Chapter 1

Hinduism

Unit 1

Introduction to Philosophy and its Perspective

The word Philosophy us derived from greek word Philo which means "to like" or "to
love" or "to befriend" and Sophia which means "knowledge" or "wisdom”. Philosophy is
the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected
with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is
distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally
systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word "philosophy"
comes from the Ancient Greek (philosophia), which literally means "love of wisdom".

Philosophy is a process of asking questions in order to acquire knowledge about the

unknown. It is the study of finding out about the realities of life. Philosophy signifies a
natural and a necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in
which they live.

Origin of Philosophy

1. Eastern philosophy

2. Western philosophy

• Eastern philosophy – Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy

• Western philosophy – Christian philosophy, Judaism philosophy, Islam

philosophy

• Indian philosophy that originated in the Indian sub-continent

• Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy and Jain philosophy

Origin of Hindu philosophy may be traced in the Vedas. The Hindu philosophical
tradition dates back to the composition of the Upaniṣads in the later Vedic period
(C.E.1000-500 B.C.). It is regarded as the earliest philosophical composition of the
world. The philosophical development in Greece cannot be traced earlier than the
sixth century B.C.

The first Greece philosopher was taken as Thales who had predicted the correct
time of an eclipse in the year 584 B.C. After Thales, two philosophers named
 Pythagoras and Socrates appeared in the history of Greece. Pythagoras lived
about 532 B.C. and death of Socrates was mentioned in 399 B.C.

Theology

Theology is derived from Greek word Theos means "God" and Logos means "word",
"discourse" or "reasoning”. Therefore, Theology is "discourse about God“. It is the
systematic and rational study of concepts of God. Theologians are not philosophers.
They make philosophical technique for elucidating and interpreting their specific
religious beliefs and practices.

Theology begins with the assumption that the divine exists in some form, such as in
physical, supernatural, mental or social realities. Theology aims to structure and
understand these concept. Theologians use various form of analysis and argument
to help understand, explain, defend any religious topics and help to understand
deeply their own religion or it may enable them to explore the nature of divinity
without reference to any specific tradition.

Theology as an academic discipline

• Taxila was an early centre of Vedic learning - 6 th century B.C.

• Platonic Academy founded in Athens - 4th century B.C.

• Chinese Taixue delivered Confucian teaching - 2nd century B.C.

• School of Nisibis was a centre of Christian learning - 4th century A.D.

• Nalanda University in India was a site of Buddhist higher learning - 5 th century

A.D.

• Moroccan University of Al-karaouine was a centre of Islamic learning - 10th

century A.D.

Darśan Śastra

• “Philosophy" is a western tradition but Darsan sastra is derived from sanskrit

word darśana in the east. The word darśana comes from the root word dṛiś.
"dṛiśyāte anena" which means "that through which you can see“. It is also said as
"auspicious sight". It is most commonly used for visions of the divine or a holy
person or relics. Darśan of the deity in the temple or spiritual person (Guru).
Darśan develops affection for God and the Guru

Philosophy vs Religion.
 • Inter-related which deal with the universe and to understand man's place,
function and destiny in it.

Differences between the religion and philosophy

• Religion is matter of feeling and practical experience whereas philosophy is

matter of rational reflection.

• Religion is matter of simple faith and enjoyment whereas philosophy is matter of

critical scrutiny.

• Religious doctrine is often vague but philosophy is clear, rational and systematic.

• Religion is practical realization of spiritual truth but philosophy is the theory of the
reality.

• Religion leads to liberation whereas philosophy is the vision of reality as a whole.

Difference between Philosophy and Darśana

1. Philosophy is love for knowledge (Acquiring knowledge for the knowledge sake)

Darśan is knowledge for love (Acquiring knowledge for developing love for God)

2. Philosophy is craving to know the reality.

Darśan is craving to make ourselves known to the reality.

3. Philosophy is knowledge ending in ignorance.

Darśan is from ignorance to knowledge.

Theistic and Atheistic Philosophy

Āstika and Nāstika differentiation.

• Belief in Veda or not.

• Belief in God and soul not.

• Belief in other realm and rebirth or not.

• Indian Philosophies are classified into two groups depending on whether or not
they regarded the Vedas as an infallible source of knowledge.

• 1. Orthodox or Theistic (Āstika) philosophy

• 2. Non-orthodox or Heterodox or Atheistic (Nāstika) philosophy

Six theistic philosophies (Ṣad-darśan)

1. Vaiśeṣika

2. Nyāya

3. Sānkhya

4. Yogā

5. Purva mimāmsā

6. Uttara mimāmsā

Six atheistic philosophies

1. Vaibhaṣika

2. Sautrāntika

3. Yogācara

4. Mādhyāmika

5. Jainism

6. Cārvak

Religion

Religion is derived from the Latin word religio which means “respect for what is sacred,
reverence for the gods”. The religion in Sanskrit is translated as dharma which means
law. Religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural system and world views that
relate humanity to an order of existence. Religions have narrative, symbols and sacred
history that aims to explain the meaning of life, the origin of life or the universe. Practice
of religion include rituals, art, music, dance, festivals etc. The concept of religion are

1. Polytheism

2. Pantheism

3. Henotheism

4. Monotheism
1. Polythiesm

The word Polytheism is derived from two words Poly and Theos. Poly means "many"
and theos means "God". It refers to the worship of or belief in multiple gods and
goddesses.. The philosophy of non-dualism (Advaita) - manifestations of one
impersonal divine power, Brahman or a single Supreme Being. It is believed that there
is only one god which is worshiped in different forms. The Brahma - creator, Viṣṇu –
sustainer and Śiva – destroyer. The God assumes to perform different tasks. God takes
birth in this earth time to time (Avatār). 33 crore gods and goddesses are worshipped in
Hindu pantheon. In Buddhism, higher beings are designated as gods (Devas). It does
not teach the notion of praying or worship to any gods. Devas are beings who have had
more positive actions (Karma) in their past lives than humans. They will be reborn as
Devas or as other beings. The negative karma - reborn as either human or any of the
other lower beings. The humans and other beings could also be reborn as a Deva -
positive karma. Buddha rejected a permanent or fixed deity which gives the concept of
impermanence (Anitya).

