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The slides were viewed under the microscope and each of the non-opaque
minerals was counted using the ribbon technique of Galehouse, (1971). The
following minerals were identified and are presented on table 6.7.

Figure 6.5 Pie charts illustrating the distribution of heavy minerals per slide.

TABLE 6.7: Heavy minerals identified within the study area.

Sampl Z T R H B G Gl St A Ky Other Opaqu Non- ZTR TOTAL

e s e Opaqu Index
No. e
S002 2 3 2 1 - 1 - 3 6 3 5 180 131 64 311
6 8 0 1 3

S003 9 8 3 2 2 4 1 9 4 1 34 131 360 65 491

8 5 2 7 8 2 6 4 0

S004 2 3 2 7 8 9 3 7 9 - 34 218 172 52 390

9 5 1

S005 2 3 1 7 4 9 - 1 4 - 12 395 110 69 505

5 5 3

C006 3 2 2 5 1 7 - - 1 3 10 70 116 70 186

3 5 2 0

S010 4 5 4 2 1 - - 1 1 - 8 158 248 62 406

4 7 1 6 7 3 0

Z=Zircon,T=Tourmaline,R=Rutile,H=Hornblende,B=Biotite,G=Garnet,Gl=Glaucoph
ane,

St=Staurolite,A=Apatite,Ky=Kyanite,ZTR index in %.

Heavy minerals description:

Zircon: Appears mostly as sub-rounded prismatic crystals, colourless

to pale yellow, characterized by strong birefringence, positive
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elongation and parallel extinction. The dominantly show variation of

three colours pleochroism.
Tourmaline: Mostly euhedral and well formed crystals commonly in a
wide range of colours such as pink, brown, black and green varieties; it
has strong birefringence, negative elongation and parallel extinction,
the minerals is present every in good proportion.
Rutile: Appears as elongate to sub-rounded to sub-angular prismatic
grains, occasionally reddish and yellowish, with extreme birefringence,
positive elongation and parallel extinction.
Hornblende: occur generally as green to brownish-green elongate
cleavage grains with strong birefringence, moderate pleochroism and
positive elongation; inclined extinction about 5⁰.
Biotite: occurs as brown crystals exhibiting platy habit, with parallel
extinction, straight cleavage and occasionally prismatic, terminating at
one end in the shape of a prism.
Garnet: occurs as deep red to pink, colourless in some cases, with
irregular form, the surface shows a pebbled, etched dodecahedron
appearance. They are isotropic.
Glaucophane: occurs as bluish violet grains, moderately birefringent
and highly pleochroic, they tend to be elongate in the direction of the
main crystallographic axis.
Staurolite: they occur as straw yellow irregular grains, crudely
prismatic, lacks pleochroism, almost showing concoidal fracture, and
moderate birefrincence.
Apatite: occur as dull white sub-rounded prism, lacks pleochroism.
Kyanite: appear as colourless fragments being tabular to prismatic
with cleavage traces at right angle, grains show moderate
birefringence, positive elongation and inclined extinction (extin. angle
=30⁰).

Slide a: showing the provenance Slide b: showing a large staurolite grain Slide c: showing a collection of zircon,
diagnostic tourmaline (green variety) with zircon grain close to it. garnet, tourmaline, apatite and opaque
and zircon grains grains

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Slide d: showing provenance diagnostic Slide e: showing grains of zircon Slide f: showing typical deep red garnet
tourmaline, apatite, kyanite and opaque (colourless), tourmaline (green and pink crystal with etched dodecahedron
grains varieties), hornblende, kyanite, and outline.
opaque grains

6.3 Results and Interpretation

Grain size analysis results have proven to be of great geological significance

and here again it is not left out in the interpretation of mechanism and
depositional environment. The grain size parameters are here interpreted
based on Univariate and Bivariate analysis.

6.3.1 Univariate Analysis

Here one parameter is alone used in the interpretation.

