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Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017 www.materialstoday.com/proceedings

ICCMMEMS_2018

Experimental Study of Tribological Behavior of Casted Aluminium-

Bronze
Vipin K. Sharmaa,b, R. C. Singha*, Rajiv Chaudharya
a
Delhi Technological University, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042, India
b
Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Rohini, Delhi-110086, India

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effects of sliding speed and normal pressure on the wear and friction behavior of the casted
Aluminium bronze (Al-bronze) and mild steel. The experiments were performed at five different sliding speeds (3.01, 3.95, 4.52,
4.62, 4.72 m/s) and normal pressure (31, 62, 93, 124 and 156 kPa) values using a pin on disc tribometer. An L25 orthogonal array
as per the Taguchi technique was used to analyze the specific wear rate (SWR) and coefficient of friction (COF). The wear
mechanism was assessed using SEM study of the worn surface of the Al-bronze. It is concluded that sliding speed has the major
influence on the specific wear rate and coefficient of friction at the interface of Al-bronze and mild steel. For the selected sliding
speeds and normal pressure values, the Al-bronze material yields in less SWR at (3.95 m/s, 62 kPa) and minimum COF is
obtained at values of (4.62 m/s, 124 kPa).
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and Peer-review under responsibility of International Conference on Composite Materials: Manufacturing,
Experimental Techniques, Modeling and Simulation (ICCMMEMS-2018).

Keywords: bronze; pin on disc; sliding speed; specific wear rate; coefficient of friction; lubrication; Taguchi Technique

Introduction

Aluminium bronze (Al-bronze) is an alloy of copper which consist up to 12 % of Al. Ni, Mn, and Si are also present
as the secondary alloying elements. High wear resistance, strength, corrosion resistance are some properties which


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* Corresponding author. Tel.:+91-9868094031
E-mail address: rcsingh68@hotmail.com

2214-7853 © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and Peer-review under responsibility of International Conference on Composite Materials: Manufacturing, Experimental Techniques,
Modeling and Simulation (ICCMMEMS-2018).
 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017 28009

make the Al-bronze use in many mechanical applications [1]. The addition of Nickel (Ni) greatly increases the wear
resistance of the Al bronze. The formation of an intrinsic thin aluminium oxide film helps in protecting the Al
bronze material from any wear and corrosive effects. There are various types of Al bronze materials, the materials
having less than 8% Al are called as single-phase alpha alloys and the other one which contains aluminium in the
range of 8-11 % are called as duplex alloys. Al-bronzes are generally used as bearing materials where any other
materials would fail rapidly. As the Al bronze is used for heavy working equipment’s, so it is important to know the
wear behavior of the Al-bronze material as well. The wear studies of bronze alloys have been reported extensively
in the past. Wert et al. [2], studied a series of copper-aluminium alloys for different mechanical properties. The wear
is found to be linearly related to the compressive stress induced during the wear process.
Aluminium bronze has been developed by Yuanyuan et al.[3], by optimizing the microstructure, introducing special
elements and controlling the parameters of the casting process. Equey et al. [4], studied bronze materials for
different surface roughness values and alloy microstructures. Gao and Cheng [5], fabricated an aluminium bronze
material using hot rolling. Equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) was subjected to elevated temperatures. The
effects of ECAE were evaluated by Authors for microstructure and tribological properties. It is reported that ECAE
improves the wear resistance of the alloy.
To predict the wear behavior of materials pin on disc machine has been used by many researchers [6,7,8]. In pin on
disc machine, a pin of the specific material is made to slide on a harder material disc and friction force and wear is
measure with the help of wear and friction sensors.
Furthermore, there is a number of different optimizing techniques which are adopted by researchers for the
optimization of wear and friction properties of materials. Genetic algorithm (GA), Artificial neuro network [9],
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system [10], Taguchi method, Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [11,12], are
some of the optimizing techniques which are used to optimize the different process parameters. out of these
optimizing techniques, Taguchi technique has been used by researchers as it helps in reducing the number of
experiments and thus the total cost and time involved in the experimental runs also reduces. In Taguchi method, an
orthogonal array is planned and experiments are performed based on that orthogonal plan.
Recently, Hebbale and Srinath [13], used the Taguchi techniques to find out the optimum wear behavior for cobalt-
based claddings. Taguchi techniques have also been used to optimize the surface roughness and tool wear during the
turning operation [14], and milling operations [15]. The usage of Taguchi technique is not only limited to optimize
the metals only, the surface coatings and composite material wear analysis were also done by researchers. Pattanaik
et al. [16], explains the usage of Taguchi technique in optimizing the wear parameters of coatings and composites
respectively. From conventional machining (turning, milling) to non-conventional machining (WEDM), from metal
(ferrous) to composites and coatings, Taguchi technique has been successfully utilized by researchers to optimize
the wear behavior.