2. Pantheism

The word Pantheism is derived from two words i.e Pan and theos where Pan means
"all" and theos means "God“. Therefore, Pantheism means 'All is God‘. God is
everything and everyone and that everyone and everything is God. Pantheism is similar
to polytheism, but goes beyond polytheism. So in this concept, a tree is God, a rock is
God, an animal is God, the sky is God, the sun is God, we are God etc. The doctrine
of non-injury (Ahimsā) is the logical conclusion of pantheism. Everything is divine;
everything is sacred and nothing should be harmed. 

3. Henotheism

The word Henotheism is derived from two words i.e heno and theos where Heno means
"one" and theos means "God“. Henotheism means belief in or worship in only one God
while accepting the existence of other deities. Vedic Āryans regarded any God they
were praising as the most supreme and the only God. Hinduism is a henotheism in
practice. Hindus generally worship one God, yet they acknowledge that there are
countless other Gods that can be worshipped as well. In Vedas, there is a transition
from polytheism to henotheism and from henotheism to monotheism. In pre-Vedic
times, Varuṇa was the supreme lord of the cosmos. In the Vedas, he is supplanted by
Indra, as king of the gods. Hinduism changed and the powers of Indra were usurped by
other deities, such as Viṣṇu and Śiva.
4. Monotheism

Monotheism is derived from monos meaning "only" or "single" and theos meaning
"God“. Monotheism is belief in a singular God in contrast to polytheism and atheism.
This concept of religion belief in one supreme God, the creator, the Lord of world , the
eternal spirit, the rewarder of good, the punisher of evil, the source of our happiness
and perfection, unlimited power (omnipotence), unlimited knowledge (omniscience) ,
unlimited extension (omnipresence), unlimited goodness (omnibenevolence).
Monotheists deny the existence of the gods of any other religious faiths. Vaisnavism -
worship of Viṣṇu/Kṛṣṇa, Shaivism - worship of Śiva, Shaktism - worship of Śakti or Devi.
Each regards their respective deity as the Supreme Being.

Difference between Eastern Philosophy and Western Philosophy

Western philosophy has remained more or less true to the etymological meaning of
philosophy, in being essentially an intellectual quest for truth. Eastern philosophy has
been, however, intensely spiritual and has always emphasized the need of practical
realization of truth.

"See the Self" is the keynote of all schools of Eastern Philosophy. And this is the reason
why most of Eastern Philosophies are also religious sects. Annihilation of three kinds of
pains – Ādhyātmika (physical and mental sufferings produced by natural and intra-
organic causes), Ādhibhautika (physical and mental sufferings produced by natural and
extra-organic causes) and Ādhidaivika (physical and mental sufferings produced by
super natural and extra-organic causes) – and realization of supreme happiness is the
end, and Śravaṇa (hearing the truth), Manana (intellectual conviction after critical
analysis) and Nididhyāsana (practical realization) are the means – in almost all the
schools of Hindu philosophy. (A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Chandradhar
Sharma, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Thirteenth Reprint, 2013, p. 13)

East is east and west is west, and never the two shall meet. This is a phrase by
Rudyard Kipling and is often expressed to distinguish western from everything eastern.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west, and this one fact is enough to tell that the
way of life is different in the east from what it is in the west.

The difference between the eastern philosophy (Oriental philosophy) and western
philosophy (Occidental philosophy) are as follows:

1. Eastern philosophy is based on spiritualism while western philosophy is

materialism, logical and scientific.
 2. Mokṣa or Nirvāṇa is the end of life and it is the goal of life in eastern philosophy,
western philosophy is a tradition of thinking and writing about particular issues in
special ways.
3. Eastern philosophy is inner dependent while western philosophy is outer
dependent.
4. Eastern philosophy is integrated with religion while western philosophy is
opposite and independent of religion.

Instead of monotheism the East has polytheism in its more base form and monism or
pantheism in its more sophisticated forms. Much of western thought stresses the
individual and personality whereas the East deprecates (denounces) the individual and
personality with the aim of merging or achieving union with the world soul. The western
traditional philosophy has been based upon rationality whereas the East has a strong
emphasis on intuition. Western religion is related to revelation whereas eastern religion
stresses contemplation. In western thought God is sought outside of man-out there-
whereas in the East God is sought within-inside man. In the West this has been called
the transcendence of God, and the view of the East is called immanence of God. In the
west nature is to be subdued whereas the eastern emphasis on nature is a part of God.
 Unit 2

Brāhmaṇa (Vedic) and Śramaṇa Tradition

Vedic Tradition

Hindu Dharma or Hinduism is often referred by its practitioners as Sanātana Dharma

or Vedic Dharma or Vedic Tradition. It is the spiritual, philosophical, civilization,
scientific, cultural system that originated in the Indian sub-continent (Bhāratavarṣa)
based on Vedic scriptures. It is the oldest of all living religious traditions still practiced
today. It is revealed by God after the creation of the universe and it contains all
knowledge, both material (Apara-vidyā) and transcendental (Para-vidyā). The correct
understanding of Śāstra is possible only with the help of a Guru from genuine spiritual
lineage or succession (Paramparā). The three main branches Vedic Tradition are
Vaiṣṇava (worship of Viṣṇu), Śaiva (worship of Śiva) and Śakta (worship of Śakti,
Durgā).