➢ The mean size indicates a measure of central tendency or in this

scenario the average size of the sediment. Translated in terms of
energy, it indicates the average kinetic energy (velocity) of the
depositing agent (Sahu 1964). However, the average size is dependent
also upon the size distribution of the available source materials. In the
study area, it ranged from very fine grains to coarse, having an
average size in the medium grain sands.
➢ The standard deviation measures the sorting of the sediments and
indicates the fluctuation of the kinetic energy (velocity) conditions of
the depositing agent about its average velocity. Sorting has an inverse
relation to standard deviation, so if sufficient materials of different
sizes are not available to the depositing agent, all the fluctuation in
velocity cannot be recorded geologically. In the study area, on the
average the sediments are poorly sorted (1.18) but they range from

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poorly sorted (1.65) to moderately well sorted (0.64). Thus the size
distribution of the source material also to a certain extent control the
sorting of the sediments.
➢ Skewness measures the degree of asymmetry of the frequency
distribution and marks the position of the mean with respect to the
median. If the skewness is negative, the sample is coarse skewed (the
mean is towards the coarse side of the median) and the reverse is the
case for fine skewed samples. In the study area our samples ranges
from strongly fine skewed (0.52) to near symmetrical (-0.03) in nature.
The average being near symmetrical (0.033).
➢ Kurtosis is conventionally considered as a measure of the peakedness
of the frequency curve, however, Kendall and Stuart (1958) believes
that it is not necessarily so and that the kurtosis should not be
interpreted as describing the shape of the frequency curve. By
definition, kurtosis measures the sorting ratio and not the peakedness
of the frequency curve. For normal distributions, kurtosis is unity,
values greater than unity indicates that the velocity fluctuations were
restricted within the central 50% of the average velocity for a greater
length of the time than normal. Although this was the case for about
four of our samples (C002, C004, C005 and C009), the rest fall below
unity except sample C003 which attained unity (normal distribution).
On the average the samples are describes as mesokurtic, while they
range from very platykurtic to very leptokurtic.
The table below summarizes the univariate analysis for the individual
samples from the study area.

Table 6.7: Summary for the interpretation of Univariate

Analysis
SAMPLE NO MEAN SORTING SKEWNESS KURTOSIS
C001 Coarse Sand Moderately Sorted Strongly fine Skewed Mesokurtic
C002 Very coarse Sand Moderately well Sorted Strongly fine Skewed Very Leptokurtic
C003 Coarse Sand Poorly Sorted Near Symmetrical Mesokurtic
C004 Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Near Symmetrical Leptokurtic
C005 Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Coarse Skewed Mesokurtic
C006 Coarse Sand Poorly Sorted Coarse Skewed Platykurtic
C007 Medium Sand Moderately well Sorted Coarse Skewed Very Platykurtic
C008 Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Near Symmetrical Platykurtic
C009 Fine Sand Poorly Sorted Coarse Skewed Very Leptokurtic
C010 Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Coarse Skewed Very Leptokurtic
C011 Coarse Sand Poorly Sorted Fine Skewed Platykurtic
C012 Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Coarse Skewed Mesokurtic
C013 Coarse Sand Poorly Sorted Strongly Fine Skewed Platykurtic
C014 Medium Sand Poorly Sorted Nearly Symmetrical Mesokurtic
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C015 Coarse Sand Poorly Sorted Nearly Symmetrical Very Platykurtic

Every environment can be seen to have its characteristic energy conditions

and fluctuation through space and time (Sahu, 1954), the preservation of
these fluctuation is subject to availability of sufficient amount of source
materials (sediments) of all sizes; only then can the size distribution help
accurately to indicate environment of deposition. From the analysis above
the sediments from the area is best described as being very fine to medium
grained, poorly sorted, near symmetrical mesokurtic sands. This description
if common to river sands whose energy is typical to that of the fluvial
depositional environment.

6.3.2 Bivariate Analysis

When two statistical parameters are combined to interprete the depositional
environment, we describe the analysis as bivariate analysis. This has
successfully being used by Friedman (1961) and Visher (1969).

