Katie E.
Rasmussen and Jessica Troilo West Virginia University
“It Has to be Perfect!”: The Development
of Perfectionism and the Family System
Perfectionism has deleterious effects on develop-
mental outcomes for children, youth, and adults.
Despite this, there is controversy regarding the
nature of perfectionism itself and whether it can
be positive or negative. This article identifies key
findings in the perfectionism literature, reviews
current research literature on the conceptualiza-
tions and antecedents of perfectionism, and out-
lines concepts of family systems theory that help
explain how perfectionism develops in families.
Three models are proposed to explain the devel-
opment of maladaptive perfectionism, socially
prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism, and
other-oriented perfectionism—all in the context
of the family system. Implications for future the-
ory development, research, and practices are
discussed, emphasizing the role of resilient pro-
cesses within and outside the family unit.
Perfectionism refers to high standards or
expectations imposed by the self or others
for individual behavior (Craddock, Church, &
Sands, 2009). Although the general public may
value perfectionist tendencies, empirical evi-
dence consistently demonstrates how destructive
perfectionistic behaviors are (Blatt, 1995; Flett
& Hewitt, 2006). Furthermore, because parents
are primary socialization agents in the lives of
Department of Learning Sciences and Human
Development, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
26506 (katie.rasmussen@mail.wvu.edu;
jessica.troilo@mail.wvu.edu).
Key Words: Family systems theory, parent–child relation-
ships, perfectionism.
154 Journal of Family Theory & Review 8 (June 2016): 154–172
DOI:10.1111/jftr.12140
children (Grusec & Davidov, 2015), families
may be a central setting for the development of
perfectionism. As a result of the interpersonal
nature of perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991),
it is important that parents, family educators,
and other family professionals understand the
behaviors that may promote or lead to unhealthy
perfectionistic beliefs, thinking, and behaviors.
In this article, we first provide a brief
overview of key findings and theories guiding
the perfectionism literature, followed by a nar-
rative review of the impacts of perfectionism on
children and youth. Next, we outline concepts
of family systems theory that help explain how
perfectionism develops in families. Finally,
we propose three empirically based theoretical
models and describe how they may shape future
scholarly work and family practice.
A Brief Overview of Perfectionism
Research and Theory
Perfectionism is a construct that powerfully
shapes child and youth outcomes. Current
research on perfectionism has illustrated delete-
rious effects on children and youth, particularly
in relation to emotional and mental health. For
example, perfectionism is related to anxiety
and depressive disorders in child populations
(Gilman, Rice, & Carboni, 2014) and to suicide
potential in adolescents (Hewitt, Caelian, Chen,
& Flett, 2014). Perfectionism also increases
vulnerability for eating disturbances, most
notably difficulties with binge eating (Boone,
Vansteenkiste, Soenens, Van der Kaap-Deeder,
& Verstuyf, 2014; Sherry et al., 2014) and
Perfectionism and the Family System
other eating disorders (Boone, Soenens, &
Luyten, 2014). In addition, perfectionists are at
risk for displaying poorer emotion regulation
strategies, such as self-blame, rumination, and
catastrophization, and have difficulty positively
appraising positive events (Rudolph, Flett, &
Hewitt, 2007).
In addition to emotional and mental health
outcomes, cognitive and academic outcomes are
also influenced by perfectionism. For instance,
perfectionism is related to self-handicapping
(i.e., creation of obstacles or impediments that
impair optimal performance) and lower levels
of self-efficacy in academic tasks (Stewart &
De George-Walker, 2014). Certain types of
perfectionism are also related to higher levels
of test anxiety, acceptance of cheating, and
academic procrastination (Bong, Hwang, Noh,
& Kim, 2014). Indeed, perfectionism nega-
tively affects multiple domains of children’s
development.
Family Transmission of Perfectionism
Although perfectionism may come from sources
other than parents (e.g., values from society;
Flett, Hewitt, Oliver, & Macdonald, 2002), fam-
ilies are powerful influences in transmitting per-
fectionist values and behaviors. If children are
exposed to perfectionistic parents or become the
subject of parents’ perfectionist expectations,
the parent–child relationship may be negatively
affected. For example, children of perfectionistic
parents report poorer attachment relationships
with their parents and are afraid of abandonment
by others (Brennan & Shaver, 1995). In addition,
children who are the subjects of parents’ perfec-
tionism report their parents as being overcon-
trolling, less warm and caring toward them, and
particularly critical (DiPrima, Ashby, Gnilka, &
Noble, 2011; Flynn, Hewitt, Flett, & Caelian,
2001; Randolph & Dykman, 1998; Stöber,
1998). The very limited qualitative research in
this area indicates that some children report that
their parents combine a lack of warmth with
demandingness to maintain the child’s level
of perfection (Speirs Neumeister, Williams, &
Cross, 2009), and that this sometimes happens
through pressuring and critical messages from
parents (Hibbard & Walton, 2012).
In addition, if children are exposed to parents
who are perfectionistic themselves, children are
likely to display these same behaviors, some-
times adopting the same types of perfectionism
155
their parents display (see, e.g., Appleton, Hall,
& Hill, 2010; Soenens et al., 2005). In the case
of parents’ perfectionism directed at others,
some children respond by adopting perfection-
ist behaviors directed at themselves (Cook &
Kearney, 2014; Speirs Neumeister et al., 2009).
When there are direct effects between parent per-
fectionism and child perfectionism, additional
parent factors may mediate this relationship,
such as parental anxiety (Cook & Kearney,
2014), parental obsessive-compulsive symp-
toms (Cook & Kearney, 2009), and parental
psychological control (Soenens et al., 2005).
Taken together, these findings highlight the
important role of parents’ own propensities
for perfectionism, and even psychopathology,
as critical variables in the transmission of
perfectionism.
Factors That Influence Transmission
of Perfectionism
Discrepancy between family expectations
and performance. Several variables have been
implicated in the transmission of perfectionism
within families. One important variable that
affects the transmission of perfectionism is the
level of discrepancy the child feels between his
or her family’s high expectations and the child’s
actual performance (Slaney, Rice, Mobley,
Trippi, & Ashby, 2001; Wang, 2010). If a child
feels a high level of discrepancy between what
is expected by family and the child’s own per-
ception of his or her performance, psychological
distress may result. This distress may manifest
in the form of emotional difficulties such as
poor self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and even
suicide ideation (Ortega, Wang, Slaney, Hayes,
& Morales, 2014; Wang, Wong, & Fu, 2013).
Discrepancy between family expectations (e.g.,
“I’m not meeting X expectation my family has
for me”) is also significantly and positively
related to an individual’s personal sense of dis-
crepancy (e.g., “I’m not meeting X expectation
I have for myself”). This finding suggests that
meeting the high expectations of one’s family
spills over into difficulty meeting one’s own
individual expectations. Individuals who expe-
rience high levels of family discrepancy also
report more disconnection from others (Wang
et al., 2013). Taken together, discrepancy is a
key ingredient in the transmission of perfection-
ism and a catalyst for emotional difficulties in
children.
156
Parental psychological control. Parents’ psy-
chologically controlling behaviors are another
variable that influences transmission of per-
fectionism in families. Psychological control
inhibits the autonomy of children, leading chil-
