CHAPTER - III

PADAM COMPOSERS
 S4

CHAPTERffl
PADAM COMPOSERS

There are numerous Padakaras or Padam composers in Kamatic music

in the languages of Telugu, Tamil, and Malayalam. Greatest among them was
Kshetrajna. He composed about 4000 Padams. Out of these, only about 450
were published. Every Padam ofhis seems to illustrate one or other principle of
Natya Sastra, Alankara Sastra and Nayika-Nayaka bheda. The other composers
of Padam in Telugu and Tamil are Ghanam Krishna Iyer, Kasturi Ranga,
Muvanallur Sabhapathayya, Sarangapani, Muthu Thandavar and Mathru
Bhuthayya, to name some. In Kerala, Swathi Tirunal, lrayimman Tampi and
Kutty Kunju Thankachi were the prominent Padam composers. Swathi Tirunal
composed not only in Malayalam but also in Sanskrit and Telugu. The usage of
the Padam for varied language compositions becomes all the more evident
from the writings ofN.S.Ramachandran (1990) 14. He has written that the term
'Padam' is "applied to the devotional songs composed in Madhurabhava by
Talapakkam Annamacarya ... in Andhra and the works ofPurandara Dasa ...and
others in Kamataka".

This chapter gives a brief life sketch and describes the contributions of
some ofthe prominent Padam composers.

Mabaraja Swatbi Tirunal

The great grand nephew of Karthika Tirunal Balaramavarma (Dharma

Raja) and the son of Regent Rani Lekshmi Bai of Travancore and Rajaraja
Varma Koitamburan of Kilimanoor Palace, Swathi Tirunal was born on 16th

14
Ramachandran. N.S (1990), The Growth and Development of Padams, pp. 72-73, Studies on Music
and Allied Arts Vol.IV, Sundeep Prakashan, New Delhi
Maharaja Swathi Tirunal
 55

April, 1813 on the Star Chothi of Medam (Malayalam month). Even before his
birth, he became the King of Travancore because there was no male heir in the
royal family to be appointed as the Maharaja. Hence he was called "Garbha
Sreeman". When he was only two years old, his mother gave birth to another
male child and then passed away. The care of these two kids, their elder sister
and the kingdom of Travancore then became the responsibility of Swathi
Tirunal's aunt (mother's younger sister Maharani Sethu Parvathi Bai). A born
genius, Swathi Tirunal was quick in grasping several languages, Sastras, music
and allied arts even as a child. In his 16th year, he ascended the throne and
implemented several reforms in almost all departments. The period of Swathi
Tirunal Ramavarma was a golden era in the history of Travancore. At the
young age of33, he departed to be one with the supreme soul.

Music was the life and soul of Swathi Tirunal. Bhakthi was his one and
only aim. Musicians, dancers and other artists from various parts of India
visited and stayed at the court of Swathi and some of them were made court
musicians and dancers. With the help of artists from North India, Swathi
Tirunal could grasp Hindustani and Maratti music and later contributed to his
musical repertoire by composing Hindustani music as well. His personal love
for music and dance notwithstanding, Swathi Tirunal made the kingdom of
Travancore a seat of music and allied arts.

Swathi Tirunal's court boasted of tall personalities in the fields of music

and allied arts. Tanjore Ranka Iyer, Sulaiman Sahib and Halwathi represented
Hindustani music; Tanjore Chinthamani was a Sarangi expert while
Raghunatha Rao was a reputed Vainika. Kannayya Bhagavathar, Meruswami,
Tanjore Quartet (Ponnayya, Sivanandan, Vadivelu and Chinnayya), Irayimman
Tampi, Shadkala Govinda Marar and Paramesvara Bhagavathar were some of
the other gems among the galaxy of court musicians of Swathi Tirunal. Swathi
himself was a great bhaktha, musician, instrumentalist, composer, poet and
scholar. "As a composer Maharaja Swathi Tirunal was singularly great in the
 56

infinite variety and versatility of his compositions, in their suitability for dance,
and in the number of languages he handled with felicity. Svara sahitya was his
speciality" (Govinda Rao,T.K. 1997)15.

The use of apurva ragas like Gopika Vasantham, Desakshi, Dvijavanti,

Gauri, Navarasam etc. and Svarasahitya prayogas are noteworthy features of
his compositions. His scholarship in Sanskrit is also remarkable. No other
composer has composed such a variety of compositions like Svarajati, Varna,
Padavarna, Kirthana, Kriti, Padam, Ragamalika, Tillana, Kalakshepas,
Hindustani compositions - Dhrupad, Khyal, Tappa, Bhajan, Tarana, Maratta
forms like Ovi, Dindi and musico-literary works and literary works like
Bhakthi Manjari etc. Each and every one of his creations commanded merit of
the highest order, making them at par with the contributions of specialist
exponents. An ardent bhaktha of the reclining form of Lord Vishnu, Sri
Padmanabha, most of his compositions were in praise of his beloved Lord. The
Maharajas of Travancore have been generally called Sri Padmanabha Dasa
(servant of Sri Padmanabha) from the period of Maharaja Marthanda Varma.

Swathi Tirunal's group Kritis are Navaratri Kritis, Navavidha Bhakthi

Kritis (also known as Navaratna Malika) and Ghanaraga Kritis. From the time
of Swathi to the present, the Navaratri Kritis have been sung as the main
composition each day during the Navaratri music festival conducted in the
Navaratri Mandapam of Sri Padmanabha Swami temple at
Thiruvananthapuram. Navavidha Bhakthi Kritis are another set of nine
excellent Kritis which are set to the nine bhavas of bhakthi - Sravanam,
Kirthanam, Smaranam, Padasevanam, Archanam, Vandanam, Dasyam,
Sakhyam and Atmanivedanam.

IS Govinda Rao,T.K (1997), "Compositions of Swathi Tirunal - Excerpts from the Presidential

Address", pp.XXVI, Gana Mandir Publications, Chennai

 57

There are more than 300 individual compositions of which some are
found as Kshetra Kritis, in praise of deities of selected temples. His musico-
literary works are Utsava Prabandhams; narrations and compositions about the
festivals conducted in Sri Padmanabha Swami temple. Kuchelopakhyanam and
Ajamilopakhyanam are two upakhyanams composed for the performance of
Hari Katha Kalakshepam. The literary works are Muhanaprasantyaprasa
Vyavasta or rules regarding the compositions; Bhakthi Manjari, one of the
greatest works on pure bhakthi ever seen in the modem era,
Syanandoorapuravamana Prabandham, a work about the city of Sri
Padmanabha (Syanandoorapuri or Thiruvananthapuram) and Sri Padmananbha
Sataka, a hundred verses praising Sri Padmanabha.

To the Maharaja, music and other arts were a means of worship, which
he dedicated to the Lord. In the face of continuous hardships in life, the only
power that can keep a person afloat is the Supreme or Almighty. This was
equally applicable to Swathi. Although Swathi was a Maharaja, he had to face
several bad experiences in his personal life and royal official life. This might
have doubled his devotion to the God and he would have found relief in
oneness with God. Therefore, "Dedication to art and devotion to Sri
Padmanabha became two closely related aspects of his life. For him, literature
and arts were devotional offerings to the Almighty... Being denied all hopes of
gaining happiness from his worldly activities, in spite of being a monarch, he
pinned all his faith in Almighty and directed all his energies including his
creative faculty to the service of the Lord" (Malini, 1999)16. Swathi utilised his
free time from royal official duties for composing praises of the Supreme
through almost all types of musical forms in South Indian, North Indian and
Maratti music. He had intense dedication to Bharatanatayam and Mohiniyattom
also because he considered music and dance as two sides of the same coin. He

16 Matini, S (1994), "Compositions of Sri Swathi Tirunal - A Structural Study", pp. 34, Thesis
submitted to the University of Kerala
 58

composed dance forms like Padams, Padavamas, Jatisvarams, Svarajatis and

Tillanas. He gave special importance to Padam since Padam is a combination
of the sentiment of love to God and devotion. The literary and musical aspects
have equal importance in Padam. Such melodious songs can uplift the common
people to the level of'Sahridayas' and induce the sentiment of devotion in
them. Padams are specially intended for abhinaya and they can bring a spiritual
fervour through Madhura Bhakthi - Bahir Sringara and Antarika Bhakthi. In all
the Padams of Swathi, the nayaka is none other than Sri Padmanabha Swami.

"Maharaja's Padams are all addressed to his family diety Sri

Padmanabha have the same esoteric meaning as the Geeta Govinda of
Jayadeva. His mastery of the technicalities of music and his skill as an expert
singer and poet are evident in all his compositions" (Kausalya, 1958)17. The
Padavarnas and Hindustani compositions contain the theme of Madhura
Bhakthi. But for nine bhajans out of the total 37 Hindustani compositions, 28
compositions are in this theme. Padavamas were composed for dance.
Hindustani compositions containing this theme proves that Swathi had the skill
. for composing such songs in absolute Hindustani style and the bhakthi bhava
equals to the bhava conveyed in the songs of Mirabai and other Hindustani
composers.

Swathi Timnal composed 66 Padams and with the help of Vadivelu, the
court Natyacharya, choreographed them for abhinaya in Mohiniyattom. Swathi
Tirunal might have taken the essence of Kerala music - Sopana Sangitam and
Kamatic music and composed the Padams, amalgamating the good features of
the two systems. But we are not fortunate to get either the original tune given
by Swathi or the enactment of those songs suggested by him. As he wished to
revive the system of Mohiniyattom and make it a classical dance form of
Kerala, he tried his best and succeeded in uplifting the status of Mohiniyattom

17 Kausalya, P.N (1958), " Telugu Padakaras", pp.222, Thesis submitted to the University ofMadras
 59

like the Bharatanatyam. A concert pattern was found essential for the stage
performance. Therefore, he composed required forms like Jatisvaram, Varnam,
Padavarnam, Padam and Tillana. Vadivelu, Irayimman Tampi and Kilimanoor
Koyitamburan assisted the Maharaja in putting together a concert pattern for
Mohiniyattom. Swathi did not like to deviate from the traditional performance
in Kerala temples. Therefore he insisted on slow movement and soft steps.
Edakka, the Devavadyam was suggested as the accompaniment for
Mohiniyattom. These prove that Swathi considered this art as divine.

Thus it seems that 'Trauryatrikam' existed as the tradition in Kerala

temples from the time of Tamizhakam dynasty (Chera). Actually, Dharmaraja
Karthika Tirunal Balarama Varma, (the author of Balarama Bharatam) was the
great patron of Mohiniyattom and it was he who elevated Mohiniyattom from
being the dance of Devadasis in temples to a classical dance form.
Unfortunately his successors concentrated only in Kathakali and ignored
'Strinritham'. Thus it had to face another eclipse. Although Swathi revived this
art form and composed several musical. pieces, most of his songs are not
popular. Among 66 Padams, just 18 or 20 are popular. As mentioned earlier,
since the original tune is not available, the present musicians as well as dancers
should remake these divine contributions for popularizing them.

"In the Sanskrit Padas of Swati, there are echoes of Jayadeva and
Kshetrajna. Viditam te nisavrittam (Surati) and Sadhujane tavasayam (Athana),
both depicting the Khandita Nayika bear the impression of one of the
Ashtapadis in canto VIII of the Gita Govinda. "Yahi Madhava Yahi Kesava"
with expression close to Jayadeva in some places. In Entu mama Sadanattil, in
Kalyani, the offended lady asks sarcastically her erring lover whether he had
come to a wrong house, mistaking her own for that of his other lady. This is
after the Telugu Surati Pada Indendu vacchidivira aladani illu i vithi gabure,
 60

po pora... In the Sanskrit pieces, Virhotkanthita and Khandita Nayikas occur

mainly, these being the most common ones" (Dr.V.Raghavan, 1974)18.

Merging into the ocean of music and dance helped Swathi forget the
tensions and grief presented by the bad experiences in life (demise of his
mother, wife and child and indifferences and disturbances from British rulers).
He devoted his talents for the realisation of God or Moksha. Each and every
song or work of his came from his soul and thus bear the spiritual language.
We can appreciate his contributions in the level of art as well as philosophy.

Other Paclam Composers in Telogu

1. Kshetrajna

Kshetrajna is one of the greatest names in the history of Karnatic music.

He was a great poet, singer, saint and composer. He is called the "Father of the
musical form - Padam". His Padams are an invaluable contribution to the
enrichment and refinement of Karnatic music. His Bhavapooritha Padams were
admired by Sangita Trimurtis and each and every Padam can be considered a
classic work.

We don't have a clear picture about his life. From Sangita Sampradaya
Pradarsini, written by Subbarama Diskshitar, we get some information about
Kshetrajna. He was a Telugu Brahmin who lived in Muvvapuri, two-three
kilometers away from Kuchipudi. His original name was Varadayya. He was
an ardent devotee of Muvva Gopala, the principal deity of Muvvapuri. He got
training in music and dance from childhood, since his native place was very
near to Kuchipudi, which was the centre of Bharatanatyam in Andhra.
Therefore he could become an eminent dancer and he started composing

18 Raghavan, V (1974), Svatt Tiruna!'s Contribution to Dance, pp. 189, The Journal of the Madras
Music Academy, XLV
 61

Padams for Bharatanatyam. Even today the dancers of Muvva and Kuchipudi
use Kshetrajna's Padams for traditional Bharatanatyam performances.

Vissa Appa Rao in his lecture at the Madras Music Academy in

September, 1950 said that a great yogi selected Kshetrajna as his disciple and
gave him the upadesa of Gopala moolamantra. He followed the instructions of
his guru for years till he was favoured with the recognition and grace of
Gopala. He began to sing Padams in praise of Muvva Gopala. 'Sripati
sutubariki' in Anandabhairavi was his first Padam. Then onwards, he was
known as a master musician, great composer and ardent bhaktha (a
wholehearted server of the Lord). Later he went from temple to temple and
composed several Padams and hence he was known as Kshetrajna.

Several versions about his life are also in vogue. According to Sri
PaUappalli Anantha Krishna Sarma he was a Padam composer and he
composed in praise of Kings and Nawabs of Tanjore and other places. He
returned to Muvva, his own village. Then he was attracted by a Devadasi in
Gopalaswami temple (she was Kshetrajna's companion in his childhood and
during the dance training). Being a pure bhaktha, she could not accept the
requests of love from Kshetrajna. She told him, "My Lord is Gopala Swami;
you had never praised Gopala Swami- the Almighty, but praised kings and
mortal human beings. So compose songs about the Deity Gopalaswami and
tum your thoughts towards Him." Kshetrajna took it as a challenge.

He struggled for a few days, controlling mind for meditation and turned
to Gopalaswami. After three days of continuous meditation, without food and
sleep, he got Darsana from Gopalaswami and he began to compose Padams on
God Gopala. This incident seems to be a turning point in his life. Thanks to this
unique and divine experience, Kshetrajna's attitude also changed from the
physical to the spiritual level and he became a great bhaktha. The young
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Devadasi became happy with the change in Kshetrajna. She started dancing to
the Padams composed and sung by Kshetrajna in temple. They were jointly
praising God Gopalaswami by singing and dancing. He spent most of his time
in temple without giving attention to his family and home. Then he was forced
to leave the place on account of the derogatory remarks made by the society
without understanding his greatness. So he left Muvva and visited several
temples and composed Padams in praise of those deities. Slowly the villagers
recognised his greatness but he never returned home. He stayed at Tanjore
court for some days under the patronage of Vijayaraghava Nayak. Following
request from the King, he composed a set of five songs, Vijayaraghava
Pancharatnam.

There are some stories proving the great talents of Kshetrajna. When he
was shining as the court musician and composer, others felt jealous of him. He
composed 'Varadaka pove' in Kamboji without completing and asked other
composers to complete it and he left Tanjore. They tried their best but in vain.
They waited for Kshetrajna's arrival. After returning, he completed that song
and with this incident, the other composers also started respected him. They
accepted him as a great scholar and composer of a very high order. His Padams
are the evidences of his versatility. He was adept in Telugu, Sanskrit, music,
Alankara Sastra, dance and abhinaya and imbibed fully the culture of
Kuchipudi Bhagavathars and also the art of Devadasi system. Therefore, it is
said that he was one of the minstrels of God, who came to this world to
contribute to the upliftment of humanity.

Padams of Ksbetrajna - Feelings

The various types of nayikas and nayakas mentioned in great works on

Rasa and Alankara Sastra can be very often seen in his Padams. The
illustrations given in Bhanudatta's Rasa Manjari about the lakshanas of
nayakas, nayikas and sakhis were clearly picturised in the Padams of
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Kshetrajna. His Padams are equally appreciated in music concerts and in dance
concerts. Sahitya and music are equally powerful for the expression of rasas.
For best results, he used the apt ragas in appropriate situations. Feelings like
soka or grief have different degrees like superficial grief, bearable grief,
unbearable grief, very deep grief and heart rendering grief. Kshetrajna used the
ragas Mukhari, Ghanta, Nathanamakriya, Punnagavarali and Ahiri respectively
for the above mentioned feelings. His musical excellence gets greatly
expressed through the portrayal of sahitya and the situations in vivid touches.
"While listen to a Pada of Kshetrajna, we feel as if the nayaka, nayika or sakhi
singing the Pada, stands before us in the exact psychological state of mind
visualised by Kshetrajna" (Kausalya, 1958)19.

Special Features

Kshetrajna, the prolific composer chose his expression of devotion to

God through the path of Madhura Bhakthi. Before him this theme was handled
by Jayadeva and Annamacharya. But the theme reached perfection in the hands
of Kshetrajna. The various types of nayakas and nayikas conceived in Indian
literature can be seen in his Padams. The main features of a Padam
composition, viz., the spiritual fervour, lyrics, music, raga, bhava and tala
blended into each other in his compositions, making them unparalleled. He
could start a new era of a musical form - Padam, which is a special
composition exclusively in Madhura Bhakthi or Nayika-Nayaka bhava; in the
development of Kamatic music.

There are several noteworthy features in his Padams. He selected the

Kaisiki Vritti; the most suited metre for lasya abhinaya with the style diction of
soft, fluent and seductive. The sahitya syllables are also well-knit to the matras
of tala and poetic metre. The tempo is very slow which helps suitable

19 Kausalya,P.N (1958), "Telugu Padakaras", pp. 177, Thesis submitted to the University of
Madras
 64

picturisation of sahitya through abhinaya in its varied aspects besides

presenting the composition as an offering to the God. The abhinaya done by the
Devadasis in temples were also offerings to God through facial expressions and
hastamudras. Kshetrajna selected the rakthi ragas, which can powerfully
portray the varied aspects of expression. Varied facets of the same raga can be
noted in different Padams of Kshetrajna. Kamboji seems to be his most
favourite raga; it has been used for the portrayal of multiple rasas in a number
of Padams. Rare ragas with a single rasa have also been applied by him in some
of his Padams. Nearly 40 ragas including rare ragas like Ahiri, Ghanta,
Maruva, Regupthi and Saindhavi were utilized. Among well-known ragas,
Kamboji was used in the largest number followed by Mukhari, Bhairavi,
Yadukulakamboji, Kalyani etc. (Kamboji-37, Mukhari-22, Bhairavi-22,
Kalyani-22, Saveri-16, Todi-15 and so on). Tyagaraja and Syama Sastri were
very fond of Kshetrajna's Padams and they might have added on to their
musical knowledge by listening to Kshetrajna's Padams.