Śramaṇa Tradition

Śramaṇa means "seeker". The Śramaṇa Tradition means – groups of people who

rejected Vedic tradition and who left their home, wandered off into wilderness searching
for answers to different kinds of questions. Such individuals characterized by giving up
social world and embrace of a lifestyle of homeless wandering and focusing on larger
spiritual understanding. The śramaṇa traditions are Lokāyata (Cārvāka), Jainism
and Buddhism.

The word śramaṇa is postulated to be derived from the verbal root Śram, meaning "to
exert effort, labour or to perform austerity". The Śramaṇas are also called as
Parivrājaka, meaning a homeless wanderer with no fixed abode and they lived by
begging. 

They rejected the Vedas and the authority of the Brahmin priests who claimed to be in
possession of revealed truths. They ridiculed the complicated rituals and declared that
the Brahmins were merely enriching themselves by charging exorbitant fees for rites
performances. They rejected the values of ordinary society; with the exception that they
agreed that happiness was the aim of life. They lived as far as possible outside ordinary
society, seeking truth and happiness. Real happiness consisted in peace of mind. They
felt that seeking happiness through wealth and power would not work and would lead to
more unhappiness. Śramaṇas sought pupils who would leave society and follow them in
their wanderings. Some of them established regular communities outside ordinary
society, outside the jurisdiction of the governments but having their own codes of
discipline. An example is the Jain community under the leadership of Nigantha
Nāthaputta. These communities of monks and nuns were the first groups of wanderers
in the forests. Later, they developed organized settlements, at the outskirts of towns and
supported by sympathetic laymen and even governments. Śramaṇas were the ancient
religious teachers distinct from Brahmins by their doctrine of salvation through ascetism.
They refused to accept the authority of the Vedas, rejected caste and sacrifices, taught
a doctrine of salvation by atheism and ascetism. There were six prominent Śramaṇa
teachers: Nigantha Nāthaputta, Ajita Keśakambala, Sanjaya Belatthaputta, Makkhali
Gośāla, Puraṇa Kāsyapa and Pakudha Kāccayana.
The prince Siddhartha Gautama also followed the śramaṇa tradition. He left the royal
palace and practised austerities. Siddhartha Gautama, after fasting nearly to death by
starvation, regarded extreme austerities and self-mortification as useless in attaining
enlightenment, recommending instead a "middle way" between the extremes of
hedonism and self-mortification and became Buddha. Buddhism was more a reform
movement within the educated religious classes.
Ājīvika is thought to be contemporaneous to other early Indian Nāstika philosophical
schools of thought, such as Cārvāka, Jainism and Buddhism. The Ājīvikas may simply
have been a more loosely-organized group of wandering ascetics. The early nāstika
systems such as Cārvāka and Ājīvika gradually became extinct or merged into others.
Ājīvika reached the height of its popularity during the rule of
the Mauryan emperor Bindusāra (son of the first Mauryan Emperor, Chandragupta
Maurya) around the 4th century B.C.
Beliefs and concepts of Śramaṇa philosophies:

 Rejection of the Vedas as revealed texts.

 Affirmation of karma and rebirth.
 Affirmation of the attainment of Mokṣa.
 Denial of the efficacy of sacrifices and rituals for purification.
 Rejection of the caste system.

Veda
The Sanskṛt word Veda means "knowledge or wisdom" and represented an
accumulation of knowledge handed down among the priests. It is derived from the
root vid meaning "to know". Vedas also called Śrutis (what is heard) by rises - and
passed on from generation to generation until it was written down. It is different from
other religious texts, which are called Smṛti  (what is remembered). Hindus consider the
Vedas to be Apauruṣeya which means "not of a man, superhuman" and "impersonal,
authorless". The origin of the Vedas can be traced back as far as 1500 B.C., when a
large group of nomads called the Āryans, coming from central Asia, crossed
the Hindu Kush Mountains, migrating into the Indian subcontinent. This was a large
migration and used to be seen as an invasion.
Vedic Sanskṛt texts include:

1. The Samhitās are collections of texts. There are four Vedic Samhitās Ṛig Veda
(Veda of Verses) - Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise of various deities for
recitation.
2. Sāma Veda (Veda of Chants) – Knowledge of the Melodies for chanting drawn
from the Ṛig Veda.
3. Yajur Veda (Veda of Sacrificial Formulas) - Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas
for liturgical to various rites.
4. Atharva Veda - Knowledge of the Magic formulas and incantations.

Of these, the first three were the principal division, also called Trāyī vidyā, that is, "the
triple science" of reciting hymns (Ṛig Veda), performing sacrifices (Yajur Veda), and
chanting songs (Sāma Veda).

2. The Brāhmaṇas (C. 800–600 BC) are commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and

sacrifices. They are the elaboration of the complicated ritualism of the Vedas. They
deal with the rules and regulations laid down for the performance of the rites and the
sacrifices. Each of the Brāhmaṇas is associated with one of the Samhitās.
3. The Āraṇyakas -cf/0os_, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by
people who meditated in the jungle as recluses. The texts contain rituals,
ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices discussions and interpretations of
ceremonies. The appendages (attachment) to the Brāhamaṇas are called
Āraṇyakas. The Āraṇyakas mark the transition from the ritualistic to the philosophic
thought.
4. Upaniṣads  (c. 700–500 B.C.) - text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual
knowledge. The concluding portions of the Āraṇyakas are called Upaniṣads.
The Samhitās and the Brāhamaṇas are called the Karma-kāṇḍa or the portion dealing
with the sacrificial actions, and the Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads are called the Jnāna-
kāṇḍa or the portion dealing with knowledge. The Upaniṣads are also known as
Vedānta or the end of the Veda, firstly because they are the concluding portion, the end,
of the Vedas, and secondly because they are the essence, the cream, the height, of the
Vedic philosophy.
Vedic Cosmology
The Western Scholars point out different stages such as Polytheism, Monotheism
intervened by Henotheism, but the Indian tradition always believes that though many
gods are worshipped in daily life, all of them are the different manifestations of the same
God.