In the present work, an aluminium bronze alloy is fabricated using casting route and its specific wear rate and
friction coefficient are evaluated using the Taguchi methodology.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials

The Al bronze material was fabricated by mixing the different alloying elements through the casting route. The
conventional stir casting method was used for this purpose. A specially designed stirrer was used for the continuous
mixing of the different elements. Fig. 1 represents the optical micrograph of the Al bronze material. The surface of
the material was cleaned by using different grades of the abrasive paper and later by alumina powder for obtaining
the micrographs. The image was obtained at 20X magnification. In the matrix of the Al bronze material, two phases
are detected one as α -phase (light color) and other as β phase (dark color). For the evaluation of wear properties of
the Al bronze, the material is made to slide on a mild steel counter disc. The chemical composition of the fabricated
Al-bronze and mild steel disc are given in Table 1.
28010 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017

Figure 1: optical micrograph image of Al bronze material

Table 1: Chemical composition of mild steel and Al bronze used for experimentation

Element Cu Sn Si Al Cd Cr Mg Mn Ni
Al-Bronze 81.2 0.0478 0.150 9.0 0.0028 0.0053 0.0012 0.3340 4.0

Element Fe C Mn Si S P
Mild Steel 94 0.69 0.78 1.95 0.098 0.095

2.2 Taguchi’s Design of Experiment Method

The Taguchi method works on an orthogonal array approach, which reduces the variance in the experiments and
provides the optimum setting of the process parameters (control parameters). In the present work, Taguchi method is
used to develop the orthogonal array for the arrangement of process parameters. Specific wear rate and friction
coefficient values are predicted for the optimum levels of speed and normal pressure. An L25 orthogonal array was
selected for five different levels of speed and normal pressure (See Table 2). The speed (A) and normal pressure (B)
are considered as process parameters and friction coefficient (COF) and specific wear rate (SWR) are the two output
parameters. The concepts of statistics and engineering techniques are used in Taguchi method for the optimization.
Three different conditions namely, “Larger is better”, “Nominal is better” and “Smaller is better” condition is used
in the optimization process of Taguchi method. For the analysis of data and optimum results, a Signal to Noise (S/N)
is calculated and utilized.
The term ‘signal’ in the Taguchi Method represents the desirable value (mean) for the output characteristic and the
term ‘noise’ represent the undesirable value (standard deviation) for the output characteristic. Therefore, the S/N
ratio is mean to the standard deviation. There are three Signal-to-Noise ratios of common interest for optimization of
static problems.

1. Smaller-the-better :

n  10 log10 [ Mean of sum of squares of {measured  ideal}] (1)

2. Larger-the-better :

n  10 log10 [ Mean of sum of squares of reciprocal of measured data ] (2)

3. Nominal-the-best :

n  10 log 10 ( Square of mean / Variance )

(3)
 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017 28011

The selection of the required S/N ratio for the optimization depends on the nature of the output parameters. In this
analysis of wear and coefficient of friction, both the parameters should be as small as possible, so smaller is better
(Equation 1) was used for the analysis

2.3 Experimental Method

The wear and friction between the two surfaces are caused by the microscopic interactions between the materials
that slide in between. The amount of wear and friction depends on the geometrical characteristics of the material as
well as loading, lubricating and atmospheric conditions. Therefore, friction and wear measurement are not only
linked with geometrical and topological properties, it requires measurement of the complete tribological system. In
the present work, a pin on disc setup (ASTM-G99) is used for obtaining the tribological system for the measurement
of wear properties. Friction sensors along with LVDT system are used on the pin on disc setup for the measurement
of friction force (See Fig. 2). The wear loss in the form of weight loss was measured by using a weighing balance
which has an accuracy of 0.0001 g. The collected data of the wear was then converted to volume loss V  and
specific wear rate W swr  using the following relations, (Equation (4) and (5)):

V 
w1  w2  1000
(4)

Where,  = density of the pin specimen, w1 =Weight of the pin before test, w 2 = Weight of the pin after test
V
Wswr  (5)
Fnl  S sd
Where, Fnl = Normal load (N), S sd = Sliding distance

All the experiments were performed using the ASTM-G99 standards. For the pin on disc experiments, a pin of Al
bronze material (30 mm length, 10 mm diameter) was made to slide on a mild steel disc (165 mm diameter, 10 mm
thick). In pin on disc experiments, the disc rotates with some speed and pin remains static and makes a contact with
the rotating disc. The pressure on the pin is applied with the help of dead weight and bell crank lever assembly. The
applied load acts normally to the pin. As the machine is switched on, the disc starts rotating and sliding between the
pin and disc takes place. This sliding result in friction force and friction sensor senses this force and records it,
which is later converted to friction coefficient.