Literary beauties like anuprasa, dvitiyakshara prasa, antyaprasam, yati

etc. can be seen in his Padams. The language used is very simple and
colloquial. Some meaningless syllables like era, para, pora etc. are also
included for fulfilling the number of syllables in the lines of the songs.

Some Rasikas are of the opinion that Kshetrajna's Padams are more
suitable for Nrithya abhinaya than singing in concerts because of its ability to
blend raga, tala and bhava with the lyrics. Abhinaya depends on bhava while
nrithya depends on tala. While Tisra Gati suits joy and happiness, Chaturasra
gati, Chappu tala or Ata tala suit grief or sorrow. Out of the 380 popular
Padams of Kshetrajna, there are 140 in Triputa, 118 in Adi, 59 in Chappu tala,
24 in Ata tala, 22 in lamps tala, 13 in Rupaka tala, two in Matya tala, one in
Misrajati eka and one in Chatruasrajati ekatala. Padams in Ekatala or tisragati
and talas of lesser number of matras are more suited for nrithya and as such do
not give much scope for abhinaya. This may be the reason why Kshetrajna
 6S

chose the Tisragati for composing Sabda, Alarippu and Tillana which do not
need much abhinaya.

Although the term Padam was established for denoting a musical form
with the theme of Sringara rasa, at the time of Annamacharya itself, Kshetrajna
developed or enriched it with all the possible aspects. It can be said that some
of his Bhavapooritha Padams are a bit beyond the limits in dealing with sex
love. But the scholars have excused him because he was not in the real world at
the time of composing, but in a trance and communion with supreme Lord,
Muvva Gopala. He was a genius to bring all the varieties of nayakas, nayikas,
sakhis, rasas, bhavas and principles relating to Alankara Sastra and Natya
Sastra and above all, the latent beauties of raga bhava; in a manner best suiting
the bhava of the lyrics. He composed more than 4000 marvellous Padams at the
Darbars of Tanjore, Madura and Golkonda, where he spent a few years of his
life. Some of those Padams contain the Vijaya Raghava Mudra and
Tupakulamudra. One of his Padams, 'Veduka to nadachukonna' .in Surutti
conveys details about his life. The remaining time of his life was spent on
pilgrimage. He visited sacred places like Varahur, Chidambaram, Kadapa,
Kanchi, Hemadri, Yadugiri, Palagiri, Tirumala, Tiruvalluvar, Srirangam,
Madurai, Satrypuri, Inapuri, Srisailam etc. Irrespective of the deity he sang in
praise of, the mudra used was 'Muvva Gopala' and he spent most of his time in
being one with God. We do not have any further details about his last years or
death. But he remains immortal because of his great contributions.
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Padams of Kshetrajna
SLNo Padam Raga Tala Deity I Penon
Wonhioued
1 Entaradi manasu Mukhari Ata or Chaoou Kovallur Muvagopala
2 Entaledani Kamboji Adi Karigiri Vadadu
3 Aluko palayaluko Saveri Adi Tillai Govindadu
4 Entuku napai hali Kamboji Chaoou Tillai Govindadu
s Manini vinave Sankarabharanam Ata Tillai Govindadu
6 lntavirahamu Bhairavi Jampa Veeraraghava shrine near
Poonamalla
7 Velakadura Mohanam Triputa Veda narayana (Veda
purinilaya).
8 Kanchi Kalyani Triputa Kanchi Varada
varadunitho
9 Kanchi varada Kedaragaula Adi Kanchi Varada
10 Induku ne nemi Bilahari Adi Chewandi Lingudu
seunne (Kanchipuram)
11 Emo maya vala Pantuvarali Adi Srivenkatesa
12 Ninnu maratune Kalyani Matya or Srivenkatesa
Chaoou
13 Indukenni Punnagavarali Chappu Venkatesvara of Kadappa
sethunamma
14 Melu melura Saindhavi Adi Nagasaila Mallikariuna
15 Paradesa muna Mohanam Adi Lord Sundaresvara of
jesina Madura
16 Pachi yodali Dhanyasi or Ahiri Chappu Sriranganatha
danara
17 Andagadi voduvu Sankarabharanam Adi Mannanrudi Adivaraha

2. Sarangapani

Sarangapani ranks next to Kshetrajna among the Padam composers in

Telugu. He lived in the 17th century at Karvetnagar and worked as the
Education Minister in the court of Venk:ata Perumal Raja. He was an expert in
music and dance, besides being a poet. A great bhaktha of Venugopala Swami,
Venugopala was his chosen mudra. Some of his Padams were submitted to Sri
Kalyana Venkateswarulu, Chiruthani Varayudu, Prasanna Venk:ata Suri and
Maharaja Venk:ata Perumal Raja. About 200 of his Padams written in palm
leaves have been discovered. The most popular one is 'Makudochi' (Sahana).
His Padams resemble the Padams of Kshetrajna in structure and music. He
handled the Gaurava Sringara rather than Pachai Sringara. From his fertile
 67

imagination, he could create special scenes and situations for the songs and
present them very naturally. His Padams are classified into 1) Sringara Padams
2) Desiya Padams 3) Jnana Padams and 4) Vairagya Padams.

'Manushanamma boke' in Nathanamakriya has the theme of Vedanta

(vairagya), 'Kulakanthalu veedhi badi' is composed in a peculiar theme that
explains the influence of western culture on Indian woman (Desiya Padam).
'Bhakthi tho pilachi pettina antamu' (Chenchurutti) is in Bhakthi rasa. He has
also composed humourous Padams and some other Padams in which the names
of ragas, ornaments, cities, trees etc. find mention. Examples are 'Avaluganti
matala' (Saveri) and 'Kanakana mugattinadu' (Gaulipantu). He has also
composed Svarastana Padams in Kalyani, eg., 'Dani prayamu'; with full of
svaraksharas. He has used common ragas like Anandabhairavi, Kedaragaula,
Sankarabharam etc. as well as rare ragas like Saranga todi, Karnataka saranga
etc. Padams, suitable for dance concerts according to the rules of Bharata's
Natya Sastra were also composed by Sarangapani. He was an actor and usually
took 'Sthree Vesha' (female character) in the dramas. He composed a famous
lullaby 'Lala nuchuva cheru lalana limpu namu sreela chennalaru' in Navaroj
which is sung during festivals and special occasions even today in Andhra
State. His Padams are more popular in Andhra Pradesh than that of
Kshetrajna's because of the simplicity in the language and saily or style of
writing.
Popular Padams of Sarangapani
SLNo Padam Ra£8 Tala
1 Mandayonalu gudi Yadukulakamboji Triputa
2 Pasaloni dara Todi Adi
3 Mogudochi Sahana Chappu
(most popular Padam)
4 Alukajesi Chenchuruthi Triputa
5 Rammanee Anandabhairavi Adi
6 Nee pondu seyalka Bhairavi Triputa
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3.MuvanallurSabhapathayya

Sabhapathayya is considered next to Kshetrajna for his contributions to

Padams in Telugu. He was a contemporary of Tyagaraja and hailed ftom
Muvanallur, a village in Munnar Gudi Taluk in Tanjore district. Another
village in Mayavaram taluk, known as Muvallor was famous for the temple
Marga Sahasrayesvara that has 18 inscriptions dating ftom Chola period.
Sabhapathayya' s name is also found prefixed with the name of the place
Muvaloor instead of original place ofMuvanallur. He was an ardent devotee of
Sri Rajagopala Swami, the presiding deity of Mannargudi temple. He used to
go to this temple for darshan and thereby he got the opportunity to listen the
Padams of Kshetrajna. Attracted by the charm of Padams of Kshetrajna,
Sabhapathayya also started to compose Padams with the theme Madhura
Bhakthi, in its highest esteem.

"An erudite scholar. in Telugu, with remarkable proficiency in

Sangeetha, sahitya and abhinaya sastra and endowed with a fertile musical and
poetic imagination, and with Kshetrayya Padas as excellent models,
Sabhapathayya ... a true Krishna Bhaktha, flowered easily into a fine composer
ofPadas" (S.Sita, 1994)2°. Like Kshetrajna, Sabhapathayya had a great mastery
in Alankara Sastra and Madhura Bhakthi. Different types of nayakas and
nayikas are illustrated in his Padams very beautifully and attractively. These
Padams have captivating music and are suitable for rendering abhinaya in
which Sabhapathayya could portray the feelings of love in separation
(Vipralambha Sringara) in a delicate and touching manner.

'E Mataladina' in Yadukulakamboji and 'Darijuchu Chunnadi' in

Sankarabharanam are fine examples of his Padams wherein the nayika (Sweeya
and Vasakasajja) is awaiting the nayaka, Sri Rajagopala. In the former Padam,

20
Sita, S (1994), Muvana/lur Sabhapathayya, Great Composers, p.116, CBH Publications,
Trivandrum
 69

sakhi describes the Viraha tapa of the nayika that causes a torrential stream of
tears to roll down her cheeks, during her wait for the nayaka. These Padams
offer a rich avenue for abhinaya and varied interpretations by a dancer. Like the
Padams of Kshetrajna, these Padams of Sabhapathayya also have the perfect
balance between matu and dhatu and they are complementary to each other.
The selection of ragas is appropriate for creating the bhavas in full and the
sentiments are beautifully expressed by the musical settings. He selected ragas
like Kamboji, Todi, Bhairavi, Sankarabharanam, Neelambari, Anandabhairavi,
Saveri, Kalyani, Yadukulakamboji, Atana, Sahana, Mohanam, Bilahari, and the
rare ragas like Ghanta, Gaulipandu which are capable of creating multiple
rasas. The slow tempo of the Padams is suited for detailed abhinaya in dance
concerts. Though his identifiying mudra is "Raja Gopala", his lshta Devata,
Mannaru Gopala, Gopala and Mannaru Raja Gopala are also found as his
mudras. Sabhapathayya has also composed Padams in Tamil, a good example
being 'Sainjala vilangiya'. He was a dance master too. He avowed the audience
not only by singing his rhetorically beautifulPadams in his rich and melodious
voice, but also by presenting exquisite abhinaya with great skill.

Other Popular Padams of Sabhapathayya

SLNo Padam Raia
Iddarilo Kamboji
2 PadakindiPovadena Mohanam
3 Yala vontigari Punnaga Varali
4 Inivintaduputtaga Begada

In his Padam 'lddarilo' in Kamboji, a sakhi, addressing the nayaka, is

giving him an account of accomplishments possessed by two girls and gives
him a chance to select one among them.
 70

Minor Composers of Telugu Padams

1. Gbanam Cbinnayya

Adept in music, Sanskrit and Telugu, Chinnayya adorned the court of

King Vijaya Raghava Chokkanada of Madurai as the Chief Minister. He was
an eminent singer in the Ghanam style of rendering and hence was bestowed
with the title 'Ghanam'. It is said that he might be a contemporary of
Kshetrajna. Only a few Padams of his are popular. His mudra is
"Munnaruranga". His Sringara Prabandha, Sasanka Vijayam is of highly
musical value. His talents are described in a Padya in this Prabandha. His
Padam 'Sivadiksha parulara nura' in Kurinji is popular, captivating and
attractive.

Other Padams of Ghanam Chinnayya

Padam Raga Tala
Maya vadini Darbar Adi
.Ravatsuno Punnagavarali Adi
Maga vade valachito Neelambari Triputa
Sariga kongu Surutti Rupaka

2. Kasturi Ranga

Few Padams with the mudra "Kasturi Ranga" in Telugu are available.
But the real name of the composer is yet unknown. 'Valapante samayame' in
Kamboji is one such Padam.

3. Parimala Ranga

In Sangita Sarvatra Sarasangrahamu we find about 40 Padams signed by

Parimala Ranga. Some are given with notation. It is said that the composer
 71

lived in 18th century, somewhere North of Madras. Rhetorical beauties like

Yamaka, Vritha, Anuprasa etc. were profusely used in his Padams. Those
Padams are the fruits of the wonderful imagination and musical talent of the
composer. Many of them resemble the Padams of Kshetrajna. The similarity
may have caused the unfamiliarity of the original composer as generally it has
been assumed that Kshetrajna has composed these Padams. Other popular
Padams of Parimala Ranga are 'Rara Madana' in Kapi and 'Chellanayana
manasu' in Madhyamavati.

4. Yuva Ranga

Yuva Ranga was the Yuva Raja of Tanjore and the ruler of a small part
of the kingdom, Udayar Palayam in Tiruchirappalli district. Like Swathi, he
was a king among artists and artist among kings. He was known as 'Bhoja of
the South'. It is said that there are a collection of Padams in the Oriental
Manuscript Library, Madras with the mudra "Yuva Ranga". Those Padams are
yet to be popularised. 'Ranga Swami Vididiki' (Asaveri) is a well-known
Padam.

5. Gbattupalli Varu

Ghattupalli Varu is another less-known Padam composer in Telugu, who

used the mudra "Kailasa Vasa". Sangita Sarvatra Sarasamgrahamu gives four
Padams of this composer. They are:

SI.No. Padam Raga

1. Talatsu Konte Talajala Kurinji
2. NeneJana Saveri
3. Ayyayyo Marupaye Ghanta
4. Vanita Valava Ganu Sri
 72

Another Padam with his mudra sourced from the 8araswathi Mahal
Library at Tanjore is 'Yemandu yi moha metu vantido'. The heroes selected by
him are Vishnu and Mahadeva. The other composers have selected only one
hero, either Krishna or Skanda (Muruga) or Lord Siva.

6. Merattur Venkata Ramana Sastri

An elder contemporary of Tyagaraja and Dikshitar, Merattur Venkata

Ramana 8astri hailed from the village of Merattur near Tanjore. Subbarama
Dikshitar in his Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini fixes the time of Venkata
Ramana 8astri to the time of Serfoji and Sivaji of Tanjore. He belonged to a
Brahmin family of Telugu musicians and scholars who came to Tanjore during
the Nayak and Maratta rule. He was an Upasaka of Narasimha. He composed
marvellous dance dramas like Markanteya Charita, Harischandra,
Rukmangada, Dbruvacharita, Ushakalyana, Sitakalyana, Rukminikalyana,
Kamsacharita, Harihara Vilasa and Prahlada Charita. Among these, Prahlada
Charita is the most enacted. These dance dramas were set in padyas of various
metres, descriptive passages, narrative links, prose and songs. All are presented
as songs. Actors wearing a mask and costume performed to the entry and
dialogue songs set to ragas and talas. The dance dramas were staged in open
temple premises. Actually Bhagavathamela and dance drama tradition have
contributed a lot to the development of Karnatic music. Venkata Ramana Sastri
was also a great master of music and literature. He composed Padams in
Kaisiki Vrirti, which is considered most suitable for creating rasanubhava. But
it is unfortunate that only one Padam of his, 'Taluku Beluku', which is full of
Vrirtanuprasa, has been found. He handled several rare ragas along with
popular ones.

7. Bollava Ramuvaru was a Padam composer with the mudra "Bollavarapu

Venkata Ramu". 'Mosamaye (Ahiri) 'Medamidane nuyyala' (Mukhari) 'Nanne
 73

garabu jese' (Kamboji) etc. are among the few Padams of Bollava Ramuvaru
preserved in Saraswathi Mahal Library, Tanjore.

8. Sobhana Girivaru is another composer of Padams who handled humourous

themes, like some of the Padams of Sarangapani. 'Nivekada reginanta'
(Sankarabharanam) and 'Tarunirati vela' (Pantuvarali) are some of his
compositions.

9. MaUikarjuna was another Padam composer with the mudra "Krishna". But
in 'Sokkutsu', a Padam in Surutti, the mudra "Mallikarjuna" occurs in the last
charana and 'Krishna' as his signature in anupallavi.

10. Serfoji • II Maharaja of Tanjore was a great composer and patron of

music·and dance. He has composed 18 varieties of dance forms in Maratti.1t is
said that he has composed several Padams, which are specially known as
Abhinaya Padams. Due to the lack of knowledge of Maratti language, the
dancers of Tanjore or elsewhere in South India could not adopt them for
choreography.

Tamil Padam composers

In Tamil, the musical form ofPadam appeared at a later date. But there
are several Padam composers like Muthu Thandavar, Ghanam Krishna Iyer and
Subbarama Iyer. Subbarama Iyer's Padams are noteworthy for their approach
to Sringara.

1. Muthu Thandavar

Muthu Thandavar was the pioneer in composing Padams in Tamil

language. He lived in the 17th century and early part of the 18th century at
Sirkazhi and was a contemporary of Kshetrajna. Because of his contact with a
 74

Devadasi, he was malaised by the society. Later he became inflicted with

leprosy and spent his days at the temple itself. Continuous fasting and illness
pushed him to a peculiar state of trance, wherein he kept uttering the name
lagadamba. In his trance, he is believed to have seen a girl of 10-12 years who
asked about his sufferings, gave him food and spoke gently, which brought him
tremendous relief. Following her instruction, Muthu Thandavar visited
Chidambaram and listened attentively to the temple songs. Listening thus, he
effortlessly began to compose songs in praise of Lord Siva of Chidambaram. It
was then that realisation dawned on him that the girl was none other than Devi.

The Goddess gave him a tip of composing songs using the first words of
songs sung at the temple during pujas and bhajanas. Muthu Thandavar neither
had training in music nor was he a scholar in literature nor were there any
musicians or scholars in his family. But when he tried to put the words
'Bhooloka Kailasa Giri Chidambaram' into a song with full devotion, he could
complete it. 'Bhooloka kailasa giri Chidambaramallar bhuvanathil verum
undo'? (Bhavapriya) was his first composition. He then realised that the
miracle happened by the grace and blessing of Devi and Tillai Nataraja of
Chidambaram. He composed 60 kirthanas and 25 Padams. Simplicity of
language and spirituality were the main features of his songs. He composed in
ragas like Bhava Priya, Rishabha Priya, Andolika, Surutti, Vasanta, Kamboji
etc. His prominent Padam is 'Teruvil Varano?' in Khamas and his prominent
Kriti is 'Ambara Chidambaram' - Surutti (also sung in Rishabha Priya). His
speciality lies in the fact that he could convey his spiritual knowledge in simple
language to the common people through songs, which are also suitable for
music concerts.

2. Ghanam Krishna Iyer

th
Ghanam Krishna Iyer was an eminent musician and composer of the 18
century. He was born in Tirukundrum in Udayar Palayam Taluk in
 7S

Tiruchirappalli District. His father Ramaswami Iyer was also a composer in

Tamil. Krishna Iyer attained early training from his father. He and his two
brothers shifted to Tanjore, during the reign of Serfoji Maharaja. Krishna Iyer
got further training from Pachimiriyam Adiappayya while he was the court
musician of Tanjore. He longed for further training in Ghanam style and
approached Bobbili Kesavayya who was an expert in this style. Krishna Iyer
not only equalled his Guru in singing Ghanam but also he surpassed him in
some aspects.