In Ṛig Veda the Gods are classified under three heads as follows:—
1) Celestial Gods (Dyausthāna Devatā
2) Atmospheric Gods (Antarikshasthāna Devatā)
3) Terrestrial Gods (Prithvisthāna Devatā)
Celestial Gods
1. Dyaus– It was invoked as a part of the dual God (Heaven and Earth). It covers
the earth and fertilizes her with his seed and with rain.
2. Varuṇa - He established heaven and earth and regulates the universe,
upholding cosmic order.
3. Mitra– He is the God of contracts, associated (as sun or day) with Varuṇa (as
darkness or night/evening). He appears to have been the most important of the
divinized virtues of the early Aryans.
4. Sūrya- She is the goddess of the Sun. Sūrya is the main source of light and of
warmth.
5. Sāvitṛ - She is the God of stimulation: golden and radiant.
6. Pūṣaṇ - He is the observer of the universe, transporter of the dead, guardian of
prosperity and associated with travel.
7. The (two) Aśvin– They are inseparable twin Horseman Gods, invoked to relieve
distress, connected with celestial light and representing half-light and half-dark.
8. Uṣa – She is the goddess of dawn, daughter of Sky (Dyaus) and sister of Night
(Rātrī) She pushes back the darkness and awakens all beings.
9. Rātrī - sister of Uṣa (Dawn)

Atmospheric Gods
1. Indra– He is the God of thunder and of battle. He has superhuman strength and
power parallels to Greek demi-god Herakles/Hercules. He is the Ruler of
Heaven. In the Vedas, Indra appears as the deity of the dispenser of rain who
dwells in the clouds. He is the ruler of the storm, the thrower of the thunderbolt
and also the cause of fertility.
2. Apām & Napāt – He is the son of the Waters, an Indo-Iranian God.
3. Rudra - Father of the Marut, often noisy and wrathful. He was replaced by Śiva -
in later Hinduism. He is a dark, fierce, stormy tempered God, almost the opposite
 of Uṣa. Like Indra, Rudra is associated with the storm clouds that brought the
life-giving monsoon rains.
4. Marut - He is the son of Rudra.
5. Parjanya – He is the God of Rain and the Rain-cloud. He is regarded as the
rescuer from rain.
6. Vā ta -jft_ – He is the God of the Wind, the breath of the gods. He is also called
Vā yu -jfo'_.
7. Ā pa -cfk_ – She is the Water God and usually represented as mother.

Terrestrial/Earth Gods
1. Agni – He is a God of fire. He presides over all sacraments, all the great events
of life.
2. Soma - God of the Soma plant and its juice. The juice is often called Madhu
"sweet". Soma is a drug, a medicine, producing powerful states of ecstasy and
states of wildly expanded consciousness. Some suggest the source plant was a
variety of mushroom that produces a compound similar to psilocybin.
3. Pṛthvī - Earth goddess, usually in the pairing Dyavā-Pṛthvī, a dual compound
meaning Heaven-Earth (Dyaus-Pṛthivī). The earth is the supporter of all
creatures and the nourisher of all physical life. The earth goddess is the mother
of life, the substance of all things.
4. Bṛihaspati - The modern scholars opine that Bṛihaspati and Brāhmaṇaspati are
one and the same. He also called a "Lord of Prayer".
5. Sarasvatī – She is the river goddess.

Prasthānatrayi
Prasthãn means a "Śāstra" -zf:q_ that establishes principles and "Trayi" indicates the
quantity three. Thus, Prasthānatrayi means "three sources" which refers to the three
canonical texts of Hindu philosophy. It consists of:

1. The Upaniṣads -pklgifb_ – also known as Upadeśa prasthāna  (injunctive texts)

and the Śruti prasthāna  (the starting point of revelation)
2. The Bhagavad Geetā- also known as Sādhanā prasthāna  (practical text) and
the Smriti prasthāna  (the starting point of remembered tradition)
3. The Brahma Sutras - also known as Nyāya prasthāna or Yukti prasthāna (logical
text) and Vedānta Sūtra
1. Upaniṣadas
The word Upaniṣad is derived from the root "sad" which means (i) to sit down (ii) to
destroy and (iii) to loosen. In the word Upaniṣad, "upa" means "nearby" and "ni" means
"devotedly". The word Upaniṣad therefore means sitting down of the disciple near his
teacher in a devoted manner to receive instruction about the esoteric knowledge
(highest reality) which loosens all doubts and destroys all ignorance of the disciple. The
teaching, being the highest and was imparted at private sittings only to the qualified
disciples. The philosophical meaning of the word Upaniṣad is "That by which
Brahmavidyã -a|DxljBf_ can be known and attained."
The Upaniṣads are commentary on Vedas and are said to contain the essence of
Hinduism. It is the philosophical principles of the Vedas describing the nature of God
and soul. Hindu spiritual traditions (Sanātana Dharma) -;gftg wd{_ accept that the
Upaniṣads are without beginning, eternal and not of human origin.
There are one hundred eight Upaniṣads. But, out of them ten Upaniṣads are regarded
as important and authentic on which Śaṅkarāchārya has commented. These are: – Iśã
Upaniṣad, Kena Upaniṣad, Kaṭha Upaniṣad, Praśna Upaniṣad, Muṇdaka Upaniṣad,
Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad, Taittirīya Upaniṣad, Aitareya Upaniṣad, Chhãndogya Upaniṣad,
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad. Of these ten Upanishads the Aitareya Upaniṣad is the only
one from the Ṛig Veda. The Iśã, Kathā, Taittiriya and Bruhadãraṇyaka Upaniṣads are
from the Yajur Veda. The Kena and Chhãndogya Upaniṣads are both from the Sāma
Veda. The Prāśnā, Mundaka and Mãndukya Upaniṣads are from the Atharva Veda. The
mantras of the Upaniṣads are known as "Śruti" and for this very reason the Upaniṣad
Prasthãn is also known as the Śruti-prasthãn.
The concluding portions of the Brahmaṇas and Āraṇyakas are called Upaniṣads. They
were for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally.
Historians have put the date of composition of the Upaniṣads from around 800 - 400
B.C. The Upaniṣads are also known as Vedānta or the end of the Veda, firstly because
they are the concluding portion, the end, of the Vedas, and secondly because they are
the essence, the cream, the height, of the Vedic philosophy. The concepts of Brahman
(Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (soul, self) are central ideas in all the Upaniṣadas and
"Know your Ātman" is their thematic focus.

Advaita Vedānta (Non-dualism)

Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought. It deals with
the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. Advaita is considered the most influential
sub-school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Gaudapāda was the first person
to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the
conflicting statements of the Upaniṣadas. Gaudapada's Advaita ideas were further
developed by Śaṅkara

Dvaita (Dualism)
The Dvaita School was founded by Madhavāchārya. Dvaita is regarded as the best
philosophic exposition of theism. Madhava, much like Ādi Śaṅkara claims for Advaita,
states that his theistic Dvaita Vedanta is grounded in the Upaniṣadas.

Viśṣṭādvaita -ljlzi6 å}t_

The third school of Vedanta is the Viśṣṭādvaita, which was founded by Rāmānuja
-/fdfg'h_ who refuted Śaṅkara's works. Viśṣṭādvaita is a synthetic philosophy bridging
the monistic Advaita and theistic Dvaita systems of Vedanta. Rāmānuja, just as
Madhava claims for Dvaita sub-school, states that Viśṣṭādvaita is grounded in the
Upaniṣadas.

2. Bhagvad Geetā
The Śrimad Bhagavad Geetã is a historical sacred book of the Hindus. It is a dialogue
between Lord Kṛiṣṇa and Arjuna . It is included in the Bhiṣma Parva -leid kj{_ of the
Mahābhārata. It is written by Śri Vādarāyana Vyāsa . The Mahābhārata itself is a
discourse between Sanjaya and Dhṛitarāṣtra . Within that discourse, Sanjaya speaks of
the discourse between Śri Kṛiṣṇa and Arjuna.
In accordance with this traditional principle, the work of the Geetā is to clarify and
nourish the meanings embedded in the Vedas and Upaniṣads. So it can be said that
Brahmavidyā, regarding the forms of Brahman and Parabrahman that have been
mentioned in the Upaniṣads, has been further clarified in the Geetā.
The Bhagvad Geetā literally means "The Lord's Song", i.e. the philosophical discourse
of Lord Kṛiṣṇa to persuade the reluctant Arjuna to fight. The Geetā deals with
metaphysics, religion and ethics and has been rightly called the "Gospel of humanity".
The Geetā tries to build up a philosophy of action (Karma) based on knowledge (Jnāna)
and supported by devotion (Bhakti) in a beautiful manner. Man is a complex of intellect,
will and emotion. He is a being who thinks, wills and feels. Intellect has given rise to the
philosophy of knowledge, will to the philosophy of action and emotion to the philosophy
of devote. All three must be harmoniously blended if you wish to attain perfection. The
three horses of this body-chariot - action, emotion and intellect -should work in perfect
harmony. Only then will it move smoothly and reach the destination safely and quickly.

Arjuna got mentally depressed that he has to fight with his relatives and friends and he
says to Kṛiṣṇa that he can foresee no advantage in killing relatives and he flatly refuses
to fight – "I would not like to kill these, even though I may be killed by them". (Mental
health has become a major international public health concern now). To motivate him
the Bhagvad Geetā is preached in the battle field Kurukṣetra by Lord Kṛiṣṇa to Arjuna
as counseling to do his duty. It has got all the management tactics to achieve the mental
equilibrium and to overcome any crisis situation. Kṛiṣṇa proceeded to instruct Arjuna
that it is his duty as a prince, as a warrior, as a righteous man to fight against evil and
restore peace and order. To fight against evil is the duty of man. To make the situation
poignant (distressing to the feelings, deeply moving) relatives and beloved friends and
revered elders stand on both sides and Arjuna has to vindicate (show or prove the truth,
justice validity etc) his claim, he has to follow his Svabhāva and Svadharma. It is
significant fact that though Lord Kṛiṣṇa in the beginning repeatedly asks Arjuna to fight,
in the end when the teaching has been imparted to him, the Lord simply says – "Do as
you please".

Kṛiṣṇa tried best to persuade Arjuna to do his duty. He wants to extract work from him.
So, he speaks of Arjuna’s utter helplessness. One is bound to one’s duty. Arjuna’s duty
as a Kṣatriya was to fight; and Lord Krishna wanted him to do just that. The Lord has
also said that “one’s own duty is good".