dren to adopt damaging perfectionist behaviors
in response (Soenens et al., 2005; Soenens et al.,
2008). Characteristics of parents themselves
influence the display of psychological control,
with parents’ own perfectionist behaviors pre-
dicting psychological control (Soenens et al.,
2005). Researchers have begun to delineate
nuances in psychologically controlling behavior
in relation to perfectionism and have identified
two types of psychologically controlling behav-
ior that are related to particularly destructive
forms of perfectionism. These types include
separation-anxious psychological control (par-
ents use psychological control because they
are afraid of being separated from their child)
and achievement-oriented psychological control
(parents control the child in order to communi-
cate high achievement expectations; Soenens,
Vansteenkiste, & Luyten, 2010). In sum, parents
may use psychological control for different
reasons, but functionally these behaviors have
detrimental effects on children and youth
regardless of parents’ motivation to use them.
Current Theoretical Models
Five models have been proposed to conceptual-
ize why and how perfectionism develops, how
perfectionism is transmitted through families,
and if and when parental psychological control
is a critical mechanism for the development of
perfectionism (Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002).
Social learning model. The social learning
model posits that children and adolescents
develop perfectionist thinking and behavior
through imitation, particularly from perfection-
ist behaviors they observe in their parents. In
addition, imitation of parents’ perfectionism
appears to follow a pattern in which children
imitate the corresponding dimension of per-
fectionism of the same-sex parent and children
imitate the dimension of perfectionism their
parents display (Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002).
Social expectations model. In contrast, the
social expectations model posits that perfec-
tionism develops because children can receive
approval from parents only when they are
Journal of Family Theory & Review
high achieving. In these contexts, children are
particularly at risk of experiencing feelings of
helplessness and hopelessness when they do not
reach parents’ unrealistically high expectations.
Feedback appears to be an influential process
for these children because parental approval
is contingent on receiving positive feedback.
These strivings for positive feedback can be
detrimental for children, because they are likely
to receive inaccurate and negative feedback
from parents, regardless of their performance
(Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002).
Social reaction model. The social reaction
model proposes that perfectionism develops as
a result of exposure to a harsh environment,
including physically abusive situations, psy-
chological maltreatment (e.g., love withdrawal,
using shame-based discipline), and/or chaotic
family environments. In these situations, Flett,
Hewitt, et al. (2002) have suggested that chil-
dren adopt perfectionist behaviors as a type
of coping strategy to traumatizing and adverse
circumstances (“If I am perfect, no one will
hurt me,” p. 94), and these behaviors may have
interrelated goals. One goal may be to escape
or reduce abusive behaviors or avoid being
exposed to shame and humiliation. Another
goal of adopting perfectionistic behavior in
these situations may be to assert control and
create predictability in an environment that is
inconsistent and unpredictable. Importantly,
Flett, Hewitt, et al. (2002) have suggested that
although there is significant overlap between the
social expectations model and social reaction
model, what differentiates the social reaction
model is the element of harshness. Indeed, some
families may have high expectations without
accompanying punitive and harsh tendencies
(i.e., the social expectations model).
Anxious rearing model. The anxious rearing
model proposes that perfectionism results from
exposure to highly anxious parents who are
overly concerned with the negative conse-
quences of making mistakes. These parents
may constantly remind children to be careful
about making mistakes and about how others
might judge them if they do make a mistake.
This type of parenting leads children to adopt
a future-oriented perspective, engaging in per-
fectionist behavior that helps protect them
from the negative consequences of future mis-
takes (Flett et al., 2002). Overprotective and
Perfectionism and the Family System
evaluation-driven behaviors by parents are also
related to anxious cognitions and anxiety-related
difficulties for children, such as separation anx-
iety, social phobia, and general anxiety (Gruner,
Muris, & Merckelbach, 1999).
Preliminary integrative model. Finally, the
most comprehensive model of perfectionism to
date suggests an integrative conceptualization
that provides insight into the personal (e.g.,
temperament, attachment style), parental (e.g.,
personality, goals, parenting practices, parent-
ing style), and contextual (e.g., culture, peer
relationships, the child’s teachers) factors that
influence the development of perfectionism and
ongoing factors that contribute to the pressure to
be perfect (Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002). This pre-
liminary model has made a critical contribution
to the literature on perfectionism. Its integration
of child, parent, and environmental factors
creates a holistic and balanced perspective on
the influences that undergird and perpetuate
perfectionism. Importantly, this model empha-
sizes the interpersonal nature of perfectionism
by illustrating how important relationships
across multiple contexts in a child’s life influ-
ence the pressure to be perfect (Hewitt &
Flett, 1991).
In addition, Flett, Hewitt, et al. (2002) have
argued that an integrative model is necessary
because any number of factors contribute to
the development of perfectionism for individual
children. As a result, an integrative model is
more effective in capturing the heterogeneity
that exists among perfectionists. This type of
model would attempt to capture which types of
perfectionism are most salient for a particular
child and the contributing factors and processes
that contribute to differences between perfec-
tionists. Like Flett, Hewitt, et al. (2002), we
believe that an integrative perspective is needed
to understand how the family system interacts
with child factors to influence the development
of perfectionism.
Review of Literature
Using the EBSCOhost search engine, we
searched for literature using the search terms
perfectionism and family, which yielded 50
results. A second search was then conducted
using the terms perfectionism, parenting,
and family that yielded 28 results. The third
search was conducted using temperament and
157
perfectionism as search terms; it yielded 40
results. In addition, an edited book chapter
written by Flett, Hewitt, et al. (2002) was
an extensive resource for articles used in
this review. Excluding duplications, 26 book
chapters and peer-reviewed journal articles and
one unpublished manuscript were examined
for content regarding correlates of perfection-
ism relating to parents, the family, and child
temperament.
The Nature of Perfectionism
Scholars have defined the construct of perfec-
tionism in different ways, with some suggest-
ing that it is unidimensional (Shafran, Cooper, &
Fairburn, 2002) and others arguing that perfec-
tionism is more appropriately conceptualized as
a multidimensional trait (Frost, Marten, Lahart,
& Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).
Before the 1990s, most of the literature iden-
tified perfectionism as a unidimensional con-
struct, focusing on perfectionist attitudes of the
self (Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, & McGee,
2003). In 1990, Frost et al. introduced a mul-
tidimensional scale identifying six dimensions
that define perfectionism: concern over mis-
takes, personal standards, parental expectations,
parental criticism, doubts about actions, and
organization.
A year later, Hewitt and Flett (1991) identi-
fied a three-component conceptualization with
both self- and other-oriented components. Their