Scholarly songs combined with a pleasant style of rendering were his

speciality. Because of the extraordinary talent for rendering ragas in the
Ghanam style, he got the title Ghanam Krishna Iyer. In Vina, his compositions
seem to fit in easier, but in vocal, one needs thorough practice.

Saundara Raja, the presiding deity of his native village was portrayed as
the nayaka in his Padams. He composed Padams in praise of the deities of
Kumbhakonam, Udayar Palayam, Sree Rangam, Srimushnam, Chidambaram,
.Madura Swamimala, Tiruppantturuthi, Mannargudi etc. He also composed
Padams describing his patrons like Amara Simha of Tiruvidamaruthur and
Kanji Ranga, Zamindar of Udayar Palayam. Ramabhadra Mooppanar who
appreciated him was reciprocated with 'Anname' in Todi and 'Mathe avar
seyda vanchanai' in Bhairavi. Other Padams composed for the patrons are
'Nidrayil soppanathil' in praise of Amara Simha, 'Ellarumai kalum' in Todi in
praise ofPratapa Simha, son of Amara Simha and 'Tiruvottiyyoor Tyagarajan'
in Atana. His popular Padams are 'Pachilam tomal' (Todi), 'Ellaraumaikalum'
(Todi), 'Velavare' (Bhairavi), 'Nallanilavu' (Sankarabharanam), 'Pathari
varugutu' (Kamboji), 'Kachirangam kripai' (Kalyani), 'Parimalanatha'
(Darbar), 'Jagajanani summa summa varumo sukham' (Atana) etc.

Some of his Padams deal with nayaka-nayika bhava (Madhura Bhakthi)

while some are in religious and social themes. His mudras are "Velar",
 76

"Muthuvelar", "Vadivelar", "Tyagamayivelar", "Sentiruvelar", "Palanaisar",

-"Kumarar", "Kanda", "Murugessar" etc.

--3. Matbru Bbutayya

He was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu, who was also proficient in

music. His favourite deity was Sugandhi Kundalamba of Tiruchi
(Tiruchirappalli). He led a life of poverty and his sufferings were reflected in
the songs he dedicated to Sugandhi Kundalamba. He composed a dance drama
titled, Parijatha Apaharana. Bhakthi, Sringara and Sadachara are the themes in
his Kritis. He got darshan of Devi Ambika and was directed to approach
Pratapa Simha Maharaja of Tanjore. As it were pre-media~ while he
approached the king, the king was awaiting him. The King received him with
royal honours and presented gifts.

A senior contemporary of Saint Tyagaraja, he was born as the son of

Kavi Rangaraya, a Telugu Brahmin; native of Tiruchi who later migrated to
Tanjore with family. He was named after the presiding deity of
Mathrubhuthesvara. He was an ardent devotee and dedicated his compositions
to Sugandhi Kundalamba and hence they are known as Sugandhi Kundalamba
Kirthanas and Trisiragiri Padams. 'Nimadi Sallaga' is a famous Kriti ofMathru
Bhutayya in Anandabhairavi. He composed in Sanskrit also. His musical play
Parijatha Apaharana shows the extraordinary talent of the composer. It consists
of Todayam, Darus, Slokas, Chumikas, Dvipadas, Nalangu, Sobhana,
Taluputisapata and Mangalam. They are composed in the Sringara rasa and
prove his versatility and proficiency in Telugu, Sanskrit, Kannada, Maratti,
Tamil and Hindi. There is a Darn in Manipravalam, which includes all these six
languages. The signature of the composer is 'Trisiragiri'. Not only common
ragas but also rare ragas like Gummakamboji (the janya of Mayamalavagaula,
now known as Mechabauli), Mangala kaisiki and Kamataka Saranga etc. were
 77

used by him. There was another composer with the same name Mathro Bhuta
Kavi who was the author of Abhinaya Darpanam, a treatise on dance in Telugu.

Mathru Bhutayya can also be considered as the pioneer of composing

Chittasvaras. Few of his songs are sung in concerts and some more are to be
unearthed. Some of his songs were notated by Valajappetta Venkata Ramana
Bhagavathar and his son Krishna Swami Bhagavathar, a disciple of Tyagaraja.
Those songs are preserved at Saurashtra Sabha Granthalaya at Madurai.
Several Sringara Padams also remain to be unearthed, from those collections.
Subharama Dikshitar's Sangita Sampradaya Pradasini is the main source of the
details of the composer and his compositions.
His popular Kritis are:

SLNo. Padam Raga

1 Tarali boyee samayamu Todi
2 Umahimachalakumari Saranga
3 Kanugoni papa muktula Kalyani
4 Sambhopuramada samana Kedaragula
5 Padakamala muledi Kalyani

4. Papanasa Muthaliyar

He was born in Papanasam in Nagapattanam Taluk in the early half of

the 18th century. Though his original name is unknown, it is known that he was
the court musician at Tanjore, during the reign of king Ekaji or Bhava Saheb
(1735-37) and Tulaja II (1765-87). He chose Tamil language for composing
Padams and Kirthanas. He also composed a dance drama entitled Kumbhesvara
Kuravanji in the model of Prabandha. The hero of Kuravanji is the deity
Kumbhesvara of Kumbhakonam. It contains several beautiful songs. Most of
his songs were set in Chappu tala. Simple language and expression of rasa in
high order an:: J1IOIlIillent ftabaes ofbis ~ wIDch gRe smpe . . .......,.
iD4Iance.

SI.N..
I
' .....
N.....adi li.uMOIa
...
bBhaji
2 ~bIlti Blgicni
3 raw.omlla 1;y.Ipr PtnibIJ-i
.. TandW'.'jERIM Dett~
,

Bepb

His Srinpn Padams are ~SoB1diimade'" {KaIJam) and IOAzIgjag udi IIBIC"

(KaI)WIl1·

Be composed k ~ "Nadanndi TBiDda" in die iJnn of "-mda

Stuti", finding fmil m GOO.. p~ 1M.'"" Maring.dlll PiIIai" GopaIa
Kridma B~ 3IIld! Ka.ri ~ B~ ~ed dm siJ'Ie in coulpOSing
NiDda Stubs. ills ~ are the best eg•• a of his pmficiaII:y in
DDJSic. Tbey ~ cooftdbl aim. In SlJIIlIe of his !lOJIII&'S Tdup wants also
can be seen. He had ~ in Natya. SBn mil his soap sail: .....,.....
dmce perfmmaore_ He was; a idIohr in .Iy.JI., kD :md N....... Bence lie got
the tide IOMudmt Tamil K.m Raja Sebnr"_

He W3lS a nmwe of V:aitheew-.-:anatmilllQl' SUazhi" bat - . : . . . .

about his life me ~ Be lived in. die lana' p t of 19da ccul8I)''' was
a scboIar in Tamil; a musilcian and a COI'1pOIKI' of a hiP onIa'.. lie JOl a
prominmt pbee: amo11llg lUhe· Tamil Paabm COIIIIpillRD.. While GIc-un ~
Irer followed die: Gaumu S~.aI ( ~ aowe) dyk" ~ Iyee
hmdkd Pu&aiii Sl~ (errok lli"e~ll_ EWa]T fabm (\j)f'S~Iyer tdIeds
 79

balance between Matu and Dhatu. We can find several Padams in the same rasa
and the music varies according to its bhava. Like Kshetrajna, he also used
Kamboji for many Padams. Thus we can say that he has literally exhausted the
possibilities of Kamboji in his Padams. Kamboji, Atana, Kalyani, Surotti,
Ahiri, Dhanyasi, Todi etc. were the common ragas selected by him for giving
full life to his Pada Sahitya and the mood. Ghanta, Gaulipandu, Saindhavi etc.
are the rare ragas selected by him. It will not be wrong if we say that he was the
best Padam composer in Tamil. His compositions are at par with the Padams of
Kshetrajna in their varied aspects.

Most of Subbarama's Padams are highly suited for abhinaya in dance

concerts. In his Padams he presented the different types of nayikas like
Sweeya, Madhya, Adhira, Pragalbha, Manavati, Vasakasajja and so on. He
might have studied the Alankara Sastra, rhetorics and the classic works on rasa
like Sringara Rasa Manjari. Some of his Padams contain beautiful similes,
prosodical beauties like Svaraksharas, metaphors and poetical excellence. His
famous Padam 'Padari varugutu' in Kamboji contains svarakshara - the first
ff
word itself is the svarakshara. His signatures are "Subbarama ,

"Muthukumara" Qr synonyms of Skanda and they occur either in the anupallavi

or the last charana. Since the Sangatis could prevent the possibility ofabhinaya,
he avoided them. But he could portray the delicate shades of each raga for
appropriate moods and situations. Though he had chosen Sringara as the means
for expressing bhakthi, he has gone beyond the limit in dealing with the love
theme. Though laden with poetic and musical richness, his Padams did not get
enough popularity as they deal with Pachai Sringara. The sahitya cannot be
sung in a music concert, before an audience. But if the musical aspect alone is
taken, it will be highly appreciated by the audience.
 80

His famous Padams are:

SLNo. Padam Raga
1 Padari vamgutu Kamboji
2 Ethanai sonnalum Saveri
3 Idai vida innurn vere venurno Saveri
4 Enge inmnalum Kamboji
5 Kalla sirippu kondu mella Surutti
6 Sogasulla deera Khamas
7 Anjugame Kedara gauta
8 Tane varuvaro Kalyani

Malayalam Padam Composers

t. Irayimman Tampi
Irayimman Tampi is considered second only to Swathi Tirunal among
the outstanding composers of Kerala. He was born in 1782 at Kizhakke
Madam, Fort, Trivandrum as the first son of Kerala Vanna Thamburan and
Parvati Thankachi. His original name was Iravi Varman. An inborn poet whose
talents began to manifest at the age of 14, Iriyamman Thampi learnt Sanskrit
and Sastras. He also acquired knowledge in Karnatic music and Kathakali
music. The close association with the major artists in music and dance
activated his genius for composing almost all major forms in music and poetry.
It is believed that he composed around 500 songs, but only 60 songs became
popular. He also wrote three Atta Kathas - Uthara Svayamvaram, Keechaka
Vadham and Dakshayagam. His musico-poetry called Navaratri Prabandham,
two kilipattus (Rasakreeda and Subhadraharanam), Tiruvatira Pattu, Kummi
songs, the world famous lullaby 'OmanatingaI Kidavo' are his outstanding
contributions to this field. This lullaby was written when Swathi was an infant.
It has been translated into English. He handled Malayalam and Sanskrit with
equal ease. His daughter Kutti Kunju Thankachy was also a poet and composer.
 81

The popular Malayalam Kritis of Irayimman Tampi are 'Adimalarina'

(Mukhari), 'Karuna cheyvanendu' (Sriragam), 'Paradevate nin padabhajanam'
(Todi) and 'Pahimam giri tanaye' (Saveri). His popular Sanskrit Kritis are 'Ehi
Balakrlshna' (Punnagavarali), 'Neelavarna pahimam' (Surutti), 'Sambho
gaureesa' (Kedaragaula), 'Nityamasraye' (Ritigaula) and 'Pahinikhila janani'
(Natta).

Irayimman Tampi also used the Mudra "Sri Padmanabha", hence some
of his Kritis were often mistaken with those of Maharaja Swathi Tirunal's. He
also composed Padavamas. The Varna 'Manasime paritapam' is an excellent
composition for Mohiniyattom and the hero is Swathi Tirunal. Irayimman
Tampi used Pachai Sringara in the Padams. 'Prananathan enikku nalkiya'
(Yadukulakamboji) is one of the fine examples of his Padams. There also the
nayaka is Swathi Tirunal. 'Orunal nisi' (Saurashtram), 'Kamakrite kanta'
(Yadukalakamboji) and 'Varano smarano' (Neelambari) are also excellent
Padams that are suitable for performing Abhinaya in Mohiniyattom. He
composed 22 Padams in total, in which he also used Manipravalam. Some of
his songs are very simple and charming in musical and literary aspects. "His
compositions are marked for their exuberant poetical excellence and literary
beauties. A variety of prasas and alankaras are interwoven with the sahityas"
(Sreelekha, 1998)2\. Some are of high standard in musical settings (eg:-
'Sambho gaureesa' in Kedaragaula, which "bristle with verbo-musical
embellishments").

The easy flow of music, the simplicity of the language, the charm of the
ideas and the delicacy of feelings in them make them attractive and popular.
Sometimes the poetic imagination and expressions in the songs of Irayimman

2\ Sreelekha, R (1998), "lrayimman Tampi and his Contributions", pp.42, Thesis submitted to the
University ofKerala
 82

Tampi can be found in a higher level than that of Swathi Tirunal. The hero in
his Padavarnas and in many Padams is Swathi Tirunal. Rare ragas like Manji,
lingala and Kakubha were used along with popular ragas and Kerala ragas like
Samanta Malahari, Padi, Kanakurinji, Innissa, Maradhanasi, Khandaram and
Gopika Vasantam. He wrote a 'pana', which describes the Murajapam. He was
the Astana Vidvan in the court of Swathi Tirunal and was awarded the
'Virasringhala', a special ornament; which was the highest honour of
Travancore at that time. He continued the patronage after the period of Swathi
Tirunal, till his death in 1856.

z. Kutti Kunju Thankachi, the daughter of Irayimman Tampi, was not only a
poet and composer but also a Mohiniyattom and Tiruvathirakkali artist, expert
in Sanskrit, music and literature. She also contributed a lot to Kerala music and
literature. Her popular Padams are 'Bandhurangi kintu cheyvu' (Huseni),
'Indal valarunnitayyayyo' (Bilahari) and 'Ha ramananayi maranno'
(Kamodari).

Other composers who composed in the theme of Madhura Bhakthi in

various languages are:

A. Sanskrit

Jayadeva

Iayadeva, the illustrious author of the great work Gita Govindam, was
the court poet of Maharaja Lekshmana Sena, the last Hindu King of Bengal
(l2th century). He was born at Kindu Bilwa (in Orissa) to Bhoja Deva and
Vamadevi. Iayadeva married Padmavati who was also a great bhaktha and
together they sang the glories of Lord Krishna and he started writing Gita
Govindam in the theme of Madhura Bhakthi. Padmavati was more fortunate
 83

than Jayadeva as she got the Darsan of Lord Krishna, disguised as layadeva. In
this guise Krishna also corrected a line in the 19th Ashtapadi when it was being
composed. So the 19th Ashtapadi is called Darsana Ashtapadi - 'Vadasiyati
Kinchitapi'. Thanks to this incident, 1ayadeva realised that Lord Krishna is
pleased with his work and felt that it shall more suitable to call himself
"Padmavati Ramana Jayadeva Kavi". This is owing to the fact that while she
got the Darsana of Lord, it was denied to him. After completing the work,
Jayadeva himself sang it in temple and Padmavati danced. The Ashtapadi is
said to be the first musical piece composed in a specific raga and tala in the
history of Indian Music.

Gita Govindam is called 'Sringara Mahakavya' and it is set in 12 Sargas

and consists of 24 Ashtapadis. All the songs contain a mangala sloka at the end.
Each song contains udgraha (pallavi) and eight dhruvas or charanas and hence
the name Ashtapadi. It became popular all over India during the 12th century
when bifurcation of Indian music had not yet taken place.

The noteworthy features of Gita Govindam are:

1. It was composed by a great bhaktha.
2. The theme selected was Madhura Bhakthi, which was considered the
Sreshta Marga to attain Mukthi.
3. By praising the love of Krishna and Radha, 1ayadeva tried to reveal the
1iva - Brahma Aikya or the Vedanta Rahasya. He regarded Krishna as
the Parabrahma.
4. The songs are composed in a specific raga, tala and are dvidhatu
Prabandhas consisting two sections - OOgraha and dhruva, later known
as pallavi and charana.
5. It is composed in high flown Sanskrit - the devabhasha and it contains
antyaprasas.
6. It has a prominent place in the realm of sacred music.
 84

7. The·songs were sung by Jayadeva himself in temple and his wife danced
to the songs.
8. Innumerable compositions were later composed all over India in the
model of Ashtapadi in several languages.
9. Several composers were inspired by the theme of Madhura Bhakthi and
the love story of Krishna and Radha.
10. The Padams, rich in Rasa bhava, have been translated in several
languages in India and also in English.
II. Ashtapadi singing in temples became a custom during the pujas in
Kerala and other states.
12. It paved the way for new types of compositions (musical forms) but at
the same time it was composed in the old Prabandha form.

Really Glta Govindam is an illustrious work capable of satisfying the

musical, theoretical, mystic, spiritual and ritualistic aspects. Gita Govindam is
the richest and fmest Sringara Rasa Kavya possessing the highest aesthetic
quality. Vaishnavas and some bhakthi schools regard Gita Govindam not only
as a poetic composition of great beauty and richness but also as a religious
work and explain it in terms of the Bhakthi Rasa Sastra.

Gita Govindam is composed in 12 sargas like Samoda-Damodara,

Aklesa- Kesava, Mugha-Madhusudana, Dhrishta-Vaikunda, Nagara-Narayana
etc. The ragas used for Ashtapadis are Malavagauda, Gurjari, Vasanta,
Ramakiri or Ramakali, Kamata, Desaksha, Desavaradi or Varadi, Vibhasa,
Gondakiri, Malava, Bhairava and Bhairavi. The talas are Yati, Ekatali, Rupaka,
Nihsara and Astatala. The form of those ragas and talas are entirely different
from the ragas and talas at present. Nowadays Ashtapathis are sung in desi
styles.
 8S

In fact, the work Gita Govindam and its author Jayadeva are immortal.
layadeva would be honoured forever as a mystic poet, musician and a spiritual
Vaishnava Sadhaka by all music lovers.

B. Telugu
Annamacharya

Even though Annamacharya handled Madhura Bhakthi, his Sringara

rasa compositions were known as Sringara Sankirthanas and not Padams. They
were not supposed to present abhinaya in dance concerts. In a sense they are
not dance forms. But at the peak of bhakthi, he himself used to dance while
singing before the deity Venkatesvara.

Annamacharya was born as a blessing to the prayers of his parents to

Venkatesvara, in Tallappakkam near Tiruppathi. His parents were Narayana
Swami and Lokkamamba - the Nanda Varika Brahmins; belonged to the
'smarta' sect, which worshipped Siva and Vishnu equally. From the age of
eight he started his adhyathmic life by becoming a real bhaktha of Lord
Venkatesvara. Several miracles which happened in his early life also laid the
foundation for his real love towards God. He was very fond of music and
dance. He left his home and spent his time singing devotional songs and
thereby he learned the basic doctrines ofVaishnavism. At the age of 16, he was
blessed with the mystic vision of Sri Venkatesvara. He composed at least one
composition per day and that practice continued till the last day of his life. It is
said that he has composed more than 32,000 Sankirthanas.