Action, devotion and knowledge ultimately stand synthesized. This synthesis is called
yoga. The literal meaning of yoga is union i.e. of the individual with the Absolute. It
means equanimity or balance of mind (Samatva). The Yogi is the ideal ascetic who
curbs (control) his passions and maintains calmness in cold and heat, in joy and sorrow,
in honour and dishonor. Yoga is described as: "Where seeing the self by the self, one is
satisfied in oneself; where one experiences the absolute bliss, known only to the higher
reason, but ever beyond the senses and standing where one swerves (turn) not from
the truth; where no other gain is considered greater and where one is not moved by the
greatest pain – that state free from misery is yoga". The yoga is the path of the
knowledge. The yogi cannot attain self realization without knowledge.

The Gītā mentions that the soul is indestructible (Avināśi), eternal (Nitya), unborn (Aja),
undiminishing (Avyaya), all-pervasive (spread through every part) (Sarva-gata),
immovable (Achala), ancient (Sanātana), unmanifest (Avyakta), unthinkable (Achintya)
and immutable (that cannot be changed) (Avikārya). Only bodies are destroyed, not the
soul. It is neither born nor does it die. It is immortal and everlasting. Just as a person
casts off worn-out garments and puts on the new ones, so does the soul cast off worn-
out bodies and enters into others that are new.

The ideal of Geetā is not negativism, asceticism or escapism. It is not negation of

actions, but performance of karma. The Geetā mentions actions are our sphere, fruits
are not our concern. We should never be attached to the fruits of actions and at the
same time we should never be inactive.

If all the Upaniṣads should represent cows, Śri Kṛiṣṇa is their milker. Arjuna is the calf
who first tasted that milk of wisdom of the Self, milked by the divine Cowherd for the
benefit of all humanity. This milk is the Bhagavad Geetā. It solves not only Arjuna’s
problems and doubts, but also the world’s problems and those of every individual. Just
as the dark unfathomed depths of the ocean contain most precious pearls, so also the
Bhagavad Geetā contains spiritual gems of incalculable value. You will have to dive
deep into its depths with a sincere attitude of reverence and faith. Only then will you be
able to collect its spiritual pearls and comprehend its infinitely profound and subtle
teachings.

Lord Kṛiṣṇa's divine characters: 1. Played miracles when He was a boy. 2. Showed that
He was the Avatāra of Lord Hari. 3. Showed His Cosmic Form to His mother when He
was only a baby. 4. Subdued subdue the serpent, Kaliya, by standing on its hood. 5.
Multiplied Himself as countless Kriṣṇas for the satisfaction of the Gopis. 5. Gopis were
the God-intoxicated beings who saw Krishna alone everywhere, even in themselves and
the sound of the flute threw them in a state of ecstasy or holy communion. They were
above body-consciousness.

Dhṛitaraṣtra and Paṇḍu were brothers. Dhṛitaraṣtra married Gāndhāri, and Paṇḍu was
married to Kunti and Mādri. King Paṇḍu was cursed for a sin while hunting, due to which
he was not permitted to unite with his wife. Kunti got a boon through her sincere service
of a wise sage in her younger age and she begot three children, namely, Yudhisthira,
Bhima and Arjuna from Yama, Vāyu and Indra respectively. Mādri had twins, Nakula
and Śahadeva, through the celestial physicians called Aśvini-Devatās. Dhṛitaraṣtra had
a hundred and one children by his wife Gāndhāri. Paṇḍu passed away and his sons, the
Paṇḍavas, were all brought up by Dhṛitaraṣtra along with his sons known as Kauravas.
The Paṇḍavas and Kauravas grew up together, but due to the braveness and
intelligence of the former, the Kauravas were unable to tolerate them. Hence the
Paṇḍavas decided to live separately, sharing half of their kingdom. The Paṇḍavas’
pomp, wealth and glory displayed during the Rajasuya Yajna aroused deep jealousy
and greed in the mind of Duryodhana, the chief of the Kauravas, who, with the cunning
advice of his uncle, Sakuni, invited Yudhisthira to a game of dice and fraudulently
(deceptively) defeated him, whereby all his wealth and possessions, including Draupadi,
were lost. Finally it was settled that the Paṇḍavas, including Draupadi, should repair to
the forest for twelve years in exile, after which they had to live incognito (in disguise) for
another year, untraced by the Kauravas. During this period the kingdom was to be ruled
by the wicked Duryodhana. Having successfully completed these thirteen years of exile,
facing many obstacles and dangers instigated by the Kauravas, the Paṇḍavas, as per
the terms of the agreement, approached the Kauravas for their share of the kingdom.
Duryodhana, however, flatly refused to part with as much land as could be covered by
the point of a needle. According to the advice of Mother Kunti and with the inspiration of
Lord Ḳriṣṇa, the Paṇḍavas decided upon war and tried to establish their rightful claim on
the kingdom by overcoming the Kauravas.

Duryodhana and Arjuṇa, from the side of the Kauravas and Paṇḍavas respectively,
were sent to Dwārakā to seek the help of the Yādava hero, Lord Kriṣṇa, in the battle.
They both found Kriṣṇa resting on a couch in His palace. Duryodhana went in and
occupied a seat at the head of the couch while Arjuṇa stood near the feet of the Lord.
The moment Śri Ḳriṣṇa opened His eyes, He naturally saw Arjuna first and then
Duryodhana sitting on a chair. After enquiry of their welfare and the purpose of their
visit, Śri Kriṣṇa, according to the prevailing custom, gave the first choice to Arjuna,
because of his age and also because of His sight of Arjuna first. Kriṣṇa asked Arjuṇa to
fulfill his desire by selecting Him unarmed or His powerful army called Nārayaṇi Senā.
Arjuna, who was a devotee of Śri Kriṣṇa, expressed his desire to have the Lord with
him, neglecting the powerful Nārayaṇi Senā, even though Kriṣṇa warned that He would
remain a witness, bound by the vow of not participating in battle and not taking up arms.
Duryodhana, with great delight, thinking that Arjuna was foolish, expressed his wish for
the powerful army to help his side in the battle. When Kriṣṇa asked Arjuna why he
chose Him when He was not for taking up arms, Arjuna said, “O Lord! You have the
power to destroy all the forces by a mere sight. Why then should I prefer that worthless
army? I have for a long time been cherishing a desire in my heart that you should act as
my charioteer. Kindly fulfill my desire in this war.”