Figure 2: Pin on disc tribometer for the testing and measurement of wear and friction force

The friction and wear tests were conducted by considering five levels of sliding speeds and normal pressure values.
Table 2 represents the different levels of the experimentation with measured values of specific wear rate and
coefficient of friction. The arrangement of all input levels was obtained using the Taguchi Methodology.
28012 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017

The surface roughness of the specimens also plays an important role in wear measurement [17,18]. For this, the
surfaces of the disc and pin are made smooth by using grinding and lapping processes. The surface values were
close to 0.2 μm (Ra value) for both the specimens. Before starting of every experimental run, the flat surfaces of pin
and disc are cleaned properly using acetone to ensure the reproducible surfaces at the starting of each experimental
run.
The mild steel disc is first inserted into the testing chamber and lubricating oil is spread on its surface by using a
precision pipette. The lubricant oil was continuously supplied to develop the fully flooded lubricating conditions.
The Al bronze pin was then inserted into a pin holder and tightened well with the holder with the help of screw and
bolts. Multigrade SAE 15W-40 lubricating oil (lubricant viscosity 104.6 cst at 40°C) was used for all the
experiments. The tribometer was enclosed completely to maintain the same humidity conditions for all the
experimental runs. Apart from pressure and speed, the sliding distance also influences the amount of wear from the
pin. So, to record the measurable wear the sliding was done for 4000 m run for all the experimental runs. Each
experimental run was repeated three times by using new flat surfaces of the disc and pin to achieve the greater
accuracy of results. Equation 1 was used to calculate the values of SWR. All the experiments were performed at a
temperature of 28°C with 50-60 % humidity.

Table 2: L25 orthogonal array arrangement of input parameters and results

S.no. Sliding Pressure Specific Coefficient

Speed (kPa) Wear Rate of Friction
(m/s) (mm3/N.m)
1 3.01 31 0.1423 0.0449
2 3.01 62 0.4448 0.0592
3 3.01 93 0.1186 0.0724
4 3.01 124 0.5338 0.1143
5 3.01 156 0.3559 0.0367
6 3.95 31 0.1435 0.0235
7 3.95 62 0.151 0.0254
8 3.95 93 0.2372 0.0311
9 3.95 124 0.1779 0.003
10 3.95 156 0.01 0.0189
11 4.52 31 0.1423 0.0265
12 4.52 62 0.089 0.0361
13 4.52 93 0.1186 0.0332
14 4.52 124 0.1186 0.0074
15 4.52 156 0.3912 0.0045
16 4.62 31 0.1223 0.01302
17 4.62 62 0.1779 0.0173
18 4.62 93 0.1186 0.0125
19 4.62 124 0.3559 0.0011
20 4.62 156 0.3759 0.0192
21 4.72 31 0.1123 0.0062
22 4.72 62 0.089 0.0167
23 4.72 93 0.11 0.0098
24 4.72 124 0.1779 0.0157
25 4.72 156 0.298 0.0129
 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017 28013

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Analysis of Wear and Friction

The worn workpiece surfaces were analyzed for SEM and EDS analysis. The SEM was performed on the worn
surface at a voltage of 15eV. Fig. 3 (a) shows the SEM images at 5000X magnification. Layers of carbon are visible
on the surface of the Al-bronze material, also some amount of sticking of material from the disc is also present on
the surface. The wear lines are sharp in nature which may indicate the abrasive wear nature of the Al-bronze
material. There is no bulk plowing of material from the surface. Fig. 3(b) represents the EDS elemental analysis of
the worn Al-bronze workpiece. The presence of iron particles which is shown in SEM image is validated in the EDS
analysis.

Figure 3: (a) Scanning electron microscopic image of the worn Al bronze at 5000X. (b) EDS analysis image of the worn Al-bronze

The data obtained from the pin on disc testing was arranged and several graphs were drawn to represent the
variation of SWR and COF. Fig. 4, gives the impression of variation of COF with sliding distance. The graph in Fig.
4 was drawn at 3.01 m/s sliding speed and 156 kPa normal pressure values. The COF started to increase for initial
testing and attain a maximum value of 0.0630, later decreases and attains an average value of 0.0367. During the
initial rubbing of the pin surface the asperities get worn out which leads to higher values of COF and as the
asperities get removed from the pin and disc surfaces, the values of COF decreases and attains a constant level.
Similar kind of trend was observed for all the 25 experimental runs and the overall variation of COF with changing
input parameters are represented in Fig. 5.