He married two women - Tirumalamma and Akkalamba at the age of

18. Tirumalamma was a poet who wrote Subhadrakalyanamu, a narrative
poem. Their son Narasinganna was also a poet. Akkalamma gave birth to Peda
Tirumalacharya, a true inheritor of Annamacharya. He composed devotional
 86

hymns and sung melodiously. Thus Annamacharya and his descendants

enriched Telugu literature.

Annamacharya visited several temples and composed in praise of those

deities. Irrespective of the deity he sang in praise ot: he used his signature
"Venkatesvara". He spent his last days at Tallappakkam and Tiruppati. He
participated in the Annual Brahmotsavam festival of Sri Venkatesvara without
fail. He was too lucky to perform the Kalyana Utsavam (marriage ceremony) of
Goddess Alamelmangai with Sri Venkatesvara assuming the position of the
bride's father. It was a great and rare honour enjoyed by him.

In his old age, he could meet Purandaradasa, the saint composer of

Karnataka. Purandaradasa was very young at that time. That was a
distinguished meeting in which both were delighted. Perhaps it could be to
commemorate that meeting that both of them composed pieces that start with
'Saranu saranu'. Annamacharya's Kriti is in praise of Venkatesvara and
Purandaradasa's is in praise ofNarasimha of Ahobala.

Annamacharya was happy to find that his children and grand children
followed his foot steps; worshipping Vishnu and distinguishing themselves as
creative writers. He performed Brahmopadesam to one of his grandsons,
Chinna Tirumalacharya. He passed away on 23 rd February 1503.

Music of Annamacharya

It is for the first time in the history of South Indian music that we come
across the divisions of pallavi, anupallavi and charanas in the compositions of
Tallappakkam composers, although the bulk of Annamacharya's compositions
contain pallavi and two or more charanas. The charanas are usually four times
the length of pallavi.
 87

Most of Annamacharya's songs were set in Khanda Gati. He composed

in common ragas like Sankarabharanam, Sriraga, Mukhari, Bauli, Dhanyasi,
Amrutha Sindhu, Ahirinatta etc. But we have lost the original tune of those
ragas and songs. He also composed some Suladis, but only one has been found
which is set in seven ragas and seven talas. The change of raga from one to
another is composed in a very pleasing manner. Annamacharya's language is
classical and colloquial. He composed not only in Telugu but also in Sanskrit.
His language is so colloquial that now it is hard for even Telugu speaking
people to find meanings. His Sanskrit work Sankirthan Lekshna was translated
in Telugu by his grandson.

Annamacharya also contributed much to the field of Bhajana

(Thodayamangalam) and Bhajana Paddathi, which was followed by
Purandaradasa and later by Tyagaraja. In his commemoration, even today, the
traditional bhajana in South India starts with the Thodayamangalam and
include his other fonns like Lali, Uyyala, lola, Iojo, Sobbana, Mangalam,
Melakoluppu, Nalugu, Pavvalimbu and Arati. Tyagaraja gave his regards to
Annamacharya, by including 'Thodayamangalam' in the Utsava Sampradaya
Kirthanas. Purandaradasa followed the path of Annamacharya by composing
devotional songs in Kannada.

'Dolayan Hari Dolayan Haridolayan' in Khamas is a popular song sung

by M.S. Subbalakshmi. It is a song sung when Venkatesvara Murti swings on
.the swing (Unjal). Annamacharya's grandson Thiruvenkatesa Natha wrote his
biography Annamacharya Charitam in Telugu verse in Dvipadi meter. From
this, we get details of his life. He was born in 1424 in the village of
Tallappakkam in the Rajampetta Taluk of Kudappa district on the Visakha star
of Vaisakha month (which incidentally happens to be the birthday of
Nammalvar). He was blessed with the sight of Venkatesvara in a dream and
 88

this inspired him to start composing. His first songs are 'Ippudu Kala Ganti' in
Bhupalam and 'Sandehamu Ekkada Ledu' in Padi raga.

Annamacharya got the title 'Pada Kavita Pitamaha'. He was also called
Sankirthanacharya and Harikathacharya. He composed about 32,000 songs
which are known as Sankirthanas. Of them, only 14,000 were found from the
copper plates at Tiruppati temple. His compositions are grouped under Pure
Bhakthi Sankirthanans and Sringara Sankirthanas (Madhura Bhakthi
Sankirthanas). His songs are the descriptions of experiences which he had from
his cherished God Sri Venkatesvara of Venkatadri. His Sankirthanas are filled
with the real Vaishnava Bhakthi Bhava. He was an earnest sadhaka and at the
same time he could picturise shades of madhura bhava in his Sringara
Sankirthanas. He handled Adhyathmic and Madhuric thoughts in his songs
with equal ease and grace. He also brought the navarasas in his Sankirthanas
with his mellifluous music. In Telugu, Annamacharya was the first notable
composer to handle erotic themes in devotional poetry. Annamacharya seems
to be the first man who handled Madhura Bhakthi in Telugu literature and he

considered it as a sacred marga. When comparing the number of songs,

Sringara Sankirthanas are more than Adhyathmic Sankirthanas. His Sringara
Sankirthanas with Nayika-nayaka motif was emulated by Kshetrajna. His
artistic genius is revealed by these songs having peculiar psychological
background. Various types of characters and women of different temperaments
can be found in his Sringara Sankirthanas. He describes the initial agony of the
heroine caused by the separation and the final ecstasy of the union through a
number of songs. He could raise the ordinary heroine from the level of animal
passions to the heights of spirituality.' The Sringara Sankirthanas have
innumerable dramatic situations. But they hold the balance between the sensual
and spiritual. In the second half of each song, sensual mood gets sublimated
into the spiritual.
 89

Some songs suggest that through constant meditation of the Lor<L the
nayika has been able to achieve spiritual union - yoga - with Him, which is the
ultimate goal of all religious austerities. In some erotic SOngs9 we find the
description of the behaviour of a young woman who suffers separation from
her lover. But it actually presents the psychological state of a devotee who has
reached an advanced stage in spiritual evolution and in such songs9 the
distinction between the erotic and spiritual feelings disappear. 'Paramapurusha
Hari' (Malahari) and 'Shodasa kalanidhiki 9 (Lalitha) are excellent
compositions which reveal the relationship of Annamacharya to Lord
Venkatesa ofTiruppathi.

c. Kannada
Purandaradasa
Documents about the details regarding Purandaradasa9 s life are lacking.
So we do not find in which year he was born. Some scholars are of the opinion
that he was born in between the years 1480 and 1484 AD to Varadappa Nayak
who was a jewel businessman at Purandaragada, 18 miles away from Pune.
Srinivasa Nayak was the name given to Purandaradasa by his parents. He
learned music, Sanskrit and religious literature from an early age itself. Soon
after his father's demise, he had to take the responsibility of the jewel business.

Although he was a bhaktha in his early age, he changed a lot after

becoming a businessman. It is said that the Lord wanted to convert him to a
real bhaktha and so He appeared in the guise of a poor Brahmin before
Srinivasa Nayak and sought some money for his son's Upanayanam. The
beggar appeared several times before him. Not only did Srinivasa give him any
money but he also drove him out without any mercy. The beggar then decided
to approach his wife Saraswathi Bai, who was a lady of all good habits,
virtuous9 noble and generous. She gave her nose ring which was very precious.
The poor Brahmin handed it over to Purandaradasa, asking a price for it.
Purandaradasa could identify her nose ring and he kept it very safely. Then he
 90

sent a messenger home to verify and to fetch the jewel from her. With great
fear she prepared a cup of poison. When she was about to take it, she found her
jewel in the cup and she sent it to her husband. Purandaradasa could not fmd
the jewel in the place where he had kept it. Then the Brahmin also disappeared.

This incident caused a great psychological and spiritual transformation

in Purandaradasa. He realised spirituality and donated all his belongings to God
and to Hari bhakthas. He, with his wife and four sons, started praising God and
decided to live as mendicants. He became the embodiment of bhakthi. He
praised 'Purandara Vittala' with several songs. He became a mendicant singer
and composed songs in simple Kannada in Regale Metre. Then he was called
Purandaradasa or Haridasa or Purandara Vittaladasa. He travelled far and wide,
finally reaching Vijayanagar. There, he became the disciple of Vyasaraya, the
disciple of Madhavacharya who propagated the doctrine of bhakthi.

Purandaradasa praised God by singing simple songs with pallavi and

charanas. His compositions are in Kannada and there1:?Y he could lead the
common man to the path of devotion to Lord. ''One of the aims of
Purandaradasa was to convey to the masses the finest thoughts and external
truths of Hindu culture and Dharma. According to his own statement, his
utterances were always in conformity with sruti and smrithi" (Subba Rao,
1992)22. His utterances have the value of scriptures. His eminence was
accepted by all, including his Guru, Vyasaraya who showered on him highest
praise and homage. Besides, Vyasaraya considered and described his
compositions as Purandaropanishad. His compositions range from simplest
Svaravalis to the complex Suladis. His compositions number more than
475,000. The Svara exercises taught to the students even in the 21 st century
belong to him. In the realm of music his contributions are precious beyond

22 800ba Rao, T.V (1992), Kamataka Composers, pp.82, The Journal of the Madras Music Academy
estimate: ii_e_ was caUed -the Fatfter of· Kamatic Music, ·which is the most
�dvanced-gyS!em ofmusic-the wor-ld-has-ever-seen.

Purandaradasa visited several temples including Tiruppathi and sang

several Kirthanas in front of the deity Venkatesa .. "The. songs that then poured ..
out of his heart are .the unalloyed expression .of the Ananda that overflowed"
(Subba . :Rao, 1992)23 • His -son Madhavapatidasa_ could learn those songs ·
becaus� -he was always with his father. After pilgrimage he returned to
Vyasaraya's Mutt. Then the -Guru was -unable.to --restrain his -emotions ·-0f -love
and j�; Madhavapatid_asa san_g ihe- melodious so.ngs of. his father daily.
Vyasaraya enjoyed the beauty of music as well as the depth of their meaning.
During his stay aj: ihe Mutt; Krishna· Devaraya, the ruler··or V-ijayanagar
happ�ed io1isten --to.J>uran�rdasa's compositions.· So impressed was-the king
that he constructed a -spe-cial Mandapa for _Jl.urand!}radasa's use. The Mandapa-.
- . - ··

was called 'Dasara Mandapa' at Tiruppathi. ..

Purandaradasa's last .days were spent in perfect bliss. "After a life of

unexampled service for the cause -of music, iiterature� religion, philosophy and
socialjmtice, he- left this wor-ld to.serve the.Lord in -his unperishable fo11Jl., on
Satm;Qay-Pushya bahula Amll;Y<15Ya .of.Raktakshi, year corresponding to .i:564 ...
AD'' (Subba-Rao, l99_2 }24:

It was Purandaradasa who introduced Mayamalavagaula as the basic

scale-for �� .training· fri ·Kamatic music and he made it a. systematised form..·
·'·

His preliminary· exercises 1ike Svaravalis, Alankaras; Jatisvaras, iJitas etc. are
a
followed �yJhe teachers ·and students ,f .the-realm� oLK.amatic-musiG�training -·
even in this century. Suladi songs were his speciality. They were full of poetic

23
Subba Rao, T.V (1992), Karnataka Cqmposers, pp.81, lhe Journal of the Madras Music Academy

24
Subba Rao, T.V (1992), Karnataka Composers, pp.82, The Journal of the Madras Music Academy
 92

and musical beauty with -pallavi and many charanas. Actually they are very
long compositions. �'The ierms-Pada and-Oevarnama-used -in the description -of·
his songs-mean onfy kirthana" tSubba Rao; 1992}25 . · L-ike Purandaradasa, · ·
several �aridasas had �omposed many· dev-0tional -soogs in Kannada. Those
songs are commonly known.as Dasar P.adangalu.

He sang from his heart in praise of ap.d to God Srikrishna. Hence they
are the �earn-of the .dev-otional -songs. The -Leelas-of the infant Sri -Krishna ·and
his stories ar-e__the-common theme met with-in those songs.--Different.types-of
.. bhakthi including Va1salya can -be seen.-Some··songs .contain Nayika-Nayaka
bhav3:· also: We can feel the presence of-Krishna in front of us if we sing or
listen �o his--songs. -Simplicity and delicate feelings ·are the nallmark -of_.his-­
compositions. "The father of Kamatic -music was··equally facile -in· composing
chouka iala -kirthanas� Some--of-his. compositions-contain the Nayaka--nay-ika
bhava_Jma but for the fan_gua_ge rbey are quite apt io be fancied as Kshetrajna� s.
There is no doubt that they served to inspire the compositions -of the latter. In
- bhava,
.
raga.·and
. ---
tala, ·they are ihe proto type for all Padam composers" (Subba
Rl!01 l992)�� Most �fhis:compositions-are in Madhyama kala. Chappu tala and
Jampita1a wereli1s favourite-ta1as•.-He-also used-Adi tala in many compositions
-
(Tya;�-ms� _fotlowed�e Adi4Jain:mrisLofhis Kritis).
•
• r ,• •
• •
• • • • .-. -
.,,,.. •

His pgpular gitas ar�: __

Vighnesvara·gfia -L-a:�bodar.a
Mahesvata_ -gi� �}(unda.gaura
Saraswathi_gita - Varavina

His most popu1ar Kirthanas are_, 'Bhagyada 1ekshmi -baramma', "'Yadava nee ba
yadukaula nandana', 'Jagadodharami; and 'Ramamandrava japiso'.

25
Subba Rao, T.V (1992), Karnataka Composers, pp.85, The Journal of the Madras Music Academy
26
Subba Rao, T.V (1992), Karnataka Composers, pp.85-86, The Journal of the Madras Music
Academy
 He composed Suladis and U gabhogas; {An ugabhog�.- is an extremely
simple type -of song undefined-into parts and -almost nebulous in structure.-The
tala is mer-ely the sarv�laghu, with simple melody. As a musical form, it is
even more elementary than the gita. From the point of view of Bhava it is
supposed to be a direct translation of the 1fioughts ·of the composer in the
ecstasy ¢ inspiration).--Suladis. are almost like -Kirthanas. He also composed ..
Vritta Nama It is a -romposition -in- whicn the pady.a and· -kirthana; appear
alternatively

.. Kshetrajna and,Swathi Tirunal composed Padams· with the intention of

singing as well as for performing abhinaya in dance. Sarangapani and
Sabhapatayya -also -composed --Telugu Padams -with the- s�me-mtention-: The
Tami� Padams of Mtrthu }Ibandavar, Ghanam Irnshna Iyer,-Ma� Bhutayya-·
and Subbarama Iyer are also used for Bharatanaty.am ·performances .and·music··
concerts.

The P.adams of Sw.athi Tirunal - in -Gaurava "Sringara are apt for

Mohll¥yattom._ As seen_ in his other compositions, his P.adams also contain
more sahitya syllables than Padams of Kshetrajna. The original tune of these
compositions is not available at present. Even then, the traditional way of
singing was traced and the notations have been prepared and furnished in the
Appendix II. The study of the specialities of the Padams of Swathi Tirunal is
attempted in the next chapter.
·

CHAPTER-IV

CLASSIFICATION OF
PADAMS
 94

CHAPTERIV­
-Classification ot1'adanis ..

Padaim; �are c<?inposed in Sringara -rasa, -replete with Nayika-Nayaka

bhava which is suitable for- --detailed abhinaya or natya� Although sahitya - ·
appears-� amorous, it should be taken as divine love between the -devotee and
the God. It is_ characterised by dual interpretations, Bahir Sringara and Amara
Bhakthi.--Swathi Tirunal's nayaka is Lord Sri Padmanabha. · No other nayaka
. can be .met with in his - Padams. Swathi Tirunal had picturised all essential
situations and �eatures .of Padam. As -Swathi Tirunal was one of the gr-eat­
patrons of arts and letters in Travancore, along with innate-love or music, he
could Rot separate music and . dance. "One has to recognise tJ:iat -Swathi
-
Thirunal had intense passion for music -and dance. So, most of his c-0mpositions ·
have the sub-conscious orconscious components of dance aJso in them. That is,
most -of his -composit{ons are -made with an � Audio-VisuaP concept in the1_11"
(Dr. R.P.·
.. Raja,_-2006f?. So he composed musical :and dance
. �
compositions such
.

as Varna, Padavarna, Padam, Tillana etc. in addition to the other gr�at

contributions. ��The art ofdancing in temples· of Pandyan and {;h.ola kingdoms,
by devadasis h�d attained-such h"igh renqun that·His Highness's innate love of -
music made hiin to attempt-an improvement in 1he .art of dancin_g. through-his
compositions"._ (Jalaja Vanna, 1994f8 • ·

Swathi Tirunal.was the .first fadam �o.mposer m Sanskrit language

(Jayadeva'-s -Gita -Govindam, the first-composition in 1he -theme of·Madhura ·
Bhakthi and·Na.rayana Tirtha's �ishna Leela Tarangini are the earlier Sanskrit
comp9$itions put neither-oftht5m..faTI in1he-:frame-of'Padams).

27
Raja, R.P (2006), "New Light on Swathi Thirunal", (p.160), Centre for Inter-Disciplinary Studies,
Trivandrum
28
Jalaja Varma (1994), "Kshetra K.ritis of Maharaja Sri Swathi Tirunal", pp. 134-135, Thesis
submitted to the University ofKerala
 9S

Dr. S. Venkita-Subfahmanya Iyer29 says that Maharaja's Padams are 67

-·
in number; 5� _in ·Malayalam, 11 in Sanskrit, 5· in Telugu and one in ·Kanna�.
But the analytical �dy prov�s that the actual number of Padams- is -6-6, since
the Kannada -song {Rajeevaksha -baro) does not have the ·essential feauires .of a
Padam.

For the study on classification of Padams, this chapter is divided into

Part-A and Part-B. In Part-A, d!fferent types of classifications are explained. In
Part-B, the theme--of Madhura -Bhakthi -is-explained. Different k-inds-of-nayakas
. .

and nayikas m� with � the Padams are also exp1ained.

PART-A

The 50 Malayalam Padams composed by ·Swathi Tirunal ;ire-not. in pure

Malayalam, but in Manipravalam, a mixture· of Malayalam and Sanskrit. The­
five Telugu �on_gs �e categorised_as Padams by Dr. Venkita Subrahmanya
. Iyer30• _The opinion· of-this renowned scholar and expert musicologist is given
.due merit. These songs contain the Gaurava Sringara, which is another reason
for including �ein in the -list of Padarns; It can be assumed that·thest?. 1'e1ugu
Padams -were: -compose9 for_ the use of Bharatanatyam . and Kuchipudi..
However some·musicians and dancers of Kerala stm·considerihem·as Javalis
only.

The Padams of Swathi Tirunal are vivid and sweet in their moods with
Sringara·rasa. · The situations for Uddipana or illum_inating the romantkmood
are exemplary•. The mo.on light, gentle breeze, sweet sounds of birds like
cuckoo, fragrance of jasmine. flowers, sandal paste etc. create a joyful
atmosphere and provide fond memones for recollection. In Vipralambha

29
Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer, S (1975), "Swathi Tirunal and His Music", pp.126, CBH, Trivandrum
30
Ibid , pp. 128
 96

Si:mgara Padams,. _when the nayika is disappoint� these -illuminating fact�rs

become -unbe�ble and increase the· intensity. of pain. Swathi �ned. all
these uddipan� factors in almostall Padams of Vipr.alambha-Sring�a. In some _
of the Padams, the�nayika recollects the happiest moments shared with nayaka.
•.