conceptualization of perfectionism posited that
there are three dimensions of perfectionism,
including self-oriented, socially prescribed, and
other-oriented dimensions. Notably, this concep-
tualization includes an interpersonal component,
which suggests that perfectionist behavior in
certain instances stems from social expectations
(Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Self-oriented perfec-
tionism refers to the belief that self-worth and
acceptance are contingent on very high personal
standards, and it is marked by highly rigid and
severe self-evaluations. Individuals who display
high levels of self-oriented perfectionism may
strive for high grades because they believe they
cannot feel good about themselves without
them, and if they do not perform at a very high
standard, they may perceive themselves as a
failure (e.g., “If I don’t perform, I’m a bad
person”).
Similarly, socially prescribed perfectionism
refers to the belief that approval is conditional
158
upon meeting the very high, unrealistic expecta-
tions of significant others, such as parents. In the
case of this type of perfectionism, individuals
may seek high academic performance because
they believe or have been told that without
excellent academic performance they will not be
accepted (e.g., “If my grades aren’t perfect, my
parents won’t love me”). Other-oriented perfec-
tionism is similar to self-oriented perfectionism
in that it involves very high expectations and
evaluations, but the subject of perfect behavior
is others, not the self. In contrast to self-oriented
and socially prescribed perfectionism, an
individual who displays other-oriented perfec-
tionism is not seeking perfect behavior from
themselves but has very high expectations for
behavior from others. For example, in school
settings, an other-oriented perfectionist may be
very demanding and have unrealistically high
expectations for others in a group project but
does not expect this perfection from him- or
herself.
Critical Debate in the Perfectionism Literature
As illustrated by the two conceptualizations of
perfectionism described here, there is ongoing
debate in the perfectionism literature regarding
the nature and effect of perfectionism (Flett
& Hewitt, 2006; Hewitt et al., 2003; Slaney
et al., 2001). Some scholars have argued that
perfectionism can be adaptive (e.g., Hamachek,
1978; Owens & Slade, 2008; Slade & Owens,
1998), and others have vehemently asserted that
perfectionism is maladaptive and has profound
implications for development (Blatt, 1995; Flett
& Hewitt, 2006). This disagreement is reflected
in the many varied, opposing terms authors
use to identify the type of perfectionism they
are writing about (e.g., positive vs. negative;
adaptive vs. maladaptive).
Those who endorse adaptive or positive
perfectionism argue that this form of perfec-
tionism is primarily normal and adaptive, and is
even linked to positive benefits, such as higher
self-esteem, positive affect, and life satisfaction
(Chang, Watkins, & Banks, 2004; Methikalam,
Wang, Slaney, & Yeung, 2015; Wang, 2010). In
the literature, adaptive perfectionism is defined
by high personal standards and order, and it
is seen as normative and healthy (Slade &
Owens, 1998; Slaney et al., 2001). In addi-
tion, some scholars who endorse the notion
of adaptive perfectionism also argue that this
Journal of Family Theory & Review
form of perfectionism is defined by the posi-
tive nature of the consequences or outcomes
attendant to it (Slade & Owens, 1998). In this
view, positive reinforcement of the perfection-
ist behaviors leads to positive consequences
for the individual, as reflected in healthy out-
comes noted earlier. Conversely, maladaptive
or negative perfectionism refers to perfection-
ism marked by high levels of self-doubt and
self-criticism and high discrepancies between
one’s family’s expectations and an individual’s
actual performance (Slaney et al., 2001; Wang,
2010).
Influential researchers in the perfectionism
literature argue that it is empirically and concep-
tually inaccurate and irresponsible to argue that
aspects of perfectionism be considered “posi-
tive” because of the many negative (sometimes
fatal) correlates of perfectionism (e.g., suicide
potential, Hewitt et al., 2014; eating disorders,
Cockell et al., 2002; depression, Hewitt, Flett,
& Ediger, 1996). Indeed, “if it is accepted that
a healthy form of perfectionism exists, then
clinicians may attempt to transform negative
perfectionism into positive perfectionism rather
than remove perfectionism altogether” (Flett &
Hewitt, 2006, p. 474). We agree with Flett
and Hewitt (2006) that the construct of per-
fectionism is not adaptive and that the types
of behaviors identified in this review lead to
poor developmental outcomes for children and
families.
Heterogeneity and Perfectionism
Complicating matters further, there is hetero-
geneity among individual perfectionists, and as
a result, individual trajectories of perfectionism
may be varied. For instance, Herman, Wang,
Trotter, Reinke, and Ialongo (2013) identified
four classes of perfectionists over a 7-year
period spanning sixth through 12th grades,
including high, low, increasing, and decreasing,
each class with its own set of correlates. In
addition, because perfectionism is defined in
part by dynamic processes between children
and parents (and other important figures), the
trajectory of any given individual’s perfectionist
behaviors can take any number of paths. As
a result, this article represents an initial effort
to identify processes by which perfectionism
develops in varying dimensional subtypes, but
clearly we cannot account for all of the possible
trajectories of individual perfectionists.
Perfectionism and the Family System
Correlates of Perfectionism
Mental health correlates. Research has shown
that self-oriented and socially prescribed perfec-
tionism are related to depression (Flett, Panico,
& Hewitt, 2011). Given that both of these types
of perfectionism involve high self-criticism
and performance-based cognitions, depression
is a likely outcome. Children and youth often
fall short of very high, unrealistic expectations
imposed on them by parents or others. As a
result, children or youth may feel very defeated
or hopeless about their performance if they are
constantly striving for high achievement but
are unable to do so any or all of the time. In
addition, self-oriented and socially prescribed
perfectionism have also been implicated in the
development of multiple types of eating dis-
orders. Specifically, self-oriented and socially
prescribed perfectionism are related to bulimic
automatic thoughts (thoughts that reflect the
activation of bulimic schemas or themes) and
binge eating (Flett et al., 2011; Mackinnon
et al., 2011). Self-oriented and socially pre-
scribed perfectionism as well as nondisclosure
of perfectionism (avoiding verbal acknowledg-
ment of an individual’s lack of perfectionism)
are also related to the display of anorexic
symptoms (Cockell et al., 2002). Maladaptive
perfectionism is linked to potentially fatal out-
comes, such as suicide ideation (Hewitt et al.,
2014; Wang et al., 2013). Indeed, this empirical
evidence demonstrates that these forms of per-
fectionism have deleterious effects for mental
health outcomes.
Parenting correlates. In addition to psy-
chopathology correlates, research has shown
that certain family constructs are related to
the development of maladaptive perfectionism.
Negative parenting behaviors such as author-
itarian parenting (Hibbard & Walton, 2014),
psychological control (Soenens et al., 2005),
low parental nurturance (DiPrima et al., 2011),
and parental overcontrol and perceived lack of
care (Flynn et al., 2001; Randolph & Dykman,
1998) are related to higher levels of maladap-
tive perfectionism. It may be that the lack of
emotional boundaries and warmth in these
families leads children to adopt perfectionistic
tendencies as a coping strategy and response
to the emotional arousal such family processes
create (Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002). Perfection-
istic behavior, then, may serve as a source of
control (e.g., “I can’t control what is happening
159
in my family, but I can control my behavior”) or
coping (e.g., “My parent(s) may say that I am