0.8

0.6
# C001

# C013
0.4
# C002
RIVER SANDS
# C011
0.2

# C004
0.0 # C003 C014 # C015
#
# C008
BEACH C006# # C005 # C010
SANDS # C007
-0.2
# C009
C012
#

-0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

EXPLANATION
Discriminant

Figure 6.6:
#
A Soil
bivariate
sample point
plot of Skewness (SKI) vs Sorting (σ), after Friedman
(1967)

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Notice that all the plot fell on the river sands field of the plot, this goes to
confirm the Univariate analysis that the sediment are from a fluvial
environment. From the field relationship, within the Basement Complex the
only medium of transportation of the sediments weathered from the rocks is
the river and surface run-offs predominantly, less of wind and dune
mechanism maybe nil.

#
2.50 9

2.00
#
#
7 #
6 12
1.50 #
8
10
# #
5 ## 14
1.00 4
#
# #
3 11 15
#
13
0.50 #
1

#
2
-0.50

0
0.25
Figure 6.7: A bivariate plot0.50 0.75
of Mean (Mz) 1.00
vs Sorting 1.25 1969.1.50
(σ), Friedman 1.75

This plot of the mean sizes against the sorting shows the point all clustering
in a particular area except samples 2 and 9. This shows that the same
mechanism of deposition was common to all the samples for them to plot in
like fields.

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6.3.3 Significance of Heavy Mineral Assemblage

The significance of heavy minerals to solving geologic problems associated
with provenance and stratigraphic horizon discrepancies cannot be over-
emphasized. A total of about 2289 heavy minerals were counted in the study
area with a total of 1137 non-opaque minerals whose properties we studied.
The dominant mineral in the area studied was zircon (22.4%) which was
followed by Tourmaline (18%) and then Rutile (13.1%). These three minerals
incidentally are regarded as the ultrastable heavy minerals and hence
because of this Hubberd (19) successfully used them to determine the
maturity of sandstones based on their indices. The ZTR index of the study
area was calculated and seen to range from 52% to 70% among the samples
analysed. The ZTR index was determined using the relationship given below:

ZTR index=Z+T+RNon-Opaque

A ternary diagram having zircon –tourmaline – rutile as apices was plotted

and it had all the samples plotting in the same field indicating the same
environmental conditions affecting them, and that there are from the same
source.

Z100

Ro To

S03
#
C06
#

S05
# S04
#
# #S10

S02

T100 R 100
Zo

Figure 6.8: A ternary diagram of Zircon, Tourmaline and Rutile from the
1 0 1 2 Kilometers
study area.

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The maturity of sandstones can be determined with the combined studies of

quartz crystals which was not analyzes in our study, however, from the
values obtained, it shows that the samples although they have not travelled
far from their source, they are at the verge of attaining maturity. Kyanite and
glaucophane were the least represented in the counts, but their presence
combined with the predominance of zircon (a rock that occurs in both
igneous and metamorphic terrain) and tourmaline, points to the rocks of the
Basement Complex as the source of these clastics and judging from the well
formed crystals and sub-angular crystals observed, it can be said that the
grains have nit travelled too far from their source (i.e. the provenance can be
traced to the vicinity if the rocks of the basement complex.)
Feo-codecido (1955) presented a table that characterizes the heavy mineral
suite one may likely find in certain environments.

Table 6.8: Heavy mineral associations and provenance.