In some other Padams, she is worried about the indifference of nayaka - Sri
Padmanabha towards her� In -some others, she-·is for-ced to a.sic him, whether ··
1here is another iady who snatched the love of Sri P.adma11abha. '_fhe nay.ilea is .
curious to know. about :the luckiest woman in the world who is -loved by her
Lord.

In some �f the Padams, -the naylka sends the sakhi for -retching Sri
Padmanabim to her at -once, -whi1e in some-, she j_ust explains abqµt her lffl.lli,
owing.to-separation from Him, to the saktii.

There are three Padams in which the nayaka invites the nayika to enjoy
with.J;1im with�t .anx �elay� The sakhi passes .information -about the nay-ika and
. .
her pain� cotjdition- :to nayaka in _some other Padams. There is only one
Padam -.in which_ the sakhi conveys 1hat the nayaka will reach her home __:that
very night-itself.

Thus the 66 Padams_ of Swathi T-inmal can -be ..classified· into ·the
fol1owin_g categories:- ...
I. -_Padams conveying feel_ings and moods {Vipralambha or Sambhoga}
II. Padams:showin_g varied.characters and_their cemmunicatfons· ·· ·· ·
III. :fadarns composed in -diff-er.ent iangua_ges: ·
IV. P_adam�_ontaining-different_.dhatus. for-.differ.ent-angas- -
V. Padams composed in various ragas
VI. Padams varying in tempo
VII. Padams having different structure or angas
VIII. Padams conveying different situations
IX. Padams expressing various intensities of pain or grief of the nayika.
 97

The list of Padams of Swathi Tll'llnal

I. Ayyayyokintu cheyvu-Nathanamakriya
2. Alarsara paritapam-Surutti
3. Entahamiha-Yadukulakamboji
4. Kalakandi-Neelambari
S. Taruni njan - Dvijavanti
6. Manasidussaham-Ahiri
7. Hanta jeeva nayakan-Neelambari
S. Hantanjan entu-Gauri
9. Ha! Banta santapam-Neelambari
10.Hemabhasuranga-YadukuJabmboji
11.Ayisakhi tapam - HUSelli
12.Aliveni-Kurinji
13. Indaliha-Surutti
14.Entucheyyavu-Huseni
15.Enanermizhi-Ahiri
16. Ilamariman nayane - Behag
17. Kalamozhi-Saveri
18. Kantanodu-Neelambari
19. Kamini iha-Neelambari
20. Kintu cheyvu-Kalyani
21. Kulirmati-Dhanyasi
22. Khinnata-Bhairavi
23. Poonten nennozhi-Anandabhairavi
24. Balike moham-Anandabhairavi
2S. Bhasurangi-Saveri
26. Manasikanma-Kamodari (Kamboji)
27. Rajanijata-Surutti
28. Valayunniha-Varali
29. Sakhi he nee-Sankarabbaranam
 98

30. Sudati cholka-Saurashtram

31. Sumasaranayi-Kamodari (K.amboji)
. 32. Somopama- Yadukulakamboji
33. Hantanjan innu- Pantuvarali
34.Hemopameyangi - Saveri
35.Athal iyannidunnu-Sahana
36. ldu sahasa- Saveri
37. lntamodiyalara-Kamboji
38. lnnumama bhagya-Kamboji
39. Ipparitapam- Saurashtram
40. Entumama sadanathil-Kalyani
41.Kanta tava pizha-Atana
42.Chentar sayaka- Yadukulakamboji
43. Tellupolum kripa-Kurinji
44. Teliviyalum mukham- Punnagavarali
·45.Dhanyayayi njan-Navarasam
46. Panchabanan-Kamboji
47. Pannagendra sayana- Ragamalika
48. Prana nayaka-Kamboji
49.Valaputala vasama-Atana
50. Viditam te - Surutti
51. Sadhujane-Atana
52. Samini pondu- Sankarabharanam
53. Saramaina mata-Neelambari
54. Sundaranga kanta-Todi
55. Ha mamaka- Not known
56. Alamanakha- Ritigaula
57.Kanatha soka-Ghanta
58. Manasapi bata-Malavasri
59. Sarasanabha me- Sankarabharanam
 99

60. Sumukhi ninulthapam - Saindhavi

61. Manasi madana tapam - Surotti
62. Manini vamata - Anandabhairavi
63. Sumukhi sukhamode - Saurashtram
64. Sarada vidhu - Sankarabharanam
65. Ramyanayoru - Kedaram
66. Kaminimani - Poorvakamodari

L Feelings and Emotions - The Padams have been classified according to the
feelings/emotions contained in them:

1. Those in Vipralambha Sringara - 63 Padams portraying the Vipralambha

Sringara.
2. Those in Sambhoga Sringara - The three Padams, 'Ramyanayoru purushan',
'Innumama bhagya taru' and 'Sarada vidhu', come under this category
('Sarada vidhu' and 'Ramyanayoru' are the reminiscences of the nayika)

II. Communication among Characters - On the basis of the communication

exchange between the varied characters, the Padams are classified under
five heads.
1. Nayika addressing Sakhi
2. Nayika addressing Nayaka
3. Sakhi addressing Nayaka
4. Sakhi addressing Nayika
5. Nayaka addressing Nayika

Types of Grief
Before going to understand the communication exchanged between the
characters, it shall be worthwhile to look at the various levels of grief
experienced by the nayika, as expressed by Swathi Tirunal through his Padams.
 100

1. Grief{�) ·
2. Bearable grief
3. Unbearablegrief-
4. Heart .broken-grirj'_

1. Nayika addres�ing Sakhi

Ther-e .ar-e again two .types of P.adams which-eome un� thi&��ory.

In the., fir-st, the nayika talks with the -sakhi about her unhappiness aruf grief
_ , ..,,
caused by the separation. In the second type, the nayika sends the sakhi to her
nayaka for infonn�g Hi� about -her pain and "fetchm_g Hini -�-o -her ·at -once.
There �ems-to-be tO'Padams{NosJ. to i-O-in--theListofPaa.ams shown above)
in the- first -category and 24 {Nos.l 1 to J4 -0f the above list) in the second
category.

· Jh�s� J�adams ..are very cham_iing; -delicate and powerful in expressing

love in separation - Vipralambha. The nayika reveals her pain very frankly to
the sakhi. The-time in-most-of these .Padam -is the -early -part of-the night. '.flle
rising moon,-evening breeze, v.oice of..the-euckoo .and .the hum of.yees all .act as_
.-
the uddipana vibhavas"and increase-her pain. These Padams illustrate fue first.
level or_grief; superficial grief

E:ven the tender bed of flowers causes her pain, the cool sandal paste
appears:dead�y poison,ous-('Rajanijata').and the moon light-feels hot{'Alar-sara
paritapam', 'Entucheyyavu' and 'Ayisakhi tapam'}. Every moment feels like a
Yuga to her ('Sudati cholka' and 'Kamini iha'). She has lost all sleep
('Kintucheyvu') and appetite ('Manasidussaham') and the body has become
extremely weary. ('Enanennizhi' and 'Ha hanta santapam'). The Padams in
this sub-category exemplify bearable grief.
 ir1:�,
,_/4�V--

� · · b},%ba23
. 1-V"P<-�
/; ),

Only Sri--Padmanabha-can--save her from ·such a painful ,situation · � h�,�

-·
When: _}\'ill He: com� to me?.",, -she· asks. "Is He upset-with me_ after hean � �
.. ·

. ';!,1., , ,
some gossip mongers ('Entucheyyavu'), -0r "Has He 'been-seduced by som"�:> ·:_ �·
other lady?" ('Khinrtata poondetra '--): "Is it proper that He should- deceive- a
woman like this" ('K-ulirmaW) and in 'Aliveni ,., she muses, "I am not even
lucky to fook at the path.by which He would come, because my eyes are full of
tears". These Padams describe unbearable .grief.

!,¥en when the,beasts.and birds are enjoying with their mates, she alone
is suffering from separation. She consoles herself saying that it has happened
because of her own.sins -('Kalam9zhi'; 'Ipparitap�m'). These ·set .of P.adams -­
po�y the highest level of grief or1he·heart-btoken grief. Thus-the four.levels
�· � . .
experienced by th� nayika have been picturised in the above mentioned
.Padams.

.'l'he nayika is iri · another mood· in the Padam, 'Somopama ·vadane'· in

which she say.s that her nayaka has _gone tq some._other lady, who.does not
consider llim as_ the -Supreme but rather ..as-.an ordinary mortal The nayika
recollects- h:er. moments of joy in -some other J>adams. ·- Sh� asks ,- ''Has He
forgotten th�:pleasant-riights that He enjoyed ·wi� me. How can I forget the
pleasures which He gave me_andthe intenseJee1ing of love-with whichHe=sat
me by his sid� '11).d adorned my hair- with jasmine garland?" ('Ayyayyokintu').
In 'Sarada vidhu'; the nayika asks; -"How can· I _forget the -way He took the
tambula'fi:om·my_mouth and-sang.Todi _and·Padi ragas melodfously?" ''Ras He
forg�en- H�s mischi_evous- way -of addressing· ine as 'Bhavan"' (a masculine­
term), giving both Him and me pleasure?'' eHantanjan entu"' ). I�- 'Ha hanta
santapam', the nayika asks, "Has He forgotten the description of my dream in
which I saw Him with another lady and His imploring remarks to appease me".
Pleasure of hope can be seeri·in 'Poonteri·nermozhi', wherein she asks the
sakhi, "when will Lord Padmanabha be pleased to come to me?"
 102

'lhe nayika fs -cross-questioning the sakhi ·in ihe Padam 'Karirirtima.ni',

which fsin a:fonn.ofa·dialogue·betweeri:-the nayika and-sakhi.

''Nayika Oh Friend, tell me why is your face

.
perspiring?
.

Sakhi The face shows fatigue because· of-the hot rays of_the surr
Nayika Why are your eyes red?-
Sakhi Enraged at the wor-ds .of your husband, they .are red.
Nayika. Why is your hair dishev.elled? ··
Sakhi By the Malaya breeze
Nayika How was the saffron � ·mark in -your forehead nibbed: ·
away?
Sakhi Nay, try-the
. garmentfllbbing against
.
it._
.-
Nayika Why is your body wearied?
Sakhi By_ my walking to and fro.
Nayika Oh Lady, . a11 �that you _:said is true. But hear me, now is
your lip· bitten except by your corporal .enjoyment with -Sri
Padmanabha?"-(Dr. S: Venkita Sl,lbrahmany.a-Iy.er, i975) 31

Af last the nayika points out that sakhi had cheated on her by spending
time with h�r µayaka. . This· Padam is a special one.. Its raga, structure and the
type of nayika are rare and thus worth mentioning. 'Valaputala- vasama', the
Telugu Padam can be put in this category because it seems to have been:sllll_g
by the nayika-!q sa1dii.

2. Nayika-adllre·ssing :Nayaka

In-this category, w.e can meet the·nayika in different moods in -v.arious

Padams. In 'Chentar sayaka' and 'Tellupolum kripa', the nayika is addressing
the nayaka, but He is not present. The recollection of His charm and
1
Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer, S (1975), "Swathi Tirunal and His Music", pp.126, CBH, Trivandrum

31 Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer, S (1975), "Swathi Tirunal and His Music", pp.126, CBH, Trivandrum
 103

pei:s9nalty.pti!-her in .a-great suffering-and therefore she.prays-to-uim-tooe

with her and-enjoy.

In most :of the:Padams. of this .category, t!J.�-nayika speaks to th� nayaka- - ·

in His presence. The uddipana vibhavas like the rising moon, the evening
breeze, songs -0f cuckoo, �grance of-flo�ers;·sandal paste, humming.bees.etc.
l
are mentione< here also because they -are torment her and -increase her -desires.
She requests_� to -give up His anger; if any; -towards-her and enjoy-with her-
without any delay. ""Pannagendia sayana' �s a beautiful example..

In the some _other �dams, the nayika reveals her · mood of complaint
She asks.Hll!l :as to why'He keeps .away from her; is it for testing her· mind ·or-·
whether_ He_ js in -1ove with-· another lady ·or 'Whether someone has said
something unpleasant about her ('lntamocfiyalara', 'Teliviyalum').

In -some-Padail_lS; the p.ayika is '·seen cross with Him. She- suspects th�t -.
He is doing ridiculous .acts .and-that he is .maintaining illegal .r-e1ationships with
a Kulata (libertine)� as in �Sadhujane.,.

In 'Entuiriama· sadanathil',_the nayika sarcastically asks Him as-to if He

came to her by mistake? 'Viditam te'__i_s also another notable Padam in this
type. The nayika with iiisappointment-and anger·-says t-o the nay.aka to·g.o back ··
to the other -lady with whom He was together till the mofI!in_g. At the-end of the
Padam she asks Him_to pardon her-for her short-tcinperedwords becaus�_�he
loves mm -so much a�d.-cann9t-be separated from Hini:·

The nayika is represented as an embodiment of nobility in the Padam

'Ha mamaka.' She tells that the other lady may be waiting for Him with grief
and asks Him to go to her and pacify her. At the same time the nayika tells Him
"Oh Padmanabha! please do remember me." (This Padam can also be
 104

interpreted asbeing sUng bY the Sakhi1othe-nayaka). The P-adams numberetl 35

to 55 in·the list-shown above come1lIlderthis eategory.. - .

3. Sakhi addressing Nayaka

In this -category there are four Padanis. The sakhi is informing the Lord
about the .griefof the nayika and. -requests togo t<l he-r and save her.·
'Saras~'; 'Alamanakha', 'Kanathasoka', 'Manasapi bata-~ .are beautiful
exam¢es of the picturisatiolls of the nayika by satdll.

4. Sakhi addressing Nayika

'SUDiUkhi ninultapam' ·may ·be considered as· an answer or message from
nayaICaand u(this Padam, the salehi says that He was away and will be coming
that ~ery night--'for giving l'eliefto nayika after .a long period- of separation"
This is the-ooly-one Padam of1ts kind~

S. Nayaka addressingNayika
Ther~.ate .three Padams in' tJ1!S category in. whi~h the nayaka addresses the
-. -- -.
nayika, inclydin.g 'Nianasi madana tapam, '- 'Manini v.amata' and 'Sumukhi
sukhamode'. :In these -Padams,_ the nayaka =Seeks forgiveness and invites'
nayika.

Ill. Languages~se(pn:rftams·-

,The Padamshayebeen classified- according'to the language in which

they are,~t.This-inc1udes 11 Pa<iams in Sanskrit; 50 in Manipravalam and-So-in
Telugu.

IV. Classificafion according1o--Dhatu and Angas

1. Padams with different dhatus for pallavi, anupallavi and charana (tridhatu)
Eg. 'Alarsara', 'Aliveni', 'Kantanodu', 'Poonten' etc.
2. Padams in which the dhatu of the pallavi and anupallavi is repeated in
charana (dvidhatu). Eg. 'Ilamariman'.
 105

3. 'Pannagendra sayana' is composed in eight sections and in eight ragas. So

the dhatu ofeach section is different.
4. 'Kaminimani' is also another Padam having several sections as dialogue.
The dhatu ofthese sections sung by the nayika and sakhi are different.

V. Classification according to Ragas

Swathi 1irunal has used both common and rare ragas for composing his
Padams. The commonly used ragas are Kamboji, Neelambari,
Sankarabharanam, Surutti etc. and the rare ragas are Kurinji, Huseni, Ghanta,
Malavasri and Dvijavanti. The common ragas and rare ragas used and the
number of Padams composed in them are given below:

Common Ragas Common Ragas -- Rare Ragas

continued
Neelambari - 6 Ritigaula - 1 Ghanta-l
Kamboji - 6 Varali -1 Dvijavanti - 1
Sankarabharanam - 5 Nathanamakriya - 1 Gauri-l
Surutti - 5 Behag-l Saindhavi - 1
Yadukulakamboji - 4 Dhanyasi-l Malavasri - 1
Atana-3 Bhairavi -1 Navarasam - 1
Anandabhairavi - 3 Punnagavarali -1 Poorvakamodari - 1
Saurashtram - 3 Kedaram-l
Sahana-3
Kalyani-2
Ahiri-2
Kurlnji - 2
Huseni-2
Sahana-l
10di -1
Pantuvarali - 1
Asaveri-l
 106

Navarasam, Dvijavanti etc. are common ragas in Sopana Sangitam.

Ragamalika 'Pannagendra sayana' contains Sankarabharanam, Kamodari,
Neelambari, Bhairavi, Todi, Surutti, Nathanamakriya and Bhupalam. Bhupala
is not used in any other Padam because it is a morning raga. The Varali Padam
contains raga Mudra also.

'Hanta njan entu', originally composed in Gauri is now sung in

Hamsanandi. 'Itusahasa' is commonly sung in Sandhavi raga and 'Saramaina'
is sung in Behag.

VI. Tempo
1. Vilampakala Padams (slow tempo) - 'Taruni njan' and'Manasidussaham'.
2. Madymakala Padams (medium tempo) - 'Pannagendra sayana' and
,Itusahasa'

VII. Structure
Padams are usually composed in Pallavi, anupallavi and three charanas. But in
some of Swathi Tirunal's Padams, we find Padams having other structures,
such as:
1. Padams with the regular Pallavi, anupallavi and three charanas
2. Padams with Pallavi, anupallavi and five charanas
3. Padam in dialogue form ('Kaminimani')
4. Padam with eight sections - Ragamalika ('Pannagendra')

But in 'Sarada vidhu' there are six charanas. In 'Hema bhasuranga' there
are seven sections in all. They may be either classified as a Padam with seven
sections or as Padam with five charanas, besides the pallavi and anupallavi. In
'Pannagendra sayana', there are eight sections, all of which have been set in
different ragas. Each section contains chittasvaras in medium tempo. In
 107

'Kaminimani', there are II sections as dialogues. In 'Prananayaka' (Kamboji),

there are pallavi, anupallavi and four charanas. In 'Alamanakha' (Ritigaula)
anupallavi is absent, but it has pallavi and three charanas.