no good at X, but I’ll show them I am by doing
it perfectly”).
Predictors of Perfectionism
Family of origin characteristics. Family-related
factors also predict the development of perfec-
tionism. An individual’s family of origin and
the dynamics of relationships within families are
strongly implicated in the development of mal-
adaptive perfectionism and the three additional
types of perfectionism, including self-oriented,
socially prescribed, and other-oriented forms.
Prediction of maladaptive perfectionism. Crad-
dock et al. (2009) found that family enmeshment
(overcohesion in family relationships), an
authoritarian parenting style (hostile and puni-
tive parenting behaviors), and a psychologically
controlling parenting style were all positive, sig-
nificant predictors of maladaptive perfectionism
(defined as sensitivity to failure and the notion
that failing or not reaching perfection makes
someone less likely to be respected or liked;
Craddock et al., 2009; Khawaja & Armstrong,
2005). In addition, family disengagement and
family rigidity positively predict maladaptive
perfectionism (defined in the same manner;
Craddock, Church, Harrison, & Sands, 2010).
Perhaps not surprisingly, balanced family cohe-
sion (the existence of family closeness and
healthy boundaries) is a negative predictor of
maladaptive perfectionism; as family cohesion
(healthy connection in family relationships,
healthy boundaries in relationships) increases,
maladaptive perfectionism decreases (Craddock
et al., 2010). In these family situations, healthy
family boundaries might decrease the emotional
arousal and dysregulation created by children
having to take on more adult, parent-type roles.
In families where healthy family boundaries
exist, children may be more well regulated
emotionally. As a result, the need to use perfec-
tionistic behaviors as a possible way of gaining
control is no longer needed.
Prediction of self-oriented, socially prescribed,
and other-oriented perfectionism. In addition,
parents’ own levels of perfectionism have been
implicated in the development of self-oriented,
socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfec-
tionism in children. For example, Appleton
160
et al. (2010) found that mothers’ and fathers’
self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-
oriented perfectionism were significant pre-
dictors of each of the corresponding types of
perfectionism in adolescents. Adolescents’ per-
ceptions of fathers’ self-oriented perfectionism
predicted adolescent self-oriented perfection-
ism, adolescents’ perception of fathers’ socially
prescribed perfectionism predicted adolescents’
socially prescribed perfectionism, and so on. In
addition, Damian, Stoeber, Negru, and Băban
(2013) found that perceived parental expecta-
tions were a significant predictor of socially
prescribed perfectionism in youth, which indi-
cates that parents’ expectations also contribute
to promoting socially prescribed perfectionism.
This type of perfectionism, by definition, is
influenced by the very high expectations of
others and serves as a motivator for perfection-
istic strivings. Taken together, findings from
these studies illustrate the powerful influence of
observation and imitation of parents’ behavior
in the development of children’s perfectionistic
behaviors.
Child-level predictors. In addition to family
factors, Flett, Hewitt, et al. (2002) emphasized
that child factors have an equally influential role
in the development of perfectionism. Children
play an important role in shaping their environ-
ment, and in particular, children’s temperament
is critical (Bell & Chapman, 1986; Belsky,
1984). Although much is not yet known regard-
ing the ways children’s temperament affects
perfectionism, evidence suggests that several
temperamental characteristics are influential.
For example, scores on the Behavior Activation
System (BAS) and Behavior Inhibition System
(BIS) are related to the display of maladaptive
perfectionism (Randles, Flett, Nash, McGre-
gor, & Hewitt, 2010; Turner & Turner, 2011).
These two complementary neural-based systems
represent the tendency of individuals to either
approach (as in the BAS) or avoid (as in the BIS)
incoming stimuli (Gray, 1990). Individuals with
high BIS sensitivity are predisposed to experi-
ence negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, fear) and
more sensitive to punishment and nonreward,
which contributes to an unhealthy emphasis on
evaluation that defines perfectionism. Although
findings have been mixed, these systems are
related to the display of socially prescribed
and maladaptive perfectionism. In contrast,
high levels of BAS sensitivity are related to the
Journal of Family Theory & Review
experience of positive emotions and a particular
orientation toward rewards and a lack or escape
from punishment. In sum, the BIS system in
particular appears to create a certain proclivity in
children to develop maladaptive perfectionism.
Other temperamental dimensions that may
also play a role in the development of per-
fectionism include emotionality, persistence,
fear, and harm avoidance (Flett et al., 2002;
Kobori, Yamagata, & Kijima, 2005; Richard-
son, Rice, & Devine, 2014; Richter, Eisemann,
& Richter, 2000). For instance, persistence
and reward dependence significantly predict
different forms of perfectionism (Kobori et al.,
2005). These characteristics may explain, in
part, perfectionists’ sensitivities to and fear of
failure and criticism, high concern over mis-
takes, need for approval from others, and high
achievement strivings (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).
Taken together, children’s temperamental char-
acteristics may make them more vulnerable
to developing maladaptive perfectionism and
then maintaining perfectionistic behaviors
over time.
Perfectionism and Family Systems Theory
Interdependence of Subsystems
Family systems theory posits that each family
represents a single system composed of inter-
dependent and interrelated subsystems, such as
the parent–child or spousal subsystems (Cox &
Paley, 1997). This interdependence of subsys-
tems suggests that each of the members in a par-
ticular subsystem influences the emotions and
behavior of other members and other subsystems
in the family. As a result, each person’s behav-
ior serves as a response to and trigger for others’
emotions and behavior.
This interdependence of subsystems inside
family systems suggests the dynamic nature of
each family member’s emotions and behavior.
Broadly, parents play a significant role in influ-
encing or promoting all forms of perfectionism
and can, in particular, be especially harmful in
the development of maladaptive perfectionism.
This also makes perfectionism (in any form)
a family issue, particularly because the family
system as a whole is greater than each of its
members separately (Cox & Paley, 1997). Fur-
thermore, in the case of intervention efforts for
maladaptive perfectionistic behavior or other
forms of pathology, such as eating disorders, the
Perfectionism and the Family System
family is an integral component of the recovery
process and family educators and other family
professionals should include them in the course
of treatment (Walsh, 2012b).
Circular Feedback and Causality
The concept of circular feedback in family sys-
tems theory refers to the positive or negative
behavioral responses that individual members
of the family system make to one another’s
behavior (Smith & Thelen, 2003). Positive feed-
back refers to responses that reward some kind
of behavior, whereas negative feedback is pun-
ishing behavior in order to stop some kind of
deviant or inappropriate behavior that is deter-
mined by the system. Feedback plays a cen-
tral role in influencing the behavior of the other
members of the subsystem, thus creating pre-
dictable patterns of behavior known as circular
feedback loops.
The goodness-of-fit between a child’s temper-
ament and parent characteristics and behavior
may demonstrate a circular feedback loop that
leads to or maintains perfectionism in the family
system (Turner & Turner, 2011). For example,
a poor fit (e.g., the child is highly anxious)
may make a child more likely to elicit negative
behaviors from parents (e.g., authoritarianism,