The Lord, who is ever the most devoted lover of His devotees, accepted his request
with pleasure; and thus Kriṣṇa became the charioteer of Arjuna in the battle of the
Mahābhārata. After the return of Duryodhana and Arjuna from Dwārakā, Lord Kriṣṇa
Himself went once to Hastināpura as the emissary (envoy) of the Paṇḍavas and tried to
prevent the war. But then, under the guidance of Sakuni, the egoistic Duryodhana
refused to agree to the peace mission and tried to imprison Lord Kriṣṇa, at which Kriṣṇa
showed His Supreme Form (Viśwarupa). Even the blind Dhṛitaraṣtra saw it by the Lord’s
Grace. King Dhṛitaraṣtra, due to his attachment to his sons, failed to control them and
the Kaurava chief, Duryodhana, with vain hope, decided to meet the powerful Paṇḍavas
in war. When both sides were prepared to commence the battle, the sage Veda Vyāsa
approached blind Dhṛitaraṣtra and said, “If you wish to see this terrible carnage
(massacre) with your own eyes I can give you the gift of vision.” The Kaurava king
replied, “O Chief of the Brahmariṣis! I have no desire to see with my own eyes this
slaughter of my family, but I should like to hear all the details of the battle.” Then the
sage conferred the gift of divine vision on Sanjaya, the trusty counselor of the king and
told the king, “Sanjaya will describe to you all the incidents of the war. Whatever
happens in the course of the war, he will directly see, hear or otherwise come to know.
Whether an incident takes place before his eyes or behind his back, during the day or
during the night, privately or in public, and whether it is reduced to actual action or
appears only in thought, it will not remain hidden from his view. He will come to know
everything, exactly as it happens. No weapon will touch his body nor will he feel tired.”

After the ten days of continued war between the Paṇḍavas and the Kauravas, when the
great warrior Bhiṣma was thrown down from his chariot by Arjuna, Sanjaya announces
the news to Dhṛitaraṣtra. In agony the king asks Sanjaya to narrate the full details of the
previous ten days war, from the very beginning, in all detail as it happened. Here
commences the Bhagavad Gitā.

Purāṇas are basically history. They not only include stories of Viṣnu's Avatārs, but also
different kings from the ancient times. Sometimes Purāṇas are major source for
different periods of history. For instance history of Suṅga dynasty which succeeded the
great Mauryans, is derived from one of the Purāṇas as not many sources from that era
are available.

Management guidelines from the Bhagavad Geetā

1. Utilization of available resources

The first lesson of management science is to choose wisely and utilize scarce resources
optimally. During the curtain raiser before the Mahābhārata War, Duryodhana chose Śri
Ḳriṣṇa's large army for his help while Arjuna selected Śri Kriṣṇa's wisdom for his
support. This episode gives us a clue as to the nature of the effective manager - the
former chose numbers, the latter, wisdom.

2. Work commitment
A popular verse of the Geetā advises "detachment" from the fruits or results of actions
performed in the course of one's duty. Being dedicated work has to mean "working for
the sake of work, generating excellence for its own sake." If we are always calculating
the date of promotion or the rate of commission before putting in our efforts, then such
work is not detached. It is not "generating excellence for its own sake" but working only
for the extrinsic reward that may (or may not) result.

3. Motivation

Ḳriṣṇa reminded him of the purpose of his new-found spirit of intense action - not for his
own benefit, not for satisfying his own greed and desire, but for the good of many, with
faith in the ultimate victory of ethics over unethical actions and of truth over untruth.

4. Manager's mental health

Sound mental health is the very goal of any human activity - more so management.
Sound mental health is that state of mind which can maintain a calm, positive poise or
regain it when unsettled, in the midst of all the external vagaries of work life and social
existence. Internal constancy and peace are the pre-requisites for a healthy stress-free
mind.

5. Leadership Quality
"Whatever the excellent and best ones do, the commoners follow," says Kṛiṣṇa in the
Geetā. The visionary leader must be a missionary, extremely practical, intensively
dynamic and capable of translating dreams into reality. This dynamism and strength of a
true leader flows from an inspired and spontaneous motivation to help others.

6. Work results
Every action should produce results. Good action produces good results and evil begets
nothing but evil. Therefore, always act well and be rewarded.

7. Servant Leader

The leader is a servant and all the customers, people, resources are his masters. To
serve such a vast domain he must be a Puruṣotama – an excellent human being. If one
reads considering Kṛiṣṇa acts as the servant leader which is concept of knowledge
management.

8. Knowledge, Will and Action are the Trinity to Success

Knowledge: We must know clearly what are we, how did we get there, inventories of
lessons learnt from the past, where we intent to go, is the path open and wide enough,
do we have the intrinsic strength to adopt and change, how is the environment and at
what rate it is changing? Most importance is to define clearly and cleverly what not to
do?