VOL Padams conveying different situations

1. Distressed nayika giving vent to her feelings (to the sakhi)
Eg: a) 'Ayisakhi tapam' b) 'Alarsara paritapam' c) 'Ilamariman' d)
'Kantanodu' and e) 'Kintucheyvu'
2. Disappointed nayika complaining about the unfaithfulness of the nayaka
and sakhi
Eg: a) 'Kulirmati' b) 'Kaminimani' (unfaithfulness of nayaka and sakhi),
c) 'Sumasaranayi' d) 'Hantanjan entu' e) 'Teliviyalum'.
3. Heart broken nayika deriving consolation by recalling past memories of her
associations with the nayaka
Eg: a) 'Ayyayyokintu cheyvu' b) 'Kamini iha' c) 'Poonten' d) 'Hantanjan
entu'
4. Joyous nayika meeting the nayaka after his long absence.
Eg: a) 'lnnumama bhagya' b) 'Dhanyayayi njan'

IX. Padams expressing various intensities of pain or grief of nayika

A grouping of Padarns into four can -be made according to the degree of
pain experienced by the nayika

. Grief - ego 'Entucheyyavu', Bearable Grief - ego 'Ilamariman' and

'Kalakandi' and 'Poonten' 'Enanermizhi'
Unbearable Grief - ego 'Alarsara', Heartbroken Grief- 'Khinnata
'Aliveni', 'Kalamozhi' and poondetra', 'Bhasurangi bale' and
'Kantanodu' 'Balike moham'
 108

Part B - Madbura Bbaktbi

Love means Bhakthi in Sanskrit. Knowing, loving and serving are the
three stages in the journey to God. Bhakthi Marga is the easiest and hence more
popular than the Jnana Marga and Karma Marga for attaining salvation.

In Bhagavad Gita, chapter 18, verse 66 says:

"Sarvadharman parityajya mamekam saranam vraja/
Ahamtwa sarvapapebhyaha Mokshayishyami rna sucha/f'

The doctrine of total surrender or 'prapathi' is embodied in this verse.

Only by complete surrender, pure and perfect bhakthi can be aroused in the
heart. With a pure heart, one will be able to forget the self and the
surroundings. The saints, by their intensity of devotion, could see Lord in every
thing and thus lost the pride of caste and colour. Sankaracharya regarded love
or bhakthi as the milestone in the path leading to the ultimate truth or Brahman
or Supreme Soul. He stressed the importance of Bhakthi as a means for
purifying the heart. Sankaracharya explains Bhakthi in Sivananda Lahari as,
"Ankolam nija beeja santhathi rayaskkantho soochika,
Sadhvi naija vibhum latha kshithiruham sindhussaridvallabham,
Prapnothiha yadha thadha pasupathe padara sindhu dwaiyam,
Chetho vruthi roopethya thishtathi sada saa bhakthirithyuchyathe,,32.

Meaning
"Like the real seed progeny reaches for the mother ankola tree,
Like the iron needle reaches for the load stone.
Like the chaste woman reaches for her lord,
Like the tender creeper reaches for near by trees,
Like the river reaches for the sea,
Ifthe spirit of the mind,
Reaches for the lotus feet of Pasupathi,
And stays there always,
Then that state is called devotion".

32 "ShivAnandalahari by Adishankara BhagavatPada - English translation", retrieved from

http://www.shaivam.orglenglish/sen_shivaananda.htmon Sth April 2008
 109

From this explanation, the common man can also understand and
appreciate that Bhakthi is a natural longing for God and a passionate desire to
become one with Him. Sankaracharya's stotras inspired and brought common
people to the path of devotion. Bhakthi is called 'prema' in the Narada
Pancharatra and 'priti' in the Vishnu Purana.

Love is the essence of God and God is the embodiment of Love. Though
it is one, it appears as two like the sun and sunshine. Bhagavad Gita teaches us
that intense devotion and self surrender is the supreme means of attachment to
God. God is Love and must be loved. Bhakthi is the 'parama prema' or intense
love for God. "It (bhakthi) is the unalloyed Love which is not eclipsed by
knowledge and action. It is the natural nectar of immortality (Amritha). Intense
love for God makes one immortal... It is free from desire, which is directed to
objects of enjoyment. Desires are not suppressed but fulfilled in it. In devotion,
all desires are directed to God, all passions are cherished for him and all actions
are dedicated to him. The sense organs, mind and intellect are directed to
him...His mind is filled with lasting peace" (Shanta Sheela Sathianathan,
1996)33.

Types of Bhakthi
Great sages and Acharyas defined bhakthi as the 'parama prema' or
intense love for God. In Ramayana and Mahabharatha, nine types of bhakthi
are explained. They are Sravanam, Kirthanam, Smaranam, Padasevanam
Archanam, Vandanam, Dasyam, Sakhyam, and Athmanivedanam. Many
composers and saint singers have selected Kirthanam as their Bhakthi Marga
and they praised the glories ofGod through their kirthanas.

33 Shanta Sheela Sathianathan (1996), "Contributions of Saints and Seers to the Music ofIndia, Vol.
II", Appendix 5 - Narada Bhaktisutra: The Cult of Devotion, p.563, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi
 110

Bhakthi can be either primary (Nishkama Bhakthi) or secondary

(Sakama Bhakthi). Secondary devotion is born out of desire. Therein
satwaguna, rajoguna or tamoguna is predominant. But primary devotion has
only God for its end. There is no other desire. Though desire is of one kind, it
has 11 forms. i.e., love of the attributes of God, greatness of God, recollection
of God, love of recollection of God, love of a servant or a friend, a parent or
wife, attachment in self concentration, attachment in absorption to Him and
attachment in extreme separation. In the last (11 th) form, though the devotee is
permanently united with the Lord, but feels separated from Him. All these 11
forms of bhakthi are the purified form of bhakthi, a state of appreciation called
'Parabhakthi' or a state of realisation and the bliss called anubhuthi.

A devotee should be lifted from secondary devotion and cultivate love in

his heart. He should always strive to develop love ofGod alone and pray with a
single-minded devotion. The God quickly reveals Himself to the devotee and
moulds him with His influence. Primary devotion makes one· fulfilled,
contended and immortal. All the desires of the devotee are attained
through/in/by God. He loves humanity, sentiment, creation and becomes
completely self-satisfied and intoxicated by joy. He delights in his self
(Atmarati) in communion with God. Then he feels His presence everywhere
and that realizes that he belongs to God and his only aim of life is service to
God.

Madhura Bhakthi

Narada considers Nirupadhika Bhakthi as uthama, which is developed

by transition from 'prema' to 'parama prema'. Parama prema leads to the
highest state of'rati' (joyful attachment). Parama prema also leads to Madhura
Bhakthi.
 III

Faith passes through gradual stages and finally manifests itself in the
shape of prema (love). When faith reaches the stage of perfection, the human
soul forgets its own self and attains nothing but God. First, constant thought
gives rise to faith, which is followed by attraction and after that adoration (deep
devotion). Adoration keeps us away from worldly desires and leads us on to
single mindedness and satisfaction. This satisfaction causes happiness,
anandam and creates real love for God. Bhava (sentiment) is the first dawn of
erotic love and its charm is incomparable and beyond expression. "As we
approach God with our offerings of flowers with sweet fragrance and good
food and enjoying it, so also we contemplate on him indulging in the strongest
life sentiment and emotion namely 'Love'. It is the sweet approach to God or
"Madhura Bhava" (Kausalya, 1958)34. Further, "among the different types of
bhakthi, Madhura Bhakthi is regarded as the best" (Roopa Goswami)3s.

If there is not even a trace of desire for sense gratification, spiritual love
arises. Then the devotee will have merely God in his mind, the divine form,
and feels an ineffable love to Him. Then he feels and realises that each and
everything in the world that he sees, hears, touches, tastes and smells are God's
grace and God's forms. (Every thing in the world or universe or nature is
nothing but Krishna. This was the feeling of the Gopis). The bhaktha dedicates
everything or surrenders at His Lotus feet and this stage is called the state of
perfect love. In this stage, the bhaktha forgets the surroundings and elevates
himself to a state of ecstasy with God's communion. When love reaches its
sweetest perfection the bhaktha can even kiss His lips and when God gives it
back, he will be in a state of madness (bliss) with that sweet love. The love of
Gopis to Krishna was this type of sweet love.

34 Kausalya, P.N (1958), "Telugu Padakaras", pp. 63, Thesis submitted to the University ofMadras

35 Roopa Goswami, cited in Renuka, K.V (1995), "Madhura Bhakthi and its influence on the thoughts
and compositions of Andal, Jayadeva and Swathi Tirunal", pp.189, Thesis submitted to the University
of Kerala
 112

It was in Bhagavatha Purana, the subject of love of Radha and other

Gopis for Krishna was described for the first time and it was the perennial
source of inspiration to the saints and composers in India. Hinduism, especially
Vaishnava sect teaches and proclaims that God is the embodiment of Love and
through intimate worship; we can feel the Bliss and God's love. "The
transcendent character of the Gopis Love - the attraction of the soul is its purest
state of existence for God, and the play of love on the plane of the spirit
between God and His chosen instruments has to be understood. From this point
of view, the approach indicated is claimed to be the nearest approach to God
which invests the love of Gopis with a glory and excellence which are truly
unparalleled and supernal. The truth about that love may be known to a certain
extend, only by such lovers and devotees of the Lord; to whom it may be
revealed in all kindness by the Bliss...One who knows the truth about this
Love, cannot express through words. It is something beyond human
conception". (Kausalya, 1958)36.
In the Love of Gopis, the passion, desire and enjoyment, everything is
centered on Krishna alone. The mind, the senses, the beauty, the vital energy
etc. that Gopis possessed, belonged to Krishna alone. It is only then that
Krishna is pleased and the Gopis feel happy. Lord Krishna accepts the offering
of Love from devotees and after sanctifying it with His divine touch returns to
the devotee. "The Love of Gopis towards Krishna was super mundane and
unparallel. In fact, it had reached the highest stage of perfection. Their
sentiment of Love gradually developing with Fondness, Affection, Anger, and
Passion reached the highest stage known by the term 'Bhava' (ecstatic love).
This last stage is also called Supreme Ecstasy (Mahabhav) in which there could
be no desire for enjoyment nor could there be any lust...Like the Gopi's Love,
the concept of Rasa dance too can be explained spiritually and symbolically in
all aspects. But human intellect is too feeble to understand the mysteries of
Divine sport - Rasa leela...The concept of Krishna is that He is the soul of

36 Kausalya, P.N (1958), "Telugu Padakaras", pp. 67 - 68, Thesis submitted to the University of
Madras
 113

..... life of IIiwai" the a;seme of aD tiws" die cmkr" tor.oI wbidJ. aIlliws
IIIIn'C, aD life is ~ die wont Krisha means the soul of all"" (Asha
GunNmi,,19Mr.

Aa:onfing to die ~ new" Jibe Rasa dmce of Krishna is the

complete mvdaboo of His MadburJa Nun and sweet anribuks ie." the
CUlICqIt of Bbapwm Krishna 1be soof"smteme Ioogiog COl' God is dim
apresscd by Radha"s sexuali passion. in the dmre. The Gopis" while in the
cImr:e., do Dot even mDe'DJlber ot" dUnk about d1eU' family" husband" home or
dIeir raponsibitities. Their ooiy aim and intention is to be with KrUIma. 1bis is
a RIigious 11mb wbidl teaches us to give up everything fur 1he love of God. In
Rasa dance. every Gopi dlmks dm Krishna dances only widl ~ and she is His
oa1y padDeI'. 'This: feeling in each of dle Gopis proves that God KrisIma is
available to aUbbatthas.

A Accoirdmg to Adhyabna vidya., die Gopis are 100 nerves and Radba is
die K.ulalamda~mi and Ma.s:dUshb in Vrindavanam. So Rasa dmce of KrisIma
with Gopis Sbou~d be taken m. ~ts demai meaning. According to Bengal
Vaisbnavism, Rasa dance Oi' the sport of the Lord was iOSupennundane" and
ever.Etemal. In other w~ it is the Divine sport ofthe soul with its own self
and its own potentialities. The Love of Gopis is the sweetest of the sweet,
noblest of the noble and purest of the pure. It has all the glories of Santba,
Dasya, Sakhya, ValsaIya and )'.fadhura Iati"" (Asba Gosw~ 1984)31. The
Vaisbnava Rasasastra designates the Gopis' love by the term Paramabbakthi,
which is super mundane and unparalleletL reaching the highest perfection. In
order to bighlight the importance of Sringara rasa in the path ofbhakthi, further
explanations are furnished below.

38 AsbaGoswami(l984), "KrisIma Katbaand Allied Mauers"".pp.l63. TRPubIiadioos. NewDelbi

 114

Hari Bhakthi Rasamritha Sindhu gives the minute details about bbakthi.
Bhakthi has to be cultivated by a devotee. Complete detachment from the
world and freedom from knowledge and action is the highest form of bhakthi.
The five types of Bhakthi rasas or sentiments, as understood from a quote in
the previous paragraph, are:

1. Santam (quietism)
2. Preetam (service)
3. Preyas or Sakhyam (friendship)
4. Valsalyam (parental affection)
S. Sringaram (wifely love)

Sringara rasa is the foremost of all sentiments. In this, we consider God

as our darling, the most beloved. The Lord, with all His greatness and divinity
is present before His devotee; as a master, as a friend, as a child and as a
beloved. In this stage, there is no place for prayer. We belong to Him and there
is no difference between Him and us. The Sringara or Uijvala rasa is the king
among the five Bhakthi rasas. Krishna and his beloveds are the alambana
vibhavas of this rasa. Bhakthi has been termed as Rasaraja. So the sentiment of
wifely love is supreme. The happiness of the beloved gives infinite joy to the
wife and she never feels that she has done enough service to her Lord or
husband. A sincere wife always contributes her service to her beloved and
derives happiness and satisfaction from this. This is the sentiment of feminine
love. This type of love is equal to the selfless service to God.

Kausalya39 divides feminine love into two categories, viz., ·(1) the love
of the wedded wife and (2) the love of parakeeya or paramour. Usually in the
worldly life, the love of the paramour is considered as detestable or

39 Kausalya, P.N (1958), "Telugu Padakaras", pp. 87, Thesis submitted to the University of Madras
 lIS

depreciative. But in the sphere of the divine, the love of the parakeeya or
paramour is considered superior than that of the wedded wife. It -is because the
object of love or the beloved is not an ordinary human being, but the soul of the
universe, the God Himself. Although a perfect devotee would become one with
God and communicate with Him, still he feels separated from God and
experiences the soka rasa or pangs of separation. (Hindus do not separate sex
from religion but endow it with spiritual significance. In India, sex is a
sacrament and a woman worshipping her husband as God is a specialty of
Indian culture).

A comparison of the love of swakeeya and parakeeya may show that the
love of parakeeya is deeper, sweeter and higher. The reason is that while the
swakeeya is always with the beloved and does not need to worry about
separation, the parakeeya longs for the beloved always and in spite of short
periods of union with Him is always fond of Him. The physical aspect of love
contained herein is endowed with enduring spiritual qualities. There are three
points of exceptional merit in the love of a paramour. They are (I) constant
thought of the beloved (2) the insatiable longing to meet the beloved and (3)
complete blindness to the faults of the beloved.

The soul of the devotee belongs to the God Himself. This is the sum and
substance of the love of Gopis to Krishna. Even though the Gopis have families
and responsibilities in the worldly life, they are detached from worldly
enjoyment and really belong to the God. So the love of Gopis for Krishna is
considered Eternal Love. Lord Krishna makes us understand that human souls
are the part of the real soul or God and the love of God is essential to aU. The
sweet approach to God is the best path to get supreme bliss and this type of
bhakthi contains the other four sentiments or affections. The five types of
affection (santa, preetha, preya, valsalya and u.iivala) are present in Madhura
Bhava or Madhura Bhakthi.
 116

The spiritual love of Radha and Krishna has influenced almost all the
composers of India. Gita Govindam laid the foundation for compositions based
on spiritual love. "Gita Govindam holds a unique position in the history of the
growth and development of the Indian Arts in the medieval period...With its
technical and artistic qualities, Gita Govindam is the most perfect example of
these fundamental principles of Indian aesthetics" (Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan,
1974)40. The later Vaishnava Bhakthas and composers like Narayana Tirtha,
Annamacharya, Kshetrajna, Purandaradasa and Swathi Tirunal were inspired
by the great classic, Gita Govindam.

After Jayadeva, Narayana Tirtha adopted the Madhura Bhakthi method.

Songs about the Supreme Purusha, Sri Krishna, his pure love to Gopis who are
the embodiments of consciousness, bliss, love and emotion in their purest
forms, are found in Srikrishna Leela Tarangini. The work concludes with the
marriage of Srikrishna and Rugmini.

In the 15th century, Annamacharya of Tiruppathi also selected this type

of bhakthi and worshipped through the sentiment of love. The worship of God
in Nayika-Nayaka bhava is the Sreshta Marga. A good number of his great
compositions are in this bhava. Purandaradasa also handled this type ofbhakthi
or madhura bhava along with valsalya bhava. Inspired by Annamacharya,
Kshetrajna elevated this type of bhakthi to the highest level and enriched it in
all possible dimensions.

Kshetrajna's compositions are based on this theme alone and the number
of his compositions is more than 4500. Almost all varieties of nayakas,
nayikas, sakhi and different situations were depicted in those compositions.
Kshetrajna concentrated only in Madhura Bhakthi and so could reveal the
theme in a detailed manner. Initially Kshetrajna started composing Padams in

40 Kapila Vatsyayan (1974), Gita Govindam and the Artistic Traditions ofIndia. pp. 145, The Journal
ofthe Madras Music Academy, Vol. XLV
 117

the theme of Pachai Sringara, but later he realised Madhura Bhakthi, divine
love or spiritual love. Therefore the love depicted in his Muvva Gopala Padam
should not be considered as love between common people; rather it is divine
love. Only persons who are spiritually uplifted can understand this higher level
inner most bhakthi brought out by the composer. Kshetrajna worshipped God
like the sentiment of Gopis and thereby he recognized that his Bhavadeha
(body) was a female or prakrithi. The only male, transcendent and youthful
captivator of his heart was Krishna, the soul, the supreme Lord.

Swathi Tirunal was a perfect bhaktha who considered himself as a

nayika or prakrithi of Sri Padmanabha, the only nayaka with the most
handsome and unparalleled youth in the universe. Swathi Tirunal surrendered
his body, mind, possessions and everything to his beloved, Sri Padmanabha.
(Earlier Marthandavarma Maharaja (1729-1758) had proclaimed that·the king
of Travancore would ever be known as the 'Padmanabhadasa' or the servant of
Sri Padmanabha. This further concretizes the fact that all the rulers of
Travancore were ardent bhakthas of Sri Padmanabha). The difficult
circumstances of Swathi Tirunal's life only strengthened him as a perfect
bhaktha of Lord Sri Padmanabha.

The Telugu and Sanskrit Padam composers chose Krishna as their

nayaka while Tamil Padam composers selected Subrahmanya (Murugan) as
their nayaka. So Madhura Bhakthi is considered as Sreshta Marga to reach
God. This love does not possess the least trace of lust. The Padam composers
would communicate their feelings through Sahitya and Sangita.The
combination of these two aspects evokes Rasanubhava.

Rasanubha"l1 in Padams
Rasa is the flavour or essence of an object or a piece of art. It is the
feeling created or induced in the hearts of the people by hearing, seeing,
 118

smelling, touching or tasting with the sense organs and intellect. Different rasas
can be expressed through beautiful sahitya, good music or excellent abhinaya
in art forms, the Padam being an apt form. In Upanishads, rasa is the term
meant for Atmananda or spiritual delight. Among all arts, music and dance
stand at the highest level for the creation of Atmananda. In music, various rasas
are expressed through different ragas. Some times, the same raga can evoke
various rasas by peculiar gamakas and sancharas, which is one of the
distinctive features of Indian music.