psychological control). When parents respond
negatively, the child may become more dysreg-
ulated and engage in perfectionistic behaviors
that further aggravate the parent, leading to a
destructive and powerful cycle of perfection-
ism, critical parenting, dysregulation, and then
additional critical parenting. In particular, chil-
dren who are anxious may be particularly at risk
because they have difficulty making independent
choices, which elicits psychologically control-
ling parenting, which in turn predicts maladap-
tive perfectionism (Turner & Turner, 2011). In
contrast, if parents have high expectations but
are nonetheless warm and accepting of their per-
fectionistic child, the circular feedback loop may
be much different, and parents may help stop
the vicious cycle of perfectionism and decrease
their child’s motivation to engage in perfection-
istic behaviors (Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002).
In addition to circular feedback, circular
causality may also influence the development of
perfectionism. Circular causality refers to the
tendency of members of a system to respond in
predictable ways to one another, and responses
may become even more extreme and entrenched
161
over time (Smith & Thelen, 2003). In addi-
tion, circular causality may also play a role
in the cyclical nature of perfectionism over
time. Maladaptive parenting behaviors (e.g.,
psychological control, authoritarianism) that
are associated with perfectionism may create
vicious cycles of family patterns, which we
discuss in our proposed models.
Cohesion
In family systems theory, cohesion refers to the
emotional bond family members have with one
another (Gorall, Tiesel, & Olson, 2004). Cohe-
sion is marked by how close family members
feel to each other and how family members bal-
ance time together as well as time apart (Crad-
dock et al., 2009; Olson, 2011). Extremely high
and low levels of family cohesion represent two
opposite sides of a continuum, with high levels
of cohesion indicating enmeshment and low lev-
els of cohesion indicating disengagement.
Enmeshment. Research has suggested that
family enmeshment (extreme cohesion) is
significantly correlated with maladaptive per-
fectionism (Craddock et al., 2009). Parents may
play a role in the development of maladaptive
perfectionism by engaging in autonomy or
choice-limiting behaviors (e.g., psychological
control). As a result, children may respond to
these unrealistic or high parental expectations
by adopting the same expectations themselves.
In addition, in enmeshed family contexts in
which no authoritarian or coercive intent is
present, high levels of enmeshment (e.g., poor
emotional boundaries between parent and child)
and excessive warmth on the part of parents may
“parentify” a child and lead the child to adopt
high standards and patterns of organization for
him- or herself if parents lack healthy patterns
of emotional functioning, which may help the
child or adolescent achieve some kind of control
(Craddock et al., 2009; Turner & Turner, 2011).
Conceptual Models of Perfectionism
and Families
Taken together, the evidence strongly implicates
the influence of families in the development of
perfectionism, particularly maladaptive or more
personally damaging forms of perfectionism,
such as self-oriented and socially prescribed
perfectionism. On the basis of the existing
162
literature on perfectionism and the concepts of
family systems theory previously described, we
propose three conceptual models to explain per-
fectionism of children and youth within families:
(a) the development of maladaptive perfection-
ism, (b) the development of self-oriented and
socially prescribed perfectionism, and (c) the
development of other-oriented perfectionism.
We began model development by creating
three tables of child- and family-level correlates
of perfectionism based on existing research, one
for each proposed model (see Tables 1–3). We
then conceptually mapped out these findings to
create an initial model for each of the three
respective types of perfectionism. The next step
involved considering the role of feedback in the
family system (Cox & Paley, 1997) and the inter-
personal nature of perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett,
1991). Because perfectionists are highly sensi-
tive to criticism, feedback is important in the
development of perfectionism for all three of our
proposed models. Furthermore, Flett, Hewitt,
et al. (2002) suggested that the nature of parents’
feedback defines the effect of perfectionism in
children and youth. As a result, we diagrammed
feedback in the conceptual mappings to create
the final models.
Model 1: Maladaptive Perfectionism
In Model 1, we propose that the characteristics
of children themselves may have an impact on
the development of maladaptive perfectionism.
Using evidence demonstrating that children’s
temperamental characteristics are related to
maladaptive perfectionism (Turner & Turner,
2011), Arrow 1a indicates that characteristics
of children lead to maladaptive perfectionist
tendencies independently of other factors (see
Figure 1). In addition, Arrow 1b proposes a clear
link between characteristics of children them-
selves and parenting behaviors. For example,
children who are more temperamentally anxious
are more prone to develop maladaptive perfec-
tionism in the first place (Flett, Hewitt, et al.,
2002; Turner & Turner, 2011). It may be these
anxious behaviors have a negative influence on
parents. Parents of children who are tempera-
mentally anxious and display characteristics of
maladaptive perfectionism may be frustrated or
annoyed by their child’s behaviors. In this way,
children’s behavior may serve as a response to
and trigger for parents’ behavior, evidence of the
interdependence of subsystems, as noted earlier.
Journal of Family Theory & Review
Second, we suggest that parenting and other
important family behaviors affect the develop-
ment of maladaptive perfectionism and youth
(see Figure 1, Arrow 2). Existing evidence
demonstrates parents’ own perfectionistic
behavior, and parents’ high expectations are
clear influences on children’s perfectionistic
behaviors (Appleton et al., 2010; Damian et al.,
2013). In addition, a wealth of research on
family processes suggests ways that family
patterns may influence the development of
perfectionism. One possibility is that as family
patterns of cohesion become more extreme (e.g.,
overly cohesive, as in enmeshment; not enough
cohesion, as in authoritarian parenting), chil-
dren may respond by adopting perfectionistic
tendencies as a coping strategy in response to
these behaviors.
Depicted by Arrows 3a and 3b, the feedback
generated by parents’ behaviors and patterns
in the family system is the link between these
family-level behaviors and perfectionistic
behaviors in children. When parents give neg-
ative or positive feedback to children, children
likely respond internally, which potentially
exacerbates their temperamental proclivity that
predisposes them to develop maladaptive per-
fectionism (Hewitt et al., 2006; see Figure 1,
Arrow 3b). Negative feedback in particular may
lead to a child becoming emotionally and behav-
iorally dysregulated, further frustrating parents
or even aggravating parents’ own perfectionistic
tendencies (see Figure 1, Arrow 3a).
Several other methods of feedback may influ-
ence the development of maladaptive perfec-
tionism. For example, the principle of circular
causality would suggest that as parents continue
to interact with children in a harsh, punitive way,
children will respond by becoming emotionally
dysregulated and overly concerned about par-
ents’ expectations or their own mistakes (e.g.,
rumination). Over time, these behaviors likely
become predictable and entrenched patterns of
interacting in the family system. In other words,
parents may become even more frustrated when
children are dysregulated or make mistakes, and
that increasing frustration will up the ante for
children to perform perfectly, thus making them
more dysregulated or anxious, and leading to
even more extreme maladaptive perfectionism
over time.
Finally, parental feedback to a child may
shape the goodness-of-fit between the child’s
temperament and parents’ behaviors. For
Perfectionism and the Family System 163