Figure 4: Variation of COF between A-bronze pin and steel disc

28014 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017

Figure 5: Variation in coefficient of friction with normal pressure values at (a) 3.01 m/s (b) 3.95 m/s (c) 4.52 m/s (d) 4.62 m/s (e) 4.72 m/s

The variation of COF with sliding speed and normal pressure are presented together. The first set of histogram bars
are for 3.01 m/s sliding velocity and variable normal pressures. It is seen that, for the first set of values, the
coefficient of friction first increases with the increase in normal pressure and at higher values, it starts decreasing.
Generation of high temperature at the interface of Al bronze pin and steel disc might soften the material and reduces
the friction coefficient. Similar trends were obtained for other sets with slight fluctuations.

Fig. 6, represents the variation of SWR for sliding speed and normal pressure values for all experimental runs. It is
seen, that with the increase in normal pressure, the SWR increase with some fluctuation. At higher pressure, more
load would be transferred to the interface of pin and disc, which would result in an increase in wear.

Figure 6: Variation in specific wear rate with normal pressure values at (a) 3.01 m/s (b) 3.95 m/s (c) 4.52 m/s (d) 4.62 m/s (e) 4.72 m/s
 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017 28015

In Fig. 6, the first set of the histogram is for a sliding speed of 3.01m/s with increasing pressure on the pin.
Similarly, other histograms represent the SWR values at different sliding speeds.

3.2 Taguchi Analysis: COF (Al-bronze) and SWR (Al-bronze) versus Sliding Speed, Pressure
In general, the specific wear rate and coefficient of friction between the tribopairs depend on the applied pressure
and the sliding speed of mating parts. In this work, Taguchi methodology has been utilized to find the importance of
each parameter and it also provides the optimum set of parameters which results in lower specific wear rate and
lower coefficient of friction as well. In Taguchi method, the S/N ratio values are analyzed, while analyzing the
process parameters the values of S/N ratios are plotted for each parameter and effecting process parameter value is
predicted by visually selected the parameter. The values of SWR and COF between the tribopairs were observed and
recorded for all the 25 set of parameters using the Taguchi methodology. The recorded results were analyzed using
the MINITAB 2015 for obtaining the S/N ratio values. S/N ratio value is used to optimize the process parameters.
As to get the minimum wear from the material, the wear rate and coefficient of friction between the tribopairs shall
be low, so for optimizing the parameters “smaller is better” technique was used. Fig. 7(a) represents the variation of
COF for different values of pressure and sliding speed. The best values of the process parameters are selected by
considering the highest value of the S/N ratio. Table 3 represents the S/N ratio values for COF and SWR.
Table 3: Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios of COF and SWR considering Smaller is better technique

Level Sliding Pressure(SWR) Sliding Pressure(SWR)

Velocity(COF) Velocity(SWR)
1 24.37 33.81 11.38 16.68
2 36.13 31.44 23.95 20.81
3 35.86 32.15 16.63 17.44
4 40.03 41.30 13.85 12.59
5 38.73 36.42 16.94 15.23
15.66 9.86 12.57 8.22
Rank 1 (For COF) 2 (For COF) 1(For SWR) 2 (For SWR)

It is clear from Fig. 7(a) that the A4B4 (4.62 m/s, 124kPa) combination of sliding speed and pressure would give the
minimum COF. Various values of the S/N ratio for COF are given in Table 3. For maintaining the lower values of
COF, normal pressure (Rank =1, from Table 5) is the dominating factor as compared with the sliding speed.
Fig. 7(b) represents the variation of S/N ratio values of SWR for different values of pressure and sliding speed. The
best values of the process parameters are selected by considering the highest value of the S/N ratio. It is clear from
Fig. 7 (b) that the A2B2 (3.95 m/s, 62 kPa) combination of sliding speed and pressure would give the minimum
SWR. Various values of the S/N ratio for SWR are given in Table 3. For maintaining the lower values of SWR,
normal pressure is the dominating factor as compared with the sliding speed.
On the selected values of sliding speed A2 (3.95 m/s) and normal pressure B2 (62 kPa), Taguchi technique predicted
the optimum S/N ration values as 40 dB, which corresponds to 0.0100 mm3/N.m SWR.
Similarly on A4 (4.62 m/s) sliding speed and B4 (124 kPa) normal pressure values the predicted S/N ratio for COF is
58.6103 dB, which give COF as 0.00117 between the tribopairs. Table 8 represents the Predicted values for SWR
and COF at optimum parameters as per Taguchi methodology.
To check the correctness of the predictive values, experiments were performed on the selected optimum parameters
of sliding speed and pressure. A4B4 (4.62 m/s, 124 kPa) for COF and A2B2 (3.95 m/s, 62 kPa) for SWR were used to
for experimentation. Table 4 represents the predictive values and experimental results at the optimum parameters for
SWR and COF. The overall percentage error in the value of experimental results and predicted results is about 9.3%
for SWR and 7.2% for COF (Table 4).
Table 4: Predictive and experimental results at optimum levels