Rasa is the essential element in an art form. Even speech does not have
any meaning if it fails to express some sentiment. Similarly there will be no
bhava in music or dance or any other art form without the portrayal of any rasa.
. Thus, it can be observed that music and other art forms can fulfill their divine
purpose only when they have rasabhava. The artist should be capable for
evoking the prominent or underlying rasa in the composition helshe presents.
.Only then the audiences can enjoy the performance and experience the actual
sentiment or expression of bhakthi.

The nine rasas (Navarasas) are Sringara, Hasya, Kanma, Raudra, Veera,
Bhayanaka, Bibhatsa, Adbhuta and Santa. The navarasas have stayibhava,
which are rati, hasa, soka, krodha, utsaha, bhaya, jugupsa, vismaya and samam.
.Some scholars say that rasa originates from the stayibhava, while others have
different views. According to Kalyanikutty Amma, an exponent of
Mohiniyattom, rasa is really the stayibhava, only the name changes as per the
situation. During abhinaya it is called rasa and is a stayibhava while not in use.
Stayibhava has no change; it is a permanent bhava (like a seed growing into a
tree, from which more seeds are produced). Smt. Kalyanikutty Amma (1992)40
makes an interesting analysis, as shown in the table below:

40 Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma, (1992), "Mohiniyattavwn Attaprakaravwn (Malayalam)",

pp.88, DC Books, Kottayam
 \:

Nav;arasa,s Sfi�g�ra Hasya Karupa RauJl.r� Veera ,:QIJayan,� Bibba�a ,\.dbb--� Santa
Ad�Jtta�11 .Vishnu Sivaparishadas Yaqia Rudra
' .
Devendra Kaman 'Mahakala '�raluQa --
' '
l)evat11
Stap B1*av� ,�ti ·, l{asa So� Krodha µts,aha l3Jtaya Ju�ptsa Vismaya' Samam
Sti,yi Drishti Snigdha Hrshta Dc::ena Krudha Pambha J3p�ya Jugqptsa, Vi�mitba Nirveda
�sa, Qtjshti R,anta Hrshtl l)l)ena Krudha pambha _,Bhaya Juguptsa Vismitba --
Svaram' P�clt!fflla �acUiyama P11ndhara. Rishabha Sha<j.ja Dhaivata DhaiVllUl Rishabha, --
Nisha4a
\
! ;

�Qlour Green White Ifrown Rl!d Golqen Blac� l3lue Yellow --

:,i.gfs �hupala. Vas!Ulta Phala- BJ:iairavi Natta.,
. '
f,,falavi S�gam Bangala Bhupala.
'K.aly�t :manja,ri, ' P�tuvarali, Nathanamakriya,
Sankara- M'ukhari, Kedaragaula, Chenchurutti,
l3hararuun, l>unnagavai: Sarangii. Syama
Neelambari, ali,
. �ilS.. AnamJa
bhairavi,
Ahiri
'"
 120

Sringara, being the Rasaraja, evokes the maximum rasanubhava while

rendering a Padam. As earlier mentioned, Sringara is of two kinds, Sambhoga
and Vipralambha. But based on their usage, Sringara rasa can be classified into
four heads, Samkshiptha, Sampanna, Sambhoga and Vipralambha.
Samkshiptha Sringara is depicted by shyness and satwikabhavas. Sampanna is
love aplenty during the re-union of lovers after a long separation. Sambhoga
Sringara is the union of nayaka and nayika. Vipralambha is the situation of
separation of nayaka from nayika. Vipralambha Sringara can further be
classified into ayoga (impatience), viraha (separation), mana (abandonment),
pravasa (indignation) and sapa (curse). Sringara rasa and Hasya rasa go hand­
in-hand and Hasya is produced during the union of nayika and nayaka. The
other rasas, Veera, Karuna, Raudra etc. arises from Sringara rasa according to
the situation. For example, Veera rasa arises while the nayaka performs a
heroic act. Karuna rasa in nayika happens during separation from nayaka.
Raudra rasa can be formed in nayika if the nayaka fails to be present in the
promised hour. Simultaneously, feelings of fear and anxiety or Bhayanaka rasa
may also be produced. A feeling of disgust or Bibhatsa rasa can be formed in
nayika, if the nayaka neglects her continuously. An unexpected arrival of
nayaka creates or kindles Adbhuta rasa.

Bhava is the emotion expressed through the angas or upangas. Bhavas

are of three kinds, stayibhava, sanchari bhava and satwika bhava. Stayibhava is
the permanent and dominant bhava, sanchari bhava or vyabhichari bhava is
temporary. Satwika bhava is temperamental. Satwika bhava evokes sympathy
by responding to the sorrow of others. Persons with satwika bhava get upset
over the problems of others. If a person is worried or depressed or troubled, he
can be made cheerful, happy and relieved by consoling words of others. The
expression of rasas is done in an exhaustive manner by means of vachika,
angika and satwika bhavas. It reflects one's own state of mind.
 121

Vibbava is the principal cause of an emotion. Different circumstances

create different emotions, which can be called the vibhava. Vibhavas are of two
kinds, Alambana vibhava and Uddipana vibhava. "The creation of rasa in a
peculiar way can be termed as vibhavas ...The evoking of emotion by the deed
of an object or person can be termed as the Alambana vibhava... The
emotional experience that Sita felt, on seeing Sri Rama is an expression of
Alambana vibhava" (Dr. S. Bhagyalekshmi, 1998)41 • The object or a cause
which enhances hidden emotions by sight, feeling or hearing can be termed as
Uddipana vibhava. Uddipana vibhavas are of four types:
l. Guna - Description of qualities like beauty, youth of nayaka or
nayika or any other character
2. Alankara - Description of costumes etc.
3. Cheshta - Description of expression of emotion (love)
4. Tatasha - Description of objects like moon light breez.e etc. which
increases the emotion.

Anubbavas are physical factors like smile, beloved's glance etc. The
satwika bhavas are physical manifestations like stambha, sveda, romancha,
vaivarnya, svarabheda and ashru. According to some other scholars,
Anubhavas can also be stambha, sveda, romancha, svarabhanga, vepathu,
vaivarnya, ashru and pralayam (nischalam). Sancharibhava differs according to
the circumstances or situations, originates from and returns to stayibhava. It
keeps on changing and will not be constant in nature. Sancharibhavas are 33 in
number. It gives wide scope for elaboration and improvisation in abhinaya. The
varieties of sancharibhavas are, Nirveda (disgust), Glani (torment), Samsaya
(doubt), Srama (toil), Dainya (feebleness), Jadatwa (dullness), Asuya
Gealousy), Chintha (anxiety), Vyadhi (sickness), Avega (pride), Garva
(agitation), Dhriti (firmness), Smrithi (recollection), Chapalya (fluctuation),
Ugrata (ferocity), Trasa (fear), Avahita (attention), Vishada (dejection), Mada

41
Bhagyalekshmi, S (1998), "Approach to Bharatha Natyam", pp.122, CBH Publications, Nagercoil
 122

(arrogance), Autsukya (eagerness), Mati (determination), Nidra (sleepiness),

Moha (perplexity), Prahodha (enlightenment), Harsha (joy), Vreeda (sense of
shame), Vitarka (argument), Suptha (slumber), Amarsha (anger), Alasya
(indolence), Unmada (madness), Apasmara (forgetfulness) and Marana (death).
The meanings are self explanatory. If the nayika hears the singing of cuckoo or
sights the moon, her pang of separation increases. This feeling is actually
anubhava and the cause of the feeling is Uddipana vibhava.

Anubhava has four varieties such as Chithajanubhava, Gatrajanubhava,

. Budhyarambha anubhava and Vaagarambha anubhava. Chithajanubhava is the
anubhava felt in the mind eg: sweetness, courage, disapproval, enlightenment
and so on. Gatrajanubhava is the physical expression or expression through
body and it relates to mental states like pleasures on feeling, love, affection,
sportiveness etc. Budhyarambha anubhava relates to intellect. Herein the
mental impulses and reactions are intellectually expressed. Vaagarambha
anubhava relates to words or vakhya. Herein the mental modes are expressed
by conversation, crying, wailing, guidance, sympathy etc. Anubhavas are
immediate reactions found in common people.

Nayika-Nayaka Bheda

The sentiment of feminine love that one bears towards God is popularly
known as Nayika-Nayaka bhava. In this context, love is for its own sake; there
is no desire for self gratification. Taking or receiving something will stain the
mind with lust and this never pregnates the mind of the lover. "This love is
beyond the range of three gunas and remains unstained by desire, constantly
growing, ceaseless in flow and very subtle, it can be understood only by
experience. A devotee who attains this, sees only this love, hears only this and
thinks of this and this alone" (Kausalya,1958)42.

42 Kausalya,P.N (1958), "Telugu Padakaras", pp. 87, Thesis submitted to the University of Madras
 123

This type of love or feminine love can be divided into two, love of
wedded life and that of the paramour. As said earlier, in the spiritual life, the
love of paramour in considered as pure love because separation for even a
moment is unbearable for the nayika or devotee. Several ancient works like
Natya Sastra have described different types of nayakas and nayikas. Sringara
Rasamanjari of Bhanubhatta is the simplest work in this subject. Several
ancient Sanskrit writers specialized in this.

Nayakas and nayikas appearing in various classes of Padams have been

categorized by great authors on the basis of sentiment of love or on the
character and behaviour of nayikas and nayakas.

Categorisation of Nayikas
According to the sentiment of love, the nayikas are classified into
Sweeya, Parakeeya and Samanya.

I. Sweeya (Swakeeya) - She is the ideal and devoted wife to her nayaka or
husband and is the model of chastity. Firm and sincere love to her husband,
straight-forwardness, forgiveness and self respect etc. are her good features.
She is the Kuleenanayika. Sweeya or Swakeeya nayikas are again divided into
three:

i) Mugdha - She is tender, young, charming and shy. She surrenders

herself to nayaka. 'Mugdha vadhu nikare' in 'Chandana Charchitha'
(Ashtapadi) is an example. The nayikas in Swathi Padams are also
Mugdhas.
ii) Madhya - She is bold and not young but experienced and will not
forgive any wrong deed by her beloved. She also has courage to wind
him by taunting words or provoking speech. In Madhya, there are again
three sub-divisions i.e, Dhira, Adhira and Dhiradhira. Dhira is
courageous, Adhira is not capable of showing courage and Dhiradhirais
 124

· in between the two. She uses tears as her weapon for attacking the
nayaka. We can see this type of nayika in Swathi Padams.
iii) Pragalbha - She is mature and full of love for her husband. She is also
very sensitive and appreciative to the pleasure of love from her husband.

II. Parakeeya - This nayika loves a nayaka other than her husband. Herein
the nayaka and husband are different. In spiritual life, this type of nayika is
considered the highest. They are of two kinds, i.e., Kanya and Praudha or
Parodha. Kanya is unmarried and Praudha or Parodha is married.

Ill. Samanya - She is called Vesya and has several lovers.

In another classification, Ashta nayikas or eight varieties of nayikas, as

shown below, can be found:

1) Vasakasajja
2) Virahotkanditha
3) Swadheena bharthrika/Swadheena pathika
4) Kalahantharitha
S) Khanditha
6) Vipralabdha
7) Proshitha bharthrika and
8) Abhisarika

1. Vasakasajja - This nayika awaits the nayaka after making preparations

and decorations for receiving him. She is very careful in creating an
attractive atmosphere in her home, surroundings, bedroom and herself.
She wears a beautiful dress, ornaments and flowers. She also enjoys in
getting ready for receiving the nayaka and waits for him with great
expectation and excitement.
 12S

2. Vualnboctieha - The late aniwl of oayab upsets the nayib.. 1'be

disappointed oa� in the absence of nayab,, goes through diffetent
emotions like anger and grief and becomes exha11saal The unbearable
grief forces her to expess her feelings and she opens up to the Sakhi,
sbcdcting endless teals.

Swadbeena bbard:trita - She is the happiest nayib who bas experienced

maximum iove from her nayab.. She is proud of he£ love and can
influence /the diaracter of her nayab. She enjoys going out on jomneys
and :indulging m entataimnems with him. She always tries to please the
aayab.

4. Kalahamrdmril!Jha - She is a nayib who is separated from the nayaka after

a quarrel She :shows: disgrace to her husband and ill-treats him. Though
she repems Iller misbenavim� it is no of avail

S. Khanditha - She suspects ba nayaka and believes that he bas gone after
anodJer lady and is jealous of her. She makes disparaging rem.arks and
does not oodier' about otber"s iii feelings. She is restless, fearful and
indiffermt

6. Vipralabdha - She misses the nayaka very much when he is tails to be

present at the promised hour or at times when he avoids or refuses to
reach her� She is an.'tious, fearful, disappoinfetL bemoans and blames her
tiiend with tears. Sometimes she faints due to exhaustion. In spite of
dos, she continues to wait fO£ 1he nayaka with love. Most of the nayikas
in 1be Padams of Swadu are of this kind.
 126

7. Proshitha bharthrika - When the nayaka is abroad, the nayika feels

lonely. She cannot bear the separation and waits impatiently, suffering
sleeplessness and inactivity. She does not even eat or drink.

8. Abhisarika - This nayika follows her nayaka wherever he goes. She is

very courageous and never cares for others. She is proud of her beauty
and adorns herself always. There are three varieties in this type of
nayika.

i) The nayika who searches for nayaka in daytime and wears a

gaudy dress; she is called Divabhisarika.
ii) When the nayika wearing a white dress searches for nayaka in
moon-lit night; she is called Jyothsnabhisarika
iii) The Tamobhisarika wears a black, blue or a red dress and smears
Kasturi on her body while she goes out searching the nayaka in
the dark.

Some scholars like Smt. Kalyanikutty Amma have the opinion that the
nayikas like Kalahantharitha, Khanditha and Abhisarika do not have any
mention in Mohiniyattom. But we can find that Swathi Tirunal has picturised
all the seven nayikas except the Abhisarika among the Ashta nayikas. So we
can assume that Swathi Padams were composed not only for Mohiniyattom but
also for Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi and such other dance forms. Some other
scholars have opined that Swathi has picturized only Arthakhanda (five)
nayikas, namely Swadheena bharthrika, Virahotkanditha, Khanditha,
Kalahantharitha and Proshitha bharthrika. But we can find other two types of
nayikas also. Vasakasajja and Vipralabdha nayikas are represented in the
Padams 'Ayyayyokintu cheyvu', 'Almanakha' and 'Ayisakhi tapam', 'Taruni
njan' and 'Hantajeeva nayakan'. There are twelve Padams in which the nayika
is Vipralabdha ('Ayisakhi' 'Alarsara', 'Kantanodu', 'Kulirmati', 'Taruni',
 127

'Manasi.karuna', 'Hanta jeeva nayakan', 'Hemabhasuranga', 'lpparitapam',

'Tellupolum kripa', 'Panchabanan', 'Saramaina' and 'Pannagendra sayana'.

The Ashta nayika can be again classified into Uthama, Madhyama and
Adhama. Uthama nayikas are superior in this category and they keep high
values and chastity and also behave as kulavadhu or perfect wife. (In most of
Swathi Padams, we find this type of nayika). The madhyama nayika does not
have such qualities and behaviours but is superior to adhama nayika.
Madhyama stands in between the other two types. She may behave the way her
lover behaves. If he is sincere, she will also be sincere to him and if he behaves
headily, she will also show anger. The Adhama nayika is the inferior type. She
never behaves properly even if the nayaka is good.

Categorisation of Nayakas
According to the sentiment of love or Sringara, the nayakas are
classified into Anukula, Dakshina, Dushta and Satta. The nayakas based on the
sentiment of love are briefly described as below:
1. Anukula - An ideal nayaka or husband who is faithful, loyal and sincere
to his wife. He will be ready to fulfill all needs of his wife.
2. Dakshina - This nayaka has more than one lover or nayikas and his
affection is also distributed among them but at the same time he
considers them impartially.
3. Dushta - This type of nayaka is a cheat and he never loves his wife or
nayika. He will behave indecently and will not have any hesitation for
harming his wife.
4. Satta - Disloyal and hollow-hearted nayaka who has many secret
nayikas and will not admit openly.

In another classification based on the character and behaviour, nayakas

are -classified into four. They are, Dheerodathan, Dheeroddhathan,
Dheeralalithan and Dheeraprasanthan.
 128

1. Dbeerodathan
This is a divine personality and noble nayaka. Intelligence, self­
controlled behaviour, high determination, courage besides being
extraordinarily handsome are some specialities of this perfect nayaka.
Eg.Sri Raman

2. Dheeroddhatban
Even though this type of nayaka is courageous and self-controlled, he
has some bad habits like betraying, cheating and getting angry. They
come under the warrior group. Eg.Ravanan

3. Dheeralalitban
They are courageous and are endowed with royal personalities but at the
same time are simple. These are some of the good features of the
Dheeralalithan nayaka. Eg.Srikrishna.

4) Dheeraprasanthao
Wholeheartedness, self-control, cheerfulness etc. are his good features.
As the name indicates, he will be calm or a quiet person. Eg.Sribuddha.

There is another type of classification of nayaka based on his role in life.

They are Pati, Upapati and Vaisika.

• Pati - Pati is married to the nayika according to the social and family set
up.

• Upapati - Upapati is the secret lover of the nayika and not straight
forward. His aim is to make love and enjoy.
 129

• Vaisika - He is the libertine who loves anybody and spends his days
with any woman.

There is another classification of nayakas which is Uthama, Madhyama

and Adhama, based on the consideration given to the nayikas. Uthama nayaka
respect the nayika and behaves with love a calm and quiet way. Madhyama
nayaka keeps a distance from the nayika and behaves with anger, assessing her
through her actions and movements. Adhama is an unscrupulous, fearless and
shameless nayaka.

Description of Sakhi
Sakhi is also a major character in the nayika-nayaka concept. She acts as
mediator between .the hero and heroine. The eight types of Sakhi are; Duti,
Dasi, Sakhi, Dhatriya, Prativesini, Langhini and Silpini. She is the companion
of the nayika and helps her in getting dressed and made up. Some times the
sakhi also takes the role of a Guru. In these cases, she can insist on the way the
nayika should behave to the nayaka. She always helps and gives support in all
her needs and also works as a messenger to the nayaka. In Swathi Padams we
can find a special variety of nayika who is betrayed and cheated by the Duti.
Such type of nayika is called Duti Samb�oga Vanchita (eg.'Kaminimani').

The nayaka, nayika and sakhi are the characters in this love concept and
they stand for the Paramatma, Jivatma, and Guru respectively. The Guru helps
the Jivatma or devotee in the right path of mukthi or moksha.