Figure 1. Model 1: Proposed development of maladaptive perfectionism.

#1a

#1b Parent/ #2
Child
The Child Family
Outcomes
Behaviors

#3b #3a

Feedback

Table 1. Empirical linkages related to Model 1: Proposed development of maladaptive perfectionism

Authors Construct(s)

Arrow 1a: Links between child factors and maladaptive perfectionism

Randles et al., 2010 High Behavior Inhibition System (BIS) sensitivity related to maladaptive perfectionism
Turner & Turner, 2011 High BIS sensitivity related to and predicts maladaptive perfectionism
Kobori et al., 2005 Temperamental reward dependence, persistence predicts self-oriented and socially prescribed
perfectionism
Richardson et al., 2014 Maladaptive perfectionists display higher levels of anxiety and poorer emotion regulation
skills, including higher levels of emotion suppression and lower levels of reappraisal
Arrow 1b: Links between child temperament and parent and family behaviors
Dix, 1991a Children’s and parents’ behavior is intimately linked with one another; children’s behavior
and emotions can trigger maladaptive responses from parents
More research needed
Arrow 2: Links between parent and family behaviors and child perfectionism
Craddock et al., 2009 Parental authoritarian style, psychological control, and family enmeshment are related to
maladaptive perfectionism
Craddock et al., 2010 Family disengagement and rigidity are related to maladaptive perfectionism
DiPrima et al., 2011 Maladaptive perfectionists report significantly higher levels of family standards and a higher
discrepancy between their family’s standards and their performance
Hibbard & Walton, 2014 Authoritarian parenting style significantly related to higher perceptions of parental
expectations and parental criticism (dimensions of maladaptive perfectionism)
Soenens et al., 2008 Parental psychological control predicts maladaptive perfectionism for sons and daughters
Wang, 2010 Maladaptive perfectionists report significantly higher perceptions of family standards and
family order and a much higher discrepancy between family standards and their behavior
Arrows 3a–3b: Links on the role of feedback in maladaptive perfectionism
Smith & Thelen, 2003a Feedback children and parents give to one another likely initiate and maintain maladaptive
perfectionism
Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002 Perfectionists are highly evaluative individuals and are sensitive to assessment from others
More research needed
Note. Links are organized by arrow in the corresponding model.
a Theoretical work.
164 Journal of Family Theory & Review

Figure 2. Model 2: Proposed development of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism.

#3

#4 Parent #1 Child
The Child
Behaviora Outcomes

#2a #2b

Feedbackb

a This could also include the child’s perception of the parent’s behavior. b The feedback could be directed toward the self

(i.e., parent demands perfection from self) or others (i.e., the child).

Table 2. Empirical linkages related to Model 2: Proposed development of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism

Authors Construct(s)

Arrow 1: Links between parent behavior and child outcomes

Appleton et al., 2010 Parents’ display of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism
predicts display of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism in
adolescents; parents’ other-oriented perfectionism predicts adolescents’ socially prescribed
perfectionism
Cook & Kearney, 2009 Mothers’ self-oriented perfectionism and obsessive compulsive symptoms predict child’s
self-oriented perfectionism
Cook & Kearney, 2014 Mothers’ anxiety and other-oriented perfectionism predict child’s socially prescribed
perfectionism
Damian et al., 2013 High perceived parental expectations predict socially prescribed perfectionism
Arrow 2a - 2b: Links on the role of feedback in self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism
Smith & Thelen, 2003a Feedback children and parents give to one another likely initiates and maintains maladaptive
perfectionism
Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002 Perfectionists are highly evaluative individuals are sensitive to assessment from others
More research needed.
Arrow 3: Links between child factors and self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism
Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002 Behavioral Activation System (BAS) sensitivity in the form of drive and attention to rewards
is related to self-oriented perfectionism
More research needed.
Arrow 4: Links between child factors and parent behavior
Dix, 1991a Behavior of children and parents is intimately linked with one another; children’s behavior
and emotions can trigger maladaptive responses from parents
More research needed
Note. Links are organized by arrow in the corresponding model.
a Theoretical work.
Perfectionism and the Family System 165

Figure 3. Proposed development of other-oriented perfectionism.

#2

Perception
Child
The Child of Parent
Behavior Outcome

#1a #1b

Feedbacka

a Feedback could be directed toward the self (i.e., parent demands perfection from self) or others (i.e., the child).

Table 3. Empirical linkages related to Model 3: Proposed development of other-oriented perfectionism

Authors Construct(s)

Arrow 1a–1b: Links on the role of feedback in other-oriented perfectionism

Appleton et al., 2010 Adolescents’ perceptions of parents’ other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism
predict adolescents’ other-oriented perfectionism
Arrow 2: Links between child factors and other-oriented perfectionism
More research needed
Note. Links are organized by arrow in the corresponding model.