Associations source
Apatite,biotite,brookite,hornblende,monzonites,muscovit Acid Igneous Rocks
e,
rutile,titanite,tourmaline(pink variety),zircon
Cassiterite,dumortierite,fluorite,garnet,monazite,muscovi Granite pegmatites
tetopaz,tourmaline(blue variety),wolframite,xenotime
Augite,chromite,diopside,hypersthene,ilmenite,magnetit Basic igneous rocks
e,
olivine,picotite,pleonaste
Andalusite,chondrodite,corundum,garnet,phlogopite, Contact metamorphic
staurolite,topaz,vesuvianite,wollastonite,zoisite rocks
Andalusite,chloritoid,epidote,garnet,glaucophane,kyanite Dynamothermal
, metamorphic rocks
sillimanite,staurolite,titanite, zoisite-clinozoisite
Barite, iron ores, leucoxene, rutile, tourmaline (rounded Reworked sediments
fragments), zircon(rounded fragments)

6.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

From the study it has been shown that the textural parameters of surficial
sands/sediments holds a lot of history regarding the provenance and
environment of deposition of the sediments. The source of the sediments is
largely from the acid igneous rocks and granite pegmatite related rocks of
the basement complex of southwestern Nigeria. The heavy mineral grains
still retain their shapes and are well formed indicating that they have not
travelled so far from their source while the results from the size analysis
show that the depositing mechanism and the environment is fluvial.

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The exercise is a rather tedious one and it is herby recommended that

before set of post graduate students embark on their field exercise, there
should be adequate materials for the analysis of their heavy minerals as that
was what led to the delay in most of our report submission. Also the issue of
electricity in the department and the school premises is so bad that not
much can be done if all depends on power from the Power Holding Company
of Nigeria (PHCN), and finally I would recommend that the same effort or
more that the lecturers of the Department of Geology, University of Ibadan,
put into the field exercise should continue, as this would ultimately bring out
the best from the students.

REFERENCES

Feo-codecido G.1955. Heavy Mineral Techniques and their Application to

Venezuelan Stratigraphy. AAPG Bull. Vol 40/5, pp 984 – 1000.

Folk, R.L., And Ward, W.L.1957. Brazus River Bar: A Study of the Significance
of Grain Size Parameters. J. Sed. Petrology. Vol 27, pp 3-27.

FRIEDMANN, G.M.J. (1961). Distribution Between Dune, Beach And River

Sands From Their Textural Characteristics J.Sed. Petrology, pp 31, 514-
529.

FRIEDMANN, G.M., (1967). Dynamic Processes And Statistical Parameters

Compared For Size Frequency Distribution Of Beach And River Sands.
J.Sed. Petrology, 37, pp 327-354.

FRIEDMAN, G.M and SANDERS, J.E (1978).Principles of Sedimentology, John

Wiley and Sons, Inc, NewYork, 792p.

Galehouse J S 1971. Counting grain mounts: Number percentage vs number

frequency. Notes: J.Sed. Petrology, 22, pp 125 – 145.

Hubert J F 1962. A Zircon-Tourmaline-Rutile maturity index and the

interdependence of the composition of heavy mineral assemblages

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with the gross composition and texture of sandstones. J.Sed. Petrology,

32, pp 440 – 450.

INMAN, D L, 1952 Measures for Describing the size distribution of

sediments. . J.Sed. Petrology, 22, pp 125 – 145.

Kelly T E and baker C H 1966. Color Variations within Glacial Till, East-Central
North Dakota – a Preliminary Investigation. Jour. Sed. Petrology. Vol
36/1.pp 75 – 80.

Norman C R 1969. Heavy Minerals and Size analysis of the Citronelle

Formation of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Jour. Sed. Petrology. Vol 39/4.pp
1552 – 1565.

Sahu B K 1964. Depositional Mechanism from the Size Analysis of Clastic

Sediments. Jour. Sed. Petrology. Vol 34/1.pp 73 – 83.

SATO, Y (1966). Heavy Minerals In The Sandstone Geology Monthly No. 141
Pp 34-38.

Visher G S 1969. Grain size distribution and depositional processes. J. Sed.

Petrology, 34, pp 1074 – 1106.

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Appendices

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C002

C003

C004 C005

C006

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C007

C008

C009

C010

C011

C012

C013

C014

C015

Okon Emmanuel Etim: 148581 | M.Sc Petroleum Geology Group 2 59