Nayakas and Nayikas of Swathi Tirunal

Based on our understanding of the different categories of nayikas and
nayakas, we now proceed to explore the nayakas and nayikas of Swathi
Padams.
 130

Nayakas of Swathi Padams

As already known, the nayaka in the Padams of Swathi Tirunal is none
other than Lord Sri Padmanabha or Srikrishna, the embodiment of everything
good. Dheerodathan is the type of nayaka featured in Swathi Padams. The
nayika calls him 'Loka Sundaran' ('Aliveni'), 'Ramyanayoru Purusham' in the
Padam starting with the same words, 'Suragatran' ('Entahamiha') etc. The
nayaka is portrayed as a person with the most striking personality. The nayika
also addresses her Lord as 'Chaturagunan' (in second charana of 'lndaliha
valarunnu' and 'lnnumama bhagya'). The word 'Chaturagunan' means a man

I
!�
who has all good qualities to be possessed by a perfect man. Therefore she
loves him and is attracted to him. Since separation from the nayaka is
t�?f
";,, ,, unbearable to her, she alleges that this behaviour (of leaving her) does not suit
�,::5j,

him and his character. In the third charana of 'Kamini iha', the nayika asks,
"Chatikal cheyvathu uchithamo" (does this cheating suit him?). He being an
uthama nayaka should be with and near her at home, rather than keep her
waiting in worry. Separation from him is untolerable to her because he is the
Jeevanayaka or the only one who can save her from deep sorrow.

In the third charana of 'Enanermizhi', the nayika with grief asks as to

whether he is seeing another lady. She suspects his being a Vaisika nayaka and
implores the Sakhi to bring him without any delay for he is her (nayika's)
'Prananathan'. In 'Kalakandi', the nayaka is Lord Sri Krishna, an Avatara of
, Sri Padmanabha or Maha Vishnu and is portrayed as Dheeralalithan. In the
Padam, 'Pannagendra sayana', Swathi portrays Sri Padmanabha as nayaka in a
Dheeraprasanthan type. Even though the nayika has been waiting for him from
dusk to the dawn, the nayika is not all influenced and maintains Samachithatha.
In 'Hantanjan', she remembers his calling her 'Bhavan' during the happiest
moment of their union and so proclaims that he should never keep her apart.

Since the nayaka of these Padams is Sri Padmanabha, the composer

Swathi Tirunal, a perfect and ardent bhaktha, could not but portray the best of
 131

nayakas. Only in a few Padams, the nayika in her agony and grief of separation
asks if her Lord is an upapati or vaisika. But towards the last part of the Padam,
she restores Him as the uthama nayaka on realising that those thoughts arose
due to her doubts and that he can never love anyone else but her.

In 'Manasi madana tapam', the nayaka invites her to come and enjoy
with him, forgetting all her agony. The Padams 'Manini vamata' and 'Sumikhi
sukhamode' are also in the same pattern, in which the nayaka reveals his
circumstances that has led to the separation and reiterates his pure love for her.
In these we find that the nayaka is the Pati or Anukula. Even though in the
Padams of some other composers, we can find nayakas portrayed as
'Dakshina', 'Dushta' and 'Satta', the nayakas in the Padams of Swathi Tirunal
are only Uthama, Anukula or Pati types.

Naylkas of Swatbi Padams

Among the Ashta nayikas, we meet seven nayikas except abhisarika in
the Padams of Swathi Tirunal. In 'Ayyayyokintu cheyvu', the nayika is
Mugdha. The nayikas expressed in various Padams are:

1. Vasakasajja - In almost all Padams the nayika is Vasakasajja. She waits

for him every night after making all preparations to receive him. In the
second charana of 'Kalamozhi', "Manamarnna sumangal kondu
viravinodu maniyara alankarichu", the nayika tells the sakhi that she has
decorated the bedroom with sweet smelling flowers and is waiting for
the nayaka in the hope that he will reach at once ("Kanavani kshanam
vannu gaddam kutukamodinganayumennu chinthichu ha hanta
valayunnnen"). In the third charana of 'Indaliha', ("Ramana virahe bata
ramyamamalankaram pramada ratname dehabharamme"), the nayika
tells the sakhi that since the pain of separation is very intense; she
cannot bear the heavy weight of her ornaments and make up. From this
we can interpret that she is a Vasakasajja. She also complains that the
 132

nayaka's love for her has reduced compared to earlier. The nayika in
'Aliveni' is another example, as can be understood from the first
charana.

2. Virahotkanditha - In 15 Swathi Padams, we can find the nayika as

Virahotkanditha. The nayika has been waiting for him for a long time
and she is tired of the separation. The frustrated nayika then sends her
sakhi to her beloved, for bringing him at the earliest. In 'Ilamariman' the
nayika says that the pain of separation is unbearable. The songs of the
cuckoo, sweet voices of other ladies and the soft bed, all remind her of
the love of her lord, intensifying her grief. In other ·Padams like
'Entahamiha', 'Kintucheyvu', 'Poonten nermozhi', 'Rajanijata', 'Sakhi
. he gamikka', 'Sudati cholka' and 'Suma saranayi', the nayika recollects
her experiences with him. In 'Somopamavadane', the longing for the
nayaka reaches its heights, bringing changes in her behaviour from grief
to frustration to anger. She gets angry with the sakhi. 'Kanta tava
pizha', 'Prananayaka', 'Sadhujana' and 'Samini pondu' are examples of
this type of nayika.

'Indaliha valarunnu' is a wonderful Padam in which the nayika

can be interpreted both as Vasakasajja as well as Virahotkanditha. She
complains that he had more love for her earlier. 'Aliveni' is a very
attractive and popular Padam in which we can see three types of nayika
in the three charanas. In the first charana, the nayika is Vasakasajja. In
the second charana, she develops a jealous frustration towards the other
woman who is fortunate to be with the nayaka. Her jealousy coupled
with frustration and tears make her a Virahotkanditha. In the third
charana, the level of pain experienced by the nayika makes her a
khanditha.
 133

3. Swadheena bharthrika/ Swadheena pathika - In 'Hantajnan', the nayika

talks about her being addressed by the nayaka as 'Bhavan' during a very
happy moment. In 'Innumama', the nayika tells the nayaka of her love
· for him since childhood when she first heard about his qualities. Her
love for him only doubled after seeing him. 'Ramyanayoru' describes
the nayika's ecstasy when she dreamt of being with him. In
'Dhanyayayi', the nayika's extreme happiness that the nayaka's arrival
brings her is conveyed. Her unflinching love for her Lord, portrayed
through her joy and happiness on seeing him makes her a Swadheena
bharthrika.

4. Kalahantharitha- In 'Sundaranga kanta' the nayika gets upset and angry

on the delayed arrival of the nayaka. After bursting out in rage, she
calms down saying that the nayaka's behaviour towards her is as a result
of her sinful past. In the last line of 'Viaitam te', "mama kopa
vachokhilam kshamaswa" the nayika's character is apty conveyed. She
gets angry at first only to seek forgiveness a little later. 'Entumama' is
also another brilliant example of this type of nayika. When the nayaka
approaches her, she avoids him at first. Then she forgives him and loves
him as before. The same type of nayika can further be seen in the
Padams of Kshetrajna like 'Indendu vachitivira'. The nayika's
fluctuating temperaments of anger and surrender make her a
Kalahantharitha.

5. Khanditha - The nayika of 'Aliveni', as can be understood from the

third charana is a khanditha. 'Kamini iha' is a good example of
Khanditha nayika. She weeps for the nayaka as in 'Ha mamaka'
'Khinnata poondetra', 'Balike moham' 'Bhasurangi bale',
'Manasidussaham', 'Kanatha soka', 'Valayunniha', 'Enanermizhi',
'Valaputala vasama', 'Sarasanabha', 'Taruni njan', 'Manasapi bata',
'Hema bhasuranga' etc. are fine compositions in which the nayika is a
 134

Khanditha, who shed tears and waits for nayaka with the unbearable
pain and grief.

6. Vipralabdha - 'Alarsara paritapam', 'Ayyayyokintu', 'Kantanodu',

'Kulirmati', 'Manasi karuna', 'Hanta jeevanayakan', 'Intamodiyalara',
'Ipparitapam', 'Tellupolum kripa', 'Teliviyalum', 'Panchabanan',
'Pannagendra sayana', 'Prananayaka', 'Alamanakha' and 'Entu cheyvu',
gives beautiful picturisations ofVipralabdha nayika.

7. Proshitha bharthrika - 'Sumukhi nin ulthapam' is the only one Padam in

which we can meet the Proshitha bharthrika nayika. Anupallavi starts
with "Chirakala ptoshithanam", which describes the nayaka who has
been away for a long time. This Padam sung by the sakhi to the nayika
and it is the only one of its kind.

Duti sambhoga vanchitha nayika is represented in 'Kaminimani', which

is a Padam is in the form of a dialogue between the nayika and sakhi. However
there is no Padam ofSwathi Tirunal which features an Abhisarika nayika.

Mugdha oayika
As earlier mentioned in the categorization of nayikas, the Mugdha
· nayika is a sub-category of the Sweeya nayika. The other sub-categories are
Madhya and Pragalbha.

In 'Ayyayyokintu', 'Itusahasa', and 'Intamodiyalara', the nayika is

Mugdha. In the third charana of 'Ayyayyokintu' it is found clearly expressed.
In 'Athal iyannidunnu', the nayika can be considered as Madhya. In 'Poonthen
nermozhi', 'Balike moham', 'Sarada vidhu', 'Suma saranayi', 'Enanermizhi'
etc. the nayika can be considered as the pragalbha; very matured and full of
sentiments. The Sambhoga Sringara is explained in the Padams, 'Athal
iyannidunnu', 'Sarada vidhu' and 'Ramyanayoru purushan'.
 135

Character of Sakhi lo Padams of Swathi Tirunal

The Sakhi is one who leads the devotee to the path of mukthi (liberation)
by her sage counsel. In'Alamanakha','Kanathasoka','Manasapi bata' etc. the
very obedient, sincere and loyal sakhi is found conversing with the nayaka. She
describes how her mistress is missing his presence, her pathetic condition and
her miserable plight at separation. She also explains the nayika's longing for
His union.

There is only one Padam, 'Sumukhi nin ultapam' that has the sakhi
conversing to the nayika. The sakhi tries to relieve the nayika from her grief
explaining that the nayaka is away (proshithan) and that he will be back before
the dawn. Then He will rush to the nayika and will put an end to her grief.

Sringara in Swathi Padams

There are two types of Sringara Padams, divine type and mundane type.
On review of Swathi Padams, we find that they all fall under the divine type. In
all his Padams, Sri Padmanabha is the nayaka. For Swathi, the nayaka can be
none other than Sri Padmanabha. On the other hand, Kshetrajna composed
Padams not only in praise of Muvva Gopala but also the king of Tanjore,
among others. Kshetrajna Padams in praise of mortal beings can be categorized
under Pachai Sringara, the mundane type of Padams.

Among the different types of Sringara, Vipralmabha Sringara provides

more scope for elaboration as compared to Sambhoga Sringara. Excepting two
or three, most of the Padams of Swathi portray Vipralambha Sringara. Since
the nayaka is Lord Sri Padmanabha, the sringara depicted in the Padams is not
of worldly nature but divine love. Therefore it is erotic mysticism. "It is
Raganuga bhakthi and consists in the spontaneous and irresistible flow of
devotion to the Deity, the climax of which is reached in the_ stage of madhurya
 136

of pure erotic love symbolised by the intense and exquisite feeling of the Gopis
for Krishna. This sentiment can be imitated and vicariously realised by the
devotee irrespective of his sex. In this highest stage, the Lordship of the Deity
is completely suppressed by a sweetly powerful and self-surrendering charm
which produces a strong mutual attraction between the deity and devotee. By
this intense feeling of devotional love, which can be realised by the devotee, as
a blissful super sensuous sentiment, the Lord can be realised in his true
character, for the Lord Himself realises it His own nature of perfect Bliss and
reveals Himself in His self surrendering grace. This brings happiness which is
unalloyed and imperishable and consequently causes permanent cessation of
misery" (Dr.S.Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer, 1975t3•

The pain, grief, disappointment and frustrations of the separated nayika

are powerfully depicted through suitable representations of vibhavas,
anubhavas and vyabhicharibhavas. After anubhavas and vyabhicharibhavas the
Padams concludes with the stayibhava, which is of true love of the nayika to
her Lord Sri.Padmanabha. Examples of vibhava, anubhava and
vyabhicharibhavas are found represented in the Padamsof Swathi Tirunal in
good measure.

Sri Padmanabha and His qualities come under Vibhava. Examples are
Chaturagunan ('Indaliha'), Amithakarunan, Dayitan and Prananayakan ('Hanta
njan'), Vikacha kamala dalathin kantiye vellum kadaksham ('Sarada vidhu'),
Santagunan ('Poonten'), Jalajaksha ('Alarsara'), Nalina mizhi Sri
Padmanabhan, Loka sundaran, Neeril tar sarasadrisan ('Aliveni'), Asama
sarasaman, Aryabhavan, Kundaradan ('Kanatha soka'), Arunadharan, Kamala
netran ('Kulirmati'), Sarasijathine vellum ananam, Sarasa vachanamrutham,
Allithar sarasaman ('Taruni njan'), Chentarsara samakaran, Padma samavada,
Aruna kisalayadhara ('Entumama'), Kunda mukula sama danti vilasini,

43 Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer, S (1975), "Swathi Tirunal and His Music", pp.134, CBH, Trivandrum
 137

Madhuravani ('Manasi madana tapam'), Sona gandha lasithe, Mati vadane

If� ('Manini vamata'), Lobhaneeya nirupama hrdya roopa gatri and Matahakasini
I!{� ('Sumukhi sukhamode') etc.
j:�
''/ci.'

Examples for Uddipana vibhavas found in the Padams ofSwathi Tirunal

are gentle breeze, moonlit night, fragrance of flowers, coolness of sandal paste,
music of cuckoo etc. These are seen in several Padams. In some Padams, the
Uddipana vibhavas are the experiences of nayika derived from the nayaka. He

I
called her 'Bhavan' in an occasion and took the veedi from her mouth and
exclaimed 'Kamini ninnodulloru mamatha kurakayillenikku' ('Hantanjan
entu, ).

Examples for Anubhava expressed in his Padams are Suma sayaka

banaditamayoru mama manasam adhuna talarunniha ('Sumukhi sukhamode'),
Induvumayi chenkanalayangu manda pavananum ripuvayi ('Entucheyyavu'),
Valarnnu hriti moham talarunnu mama deham, Alikularavam adhikamadhi
nidanamayi, Sasium chenakanalayi ('Alarsara'), Kalamozhimar mani
paramasahyam, Pala divasamayi parithapa sagarathil. .. veenu valayunnayyo
('Enanermizhi') etc.

Examples for Vyabhicharibhavas are Ranta Pankajanabhan

mamakathaliril maranno?, Palarum chollum vakku karuti kalaha bhavamo?
('Entucheyyavu'), first and second charana of 'Aliveni', Anupallavi and
charanas of 'Kalamozhi', second charana of 'Khinnata poondetra', and second
charana of 'Balike moham'.

The nayika's grief, disappointment and frustrations in separation are

powerfully expressed in the Sahithya. There are two or three Padams, noted as
exceptions, wherein the nayika recollects and explains the enjoyment and
happiness experienced from the union with Sri Padmanabha. In 'Innumama',
she requests him to make her happy. The Vibhava, Anubhava and
 138

Vyabhicharibhavas represented are most suitable for developing the stayibhava

and Sringara rasa. These Padams have dual meanings, Bahir Sringara and
Antara Bhakthi. The Jiva-Brahma aikya or the Vedanta rahasya is the theme
depicted in the Padams.

Other Sringara Compositions

Padavarnas, Padams and some Hindustani compositions contain the
theme of Madhura Bhakthi. The Bhagavatam proclaims Madhura Bhakthi or
Prema Bhakthi as the supreme form of devotion. Narada in his Bhakthi Sutra
defines bhakthi as the deepest love for the Lord. Gita Govindam of Jayadeva
and innumerable Padams of Kshetrajna contain this type of bhakthi. These
songs inspired Swathi Tirunal to compose Padams and other songs in this
theme. He composed 23 varnas including Tanavarnas and Padavarnas. Usually
the Padavarna contains the theme of Madhura Bhakthi. But Swathi Tirunal

,I
composed Padavamas in pure bahkti (Stavavarnas) also in addition to Madhura
,:m1
Bhaktbi. Ten of his Padavarnas contain the themi: of erotic love.

•
Padavarnas of Swathi Tirunal having Sringara rasa are:
'Paramakula hridaya' -Saurashtram-Rupaka
• 'Sarasijanabha' -Atana-Adi
• 'Samininne' - Yadukulakamoji-Adi
• 'Sarasasara sundara' -Neelambari-Adi.
In these, the Virahotkanditha nayika directly prays to Padmanabha for His
love and mercy
• 'Sa vamarusha' - Khamas - Adi
• 'Indu mukhi' -Sankarabharanam-Ata
• 'Dani samajendra' -Todi-Adi
• 'Suma sayaka'-Kapi-Rupaka
• 'Sa parama vivasa' -Ghanta-Adi
• 'Satura kamini' -Kalyani-Adi
 139

The incorporation of svaraksharas, yati patterns etc. in these Padavarnas

are their special features. Chaukka kala helps to portray detailed abhinaya and
raga bhava. Special eduppus are also found.
Swathi Tirunal composed 37 Hindustani compositions. About 20 of
them are in the theme of Madhura Bhakthi, the love of Gopis and Krishna. In
'Suno sakhi' the nayika is Vasakasaija. In 'Kanha kab khar' the nayika is
Virahotkanditha. The sakhi implores Krishna to visit the nayika immediately.
,.f
� The Khandita nayika is picturised in 'Aye Giridhar' and 'Aj uninde'. But in
lt'i"

:ti 'Ali maim to', 'Aj aye Syam' , 'Bansi bale', 'Ana milo', 'Chaliye kunjana
r.�-

mo ', 'Gori mat baro' etc. the nayika is in a jovial mood. In 'Bhai lo piya' the
nayaka is Lord Padmanabha. Thus Swathi Tirunal expressed his Prema Bhakthi
or delicate feelings towards God through his Padams, Padavarnas and
Hindustani compositions.
''The sringara element in these Padams is thus of a supersensuous
nature, divinely conceived, the Nayika being the devotee and the Nayaka, God
Himself and the other damsel referred to being His own consort Lekshmi. In
this way these compositions of the Royal saint form worthy additions to the
literature that contributed to the raganuga form of bhakti" (Venkita
Subrahmanya Iyer, 1975)44 • The Padams of Swathi Tirunal can be termed as
classics because they depict Guarava sringara or diginified love.
Dr. Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer opines that though the Padams of Swathi
Tirunal were composed for dance, they have substantial musical, literary and
philosophical value. They are also endowed with the four aspects, literary,
devotional, musical and mystical, similar to Jayadeva's Gita Govindam. He
adds that these Padams of Swathi combines the excellences of Jayadeva,
Narayana Tirtha and Kshetrajna. For examining these aspects and values, the
next chapter attempts an analytical study of some selected Padams.

44
Venkita Subrahmanya Iyer, S (1975), "Swathi Tirunal and His Music", pp.134, CBH, Trivandrum