example, a poor fit may make a highly anxious
and maladaptive perfectionistic child more
likely to elicit negative behaviors from parents
such as authoritarianism and psychological
control that may put them in a destructive cycle.
In this cycle, parents may respond to these
characteristics by engaging in punitive and
authoritarian behaviors (e.g., “It’s not that big
of a deal to have your homework be that perfect,
stop acting like this and leave it alone!”), which
leads to child rumination (e.g., “It has to be
perfect!”) and further perfectionism. In partic-
ular, inhibited children may be particularly at
risk because they may elicit increased levels of
psychologically controlling parenting to begin
with (e.g., “I’ll do it for you because I know it’s
scary”; Rubin, Nelson, Hastings, & Asendorpf,
1999). These controlling behaviors from parents
predict maladaptive perfectionism (Turner &
Turner, 2011).
Models 2 and 3: Dimension-Specific
Perfectionism
Model 2: Self-oriented and socially prescribed.
Our second model explains the development of
both self-oriented and socially prescribed per-
fectionism. Although Hewitt and Flett (1991)
and their colleagues have demonstrated the
psychometric distinctiveness of self-oriented
and socially prescribed types of perfectionism
(Hewitt et al., 2003), research has consistently
shown that interpersonal relationships shape
the development of perfectionism, especially
experiences with parents (e.g., Appleton et al.,
2010). Because the source that leads a child
to display both self-oriented and socially pre-
scribed perfectionist behaviors may be the
same in most cases, we chose to include
these two types of perfectionism in the same
model.
The first proposition of our second model
(see Figure 2, Arrow 1) is that both mothers’ and
fathers’ self-oriented and socially prescribed
perfectionist behaviors influence these same
types of behavior in children. For example,
Appleton et al. (2010) found that youth percep-
tions of fathers’ self-oriented perfectionism were
a significant positive predictor of adolescents’
self-oriented perfectionism. It may be that as
children and adolescents perceive and observe
both mothers’ and fathers’ very rigid and high
166
expectations for themselves personally, this trig-
gers these same types of behaviors in children,
which again suggests the interdependence of
systems. Parents’ perfectionistic behaviors may
be powerful enough that even an adolescent’s
perception of parents’ endorsement of these
types of values and behaviors is enough to lead
the adolescent to adopt the same behaviors, pos-
sibly as a protective response to avoid negative
feedback.
As depicted in Figure 2, Arrow 2a, feedback
may also be important in the development of
other-oriented perfectionism. If parents them-
selves engage in self-punishing behaviors in
response to imperfect behavior (e.g., “I didn’t
do X behavior right, so I’m a failure”), these
behaviors may function as negative feedback for
both parent and child. As children observe par-
ents punishing themselves for less-than-perfect
behavior, the punishment may serve as a
warning against making mistakes in the future,
thus squashing anything less than perfect behav-
ior. This warning against failure or future
mistakes may also perpetuate self-oriented and
socially prescribed perfectionistic behaviors
for both parents and children (see Figure 2,
Arrow 2b).
Third, this model (see Figure 2, Arrow 3) pro-
poses that children and youth themselves have
an influence in the development of self-oriented
and socially prescribed perfectionism. For
example, Damian et al. (2013) found that youth
self-reported socially prescribed perfectionism
earlier in time as a significant predictor of
this type of perfectionism at later time points,
suggesting the continuity of these behaviors
over time.
Fourth, we propose (see Figure 2, Arrow
4) that children’s characteristics may trigger
parents’ perfectionistic tendencies. Although
the perfectionism literature largely examines
how parents affect children’s perfectionism,
we believe that children may also play a role
in shaping parents’ perfectionistic behaviors.
For example, a child who is temperamentally
anxious may trigger a perfectionistic parent’s
own feelings of distress and need for control,
thus leading the parent to display more perfec-
tionism (Flett, Hewitt et al., 2002). Based on the
empirical work noted already, parents’ display
of these behaviors may in turn trigger children’s
perfectionistic behaviors, thus promoting a
maladaptive cycle of perfectionism for both par-
ents and children. This link between children’s
Journal of Family Theory & Review
characteristics and parents’ perfectionism
requires empirical support, but it could be
that perfectionistic parents are overly stressed
themselves and promote a family culture of
anticipating future mistakes (Flett, Hewitt, et al.,
2002). When parents notice that their child is
concerned about a mistake or problem, they may
also experience distress for the child and for
themselves. If this distress exacerbates parents’
self-oriented and socially prescribed perfection-
ism, parents may implicitly reinforce negative
thought patterns that promote perfectionism in
their children (e.g., “If Mom doesn’t like it that
X didn’t go perfectly, I better get it right”).
Model 3: Other oriented. Research has shown
that youths’ perceptions of mothers’ and fathers’
other-oriented perfectionism and mothers’
socially prescribed perfectionism are signifi-
cant predictors of other-oriented perfectionism
(Appleton et al., 2010). As a result, we propose
that children’s perceptions of perfectionistic
standards parents’ endorse for themselves and
demand of others are enough to trigger children
to adopt these same types of behaviors. As
depicted in Figure 3 (see Arrow 1a), we propose
that feedback is the mediating construct between
children’s perceptions of parents’ perfectionistic
behavior and their internalization of these val-
ues. It may be that when children observe their
parents imposing such high rigid standards on
themselves and others and the resulting negative
feedback parents give people who do not meet
these standards (even the child his/herself), the
child may internalize these values and project
them outward (see Figure 3, Arrow 1b). We pro-
pose that this internalization of other-oriented
perfectionistic values by children may be done
in an effort by the child to protect him- or herself
(e.g., “I can’t be criticized if I hold other people
to a higher standard first”).
In addition, we propose (see Figure 3, Arrow
2) that children’s temperamental characteris-
tics may be directly related to the adoption
of other-oriented perfectionism. Although our
proposition is speculative, the limited evidence
regarding temperament and perfectionism indi-
cates that high levels of anxiety and emotionality
in children are predictors of perfectionism (Flett,
Hewitt, et al., 2002; Randles et al., 2010; Turner
& Turner, 2011). It may be that children who
possess these characteristics use other-oriented
perfectionistic behaviors as a means to achieve
control over the emotional dysregulation they
Perfectionism and the Family System
feel. Of our three models, the evidence on
other-oriented perfectionism is the most limited
and warrants further investigation.
Risk and Resilience, Moderating Factors
While the negative outcomes of various forms
of perfectionism have been clearly established,
consideration of resilient processes and possible
moderators that may serve a protective role for
children and families is also important. The risk
and resilience literature is particularly informa-
tive in helping us understand child and family
factors that may promote positive outcomes.
As Walsh (2012b) has noted, although resilient
processes may influence individual members of
a family unit, the risk and resilience literature
emphasizes the role of families in rallying
resources in the face of crisis or difficulty.
When considered through this lens, resilient
processes take place in the context of family
relationships (Walsh, 2012b). Child outcomes
related to perfectionism have been documented
to originate, in part, from parents or patterns
in families; however, a resilience approach
removes attention from family deficits and
dysfunction to family challenges and resources.
Using this perspective, we now discuss possible
moderating variables that may serve protective
roles in the development of perfectionism.
Child-level moderators. Certain aspects of chil-
dren’s temperament may be protective in either
dampening the development of perfectionism
or helping a child to cope with perfectionistic
parents. For example, effective emotion regula-
tion abilities may help children and adolescents
with perfectionistic parents. Cui, Sheffield Mor-
ris, Criss, Houltberg, and Silk (2014) found
emotion regulation skills to be a buffer for ado-
lescents of psychologically controlling parents.
Because psychological control is influential in
the development of perfectionism, it is likely
that effective regulatory skills could be partic-
ularly protective for children who experience
psychologically controlling parenting and are at
risk for developing one or more forms of perfec-
tionism. Emotion regulation skills may help a
child to regulate emotions that result from expo-
sure to perfectionism or being the subject of
perfectionistic strivings from parents. These
skills may also help children to reappraise
irrational statements made to them by par-
ents about perfection or how others may
167
judge them if they are not perfect (Flett et al.,
2002).
Family-level moderators. Given the role of
families in rallying resilient behaviors, several
family-level protective factors are important.
Having a positive, secure relationship with at
least one parent can be a context for the devel-
opment of resilience (Masten & Coatsworth,
1998; Walsh, 2012b), and it may buffer against
the negative effects of perfectionism, even if
the source of perfectionism is the other parent.
For example, Lyman and Luthar (2014) found
evidence linking a positive relationship with a
mother to be related to more positive adjust-
ment for perfectionist adolescents. In addition,
healthy relationships with siblings or extended
family members can promote resilience and may
help children to not internalize irrational, per-
fectionistic messages given to them by parents