SWR COF
Optimum Level A2B2 (3.95 m/s, 62 kPa) A4B4 (4.62 m/s, 124 kPa)
Predicted result S/N values = 40.00db S/N value = 58.6103 db
SWR Value = 0.0100 mm3/N.m COF Value = 0.0011
Experimental result 0.0118 mm3/N.m 0.0012
Percentage Error (%) 9.3 7.2
28016 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017

Figure 7 (a,b): Variation of output parameters with sliding speed and pressure (a) Variation of COF (b) Variation of SWR

3.3 ANOVA

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to find out the significance of process parameters (sliding speed and
normal pressure) on SWR and COF. Table 5-6 shows the data values obtained from MINITAB software for the
ANOVA. The p-value was used to test the significance of each factor. The last column of Table 5-6, represents the
percentage contribution which specifies the influence levels of the main control factors on the COF and SWR of the
Al-bronze material. It is observed that sliding speed (Largest SS) is the main contributing factor which influences
the SWR and COF of the material. For COF the percentage contribution of sliding speed is 64.62 % and 54.01 % for
SWR. The percentage contribution of pressure for COF is 35.38 % and for SWR, it is 45.99 %. These values clearly
indicate that sliding speed is the main factor which should be controlled by minimizing the SWR and COF. The F-
value in Table 5-6, indicates the comparative power of a process parameter to reduce the variations. For controlling
the variations in the values of COF sliding speed (F-value = 0.49) is prime factor as compared to pressure (F-value =
0.85). Similarly for SWR also sliding speed (F-value = 1.78) is prime factor as compared to the normal pressure (F-
value = 1.62). The confidence of significance for all the analysis was selected as 5 %.

Table 5: ANOVA for COF versus Sliding velocity and pressure

Source Degrees of Sum of Mean Square (MS) F ratio P test % Contribution

Freedom Squares(SS)
Sliding Speed 4 0.0097359 0.0024340 8.20 0.0001 64.62
Pressure 4 0.0005794 0.0001449 0.49 0.745 35.38

Table 6: ANOVA for SWR versus Sliding velocity and pressure

Source Degrees of Sum of Squares Mean Square (MS) F ratio P test % Contribution
Freedom (SS)
Sliding Speed 4 0.108885 0.0272212 1.78 0.183 54.01
Pressure 4 0.099532 0.0248831 1.62 0.217 45.99
 Vipin K. Sharma et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 28008–28017 28017

4. Conclusion
The aim of the present investigation was to analyze the wear and friction behavior of Al-bronze material. Pin on disc
experiments were performed between casted Al-bronze and mild steel. The sliding speed of the disc and pressure on
the pin, were the two input parameters which were varied to find out the specific wear rate of Al-bonze and
coefficient of friction between the tribopair. Following conclusions could be drawn from the experimental and
statistical results.
 An Al-bronze material (9% Al, 4% Ni) was successfully fabricated using the stir casting technique.
 The L25 orthogonal array was developed for the analysis of specific wear rate and coefficient of friction
between the Al bronze and mild steel.
 Minimum specific wear rate of the Al-bronze material was obtained at (3.95 m/s, 62 kPa) values of sliding
speed and pressure. The casted Al-bronze material should be operated at the mentioned values of the
sliding speed and pressure to obtain the minimum wear and hence less contaminated lubricating oil.
 The minimum value of the coefficient of friction between Al-bronze and mild steel is obtained at (4.62 m/s,
124 kPa) values of sliding speed and pressure.

 The ANOVA analysis predicted the sliding speed as the main parameter to control the specific wear rate
and coefficient of friction of Al-bronze material. The sliding speed has the maximum contribution in the
evaluation of output parameters.

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