or others (Walsh, 2012b).
Mediating Variables
Families are nested within a number of important
social influences that both affect and are affected
by the family system (Bronfenbrenner, 1993;
Flett, Hewitt et al., 2002). As a result, social fac-
tors may mediate the relationship between chil-
dren and perfectionism outcomes. Three factors
that appear to mediate this relationship are the
Internet and social media, societal values, and
the school context.
The contemporary influence of the Internet
and social media is only beginning to be under-
stood, particularly in relation to perfectionism
(Casale, Fioravanti, Flett, & Hewitt, 2014). Pre-
liminary research has demonstrated that socially
prescribed perfectionism is related to a fear of
negative evaluation, which in turn is related
to dysfunctional Internet usage behaviors. It is
likely that social media, in particular, may be an
important social influence on perfectionists. The
highly evaluative nature of social media (e.g.,
seeing someone else’s profile or status updates
may lead to self-comparison) and its tendency to
be related to distress and poor self-esteem (Chen
& Lee, 2013; Pantic, 2014) may be particularly
problematic for perfectionists who are driven by
self-evaluation.
Societal values are also an important social
factor that influence the development of perfec-
tionism (Flett et al., 2002). Values that empha-
size the role of appearance (Sheldon, 2010)
168
and extreme body thinness (Brownell, 1991)
likely promote perfectionistic cognitions and
may serve as a catalyst for perfectionist behav-
iors, or even exacerbate them. These values may
be particularly salient when messages endors-
ing such values are perpetuated by media outlets,
popular television shows, and fashion magazines
(Sheldon, 2010).
Finally, the school context is a social setting
in which perfectionism is developed and main-
tained (Fletcher, Speirs Neumeister, & Flett,
2014). Specific school-related contexts such as
students’ academic work, sports teams, and stu-
dents’ relationships with one another might all
influence the development and maintenance of
perfectionism. Teachers may also unknowingly
play a role in these processes by promoting,
valuing, and reinforcing perfectionistic behav-
iors (e.g., rewarding a student with perfect
grades or promoting student competitiveness).
This influence is particularly deleterious if
teachers do not take into account contextual
factors (e.g., the student’s mental health, rela-
tionship with their parents) that may provide
information about the student’s relationship
with perfectionism. In contrast, teachers have
the potential to serve a protective role by helping
individual students push back against pressure
from parents to achieve academically or in other
areas. Teachers can also ameliorate perfection-
ism by endorsing values that promote healthy
self-esteem and emphasize “effort, process, and
progress” rather than competitiveness or high
achievement (Flett & Hewitt, 2014; Nelson &
Nelson, 2005, p.27).
Conclusion
Parent–child relationships and family settings
are central contexts in which perfectionistic
behaviors are developed, perpetuated, and/or
ameliorated. In this article, we have proposed
three models to suggest how research in this area
can be structured in future empirical investiga-
tions, highlighting protective factors that buffer
against the negative effects of perfectionism
and mediating variables that may affect the
trajectory of perfectionism for individuals.
Future Directions in Perfectionism Research
We recommend that the proposed evidence-
based models be empirically tested to exam-
ine whether these models accurately explain
Journal of Family Theory & Review
the development of perfectionism in families.
Empirical investigation of these three models
utilizing structural equation modeling can pro-
vide vital information about ways in which the
models could be modified to more accurately
reflect these processes in families.
To date, the majority of the research on per-
fectionism and families has focused on more
negative aspects of family functioning. How-
ever, we suggest that positive aspects of fam-
ily functioning are critical and can be rallied
to decrease the development of negative out-
comes associated with all forms of perfection-
ism (Walsh, 2012b). We also believe that these
resilient processes can increase healthy striv-
ing rather than the negative outcomes associated
with perfectionism. Furthermore, parental and
family systems can be a force for good in influ-
encing healthy behavior patterns in children and
young people rather than a source of deficit and
dysfunction (Walsh, 2012a). Future research is
needed to examine resilient family-system-level
processes that may buffer the negative effects
of a child or parent’s temperamental proclivity
to perfectionism, such as healthy family belief
systems, family connectedness, healthy cohe-
sion, communication and problem solving, and
marriage satisfaction (Walsh, 2012b). Under-
standing such positive behaviors and patterns
may provide vital information to family educa-
tors and practitioners of family behaviors and
strengths that can be emphasized to promote
the well-being of both children and parents in a
family system.
In addition, more research is needed to
delineate specific factors that explain the
relationship between parent and youth perfec-
tionism, particularly for the dimension-specific
types of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and
other-oriented perfectionism. Although there
likely is an imitative component to this rela-
tionship (i.e., children imitate what they see
their parents do), this relationship may not be
one-to-one. As such, it is important to under-
stand mediating or moderating factors that influ-
ence this relationship. There likely are additional
temperamental components (e.g., difficulty reg-
ulating one’s behavior) that may make youth
more or less likely to adopt their parents’ perfec-
tionism. In addition, some research has begun to
show that the gender of the parent and child have
an influence on adoption of dimension-specific
perfectionism (e.g., Appleton et al., 2010), and
there may be internalizing-related difficulties
Perfectionism and the Family System
that make youth more or less likely to adopt
perfectionistic behaviors (e.g., a ruminative
response orientation; Flett, Madorsky, Hewitt,
& Heisel, 2002). Understanding of these and
other mediating factors is needed.
Empirical evidence has demonstrated that
self-oriented and socially prescribed perfection-
ism are correlated (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). As
discussed earlier, we believe that other signif-
icant relationships (e.g., parents, other family
members) may be the source of both types of
perfectionism. In both forms, the subject of the
sought-after perfection is the self. While the
socially prescribed type specifically identifies
that warmth and acceptance are conditional upon
perfection, we propose that in self-oriented per-
fectionism, this may also be the case. There is an
extremely limited amount of qualitative research
that has examined the sources of these perfec-
tionism types. Much more qualitative work is
needed to explore how perfectionism operates
in families and what, if any, other sources may
be influencing the development of self-oriented
perfectionism. Conducting in-depth interviews
with both parents and children themselves may
provide important information about how par-
ents believe their personality characteristics and
parenting beliefs and practices affect themselves
and their children’s experiences. Moreover, chil-
dren can be particularly effective informants in
helping describe how these constructs influence
them and may be less inhibited doing so separate
of their parents.
Implications for Theory Development
As a result of the heterogeneity among per-
fectionists and the complex trajectories of
perfectionism, future theory development is
needed to understand other external factors that
may influence parents and children and how
these factors may interact with one another.
In addition, because children and families are
embedded within a social context (Bronfen-
brenner, 1993; Flett, Hewitt, et al., 2002), other
factors external to the family unit should be
identified and included in future model develop-
ment. The socially prescribed model described
here lends itself well to including other social
factors that may promote the development of
perfectionism in the future. The three social
mediators discussed here (Internet and social
media, societal values, and teachers) could be
included in future models to identify social
influences that may interact with children and
169
parents to produce distinct trajectories of per-
fectionism. These social factors may serve
ameliorating, exacerbating, or maintaining roles
in the development of perfectionism.
Implications for Practice
As this review has demonstrated, parents
and the family unit interact with children’s
characteristics to produce unique trajectories
of perfectionism. Understanding the dynamic
nature of the family can lead researchers to
develop and test interventions and treatment
programs that rally positive family resources
and promote resilient processes, such as those
noted by Walsh (2012b). Hewitt and Flett (2014)
have proposed a much-needed framework for
resilience that provides a critical starting point
for increasing awareness of the negative effects
of perfectionism for both children and parents
by providing specific principles that could pro-
foundly affect families in multiple intervention
contexts (e.g., child at school, individual or
family therapy work).
Using a resilience approach, all members of
the family are considered important resources
in problem solving (Walsh, 2012b), but help-
ing parents understand the link between their
own behaviors and children’s perfectionistic
outcomes is especially important. Once parents
understand the effect of their behavior on their
child, practitioners can help parents to consider
changing their perfectionist-oriented goals for
their child and the ways they interact (Dix,
1991). Future therapeutic efforts should be
directed toward helping families access resilient
processes that can heal wounds created by the
negative effects of perfectionism.
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