Strategic perspective is meant to self-introspection, self-analysis-core competence, self-

SWOT, SWOT of environment, SWOT of competition and competitors' SWOT,
positioning of business and products, people - mix, talent mix required to take on the
future challenges, organization, structure, fiscal strength, systems and processes and
will to convert strategic intent and vision into a working plan and implement activities as
planned, which is the key to success.

Action: Once the plan is ready, the action portion starts. This is the crucial stage. This
is where the organizational culture matters. Culture is defined as the intrinsic strength of
a group of people called organization to convert knowledge into action through an
unflinching commitment, loyalty and professional grit.

3. Brahmasutras

The word "Sūtra" means "thread" and the Brahmasutras literally means "stitch together
the various Vedanta teachings into systematic and logical order". The Brahmasutra
defines the thread of Life Force (Prāṇa) by which all of the universal objects are bound
together. The Brahmasutras constitute the Nyāya prasthāna or "Logic-based starting
point". In other words Brahmasutras are those in which Brahmavidyã has been logically
proved and decorated. Due to the rational style, the Brahmasutras have become
famous as the Tarkaprasthān.
The Brahmasutras also known as the Vedānta Sūtras. It is also called Uttara-
Mimāṃsā or the later part of the Vedas, as distinguished from the Mimāṃsā or the
earlier part of the Vedas and the Brāhmaṇas which deal with ritual or Karma-kāṇda. It is
intended to be a summary of the teaching of the Upaniṣadas.

Brahmasutras has four chapters:

1. Samanvaya - Equal incidence, Iso-purpose, Iso-application, shared vision and

the process applies to all and equally, participation by one and all.
2. Avirodha - Non-contradictory, Non-resistant: decide collectively and Do as
decided.
3. Sādhanā- Practice and implementation. Act to succeed and reach the goal as
decided.
4. Phala – Results are guaranteed.

Six Theistic Philosophies

There are six theistic (Āstika) schools of thought that accept the Vedas as an
authoritative text. They are:
1. Vaiśeṣika– school of atomism
2. Nyāya – logic that explores sources of knowledge
3. Sānkhya– dualist theory of consciousness and matter
4. Yogā– school emphasizing on meditation, contemplation and liberation
5. Mimāṃsā – critical investigation
6. Vedānta– end of Veda, knowledge of Veda
1. Vaiśeṣika

The word Vaiśeṣika is derived from Viśeṣa which means “distinction” or “distinguishing
feature”. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite
number of atoms (Paramāṇu). It is an early atomic theory of the universe and
consequently does not mention ‘God’. But, later commentators felt that the atoms by
themselves could not have created universe so they postulated a ‘God’ regulating the
activities of the atoms.

The Vaiśeṣika philosophy was founded by the sage Kaṇāda in the second century B.C.
He was also known as Kaṇabhuk. He was given the name Kaṇāda because he was an
ascetic who lived on the grains picked up from the fields after the harvest.  The word
“kaṇa” (grain) means a particle or an atom. So the name Kaṇāda (Kaṇabhuk) literally
means an atom-eater. The foundational text of Vaiśeṣika is the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra.
The Vaiśeṣika School accepts two reliable means of knowledge: 1. Perception
(Pratyakṣa) and 2. Inference (Anumāna).

2. Nyāya

The Nyaya system was founded by the sage Gautama in the second century C.E. It
deals with the logic or the process of reasoning. Nyāya literally means rules, method or
judgment. The foundational text of Nyāya School is the Nyāya Sūtras.

The Nyāya accepts four Prāmaṇas as reliable means of gaining knowledge. They are:
- 1. Perception (Pratyakṣa) 2. Inference (Anumāṇa) 3. Comparison and
analogy (Upamāṇa) and 4. Word/ testimony of past or present reliable experts (Śabda).

Suppose when we see smoke on the hill. This is visual perception and we know there
is smoke on the hill. We infer that the smoke is caused by fire and conclude that there is
a fire on the hill. This is knowledge by inference. The hill is shaped like a pyramid. This
is knowledge of the shape of the hill through comparison and analogy. Historical texts
say that the hill has been there for the last five centuries. This is knowledge of the age
of the hill from reliable verbal testimony.

Perception is based on direct experience of reality of objects by five sense organs:

eyes, ears, nose, touch and taste.

The methodology of inference involves five steps, as in the example shown:

 There is fire on the hill (required to be proved)

 Because there is smoke there (reason)
 Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, e.g. in a kitchen (example)
 The hill has smoke that is pervaded by fire (reaffirmation or application)
 Therefore there is fire on the hill (conclusion)

Comparison and analogy can be explained with the example of a traveler who has
never visited lands or islands with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is told, by
someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that looks like a
cow, grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of
analogy and comparison is a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the
traveler identify the new animal later.
Word, testimony of past or present reliable experts: Human being needs to know
numerous facts, but due to the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a
fraction of those facts and truths directly. So one must rely on others, his parents,
families, friends, teachers, ancestors and members of society to rapidly acquire and
share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper
knowledge is either spoken or written.

3. Sāṅkhya

Sāṅkhya philosophy was founded by the sage Kapila in the first millennium B.C. It is
a dualist philosophy between the self and matter. The key text of the Sāṅkhya School is
the Sāṅkhya Sutras.

According to the Sāṅkhya system, the cosmos is the result of the mutual contact of two
metaphysical categories: Nature or matter (Prakṛti) and person or
consciousness (Puruṣa). A living being (Jiva) is that state in which Puruṣa is bonded
to prakṛti in some form. This fusion led to the emergence of awareness or intellect
(Buddhi) and individualized ego consciousness (Ahamkāra). Prakṛiti consists of
three qualities (Guṇas) viz. sattva, rajas and tamas. Sattva is positive, constructive and
a source of pleasure; Rajas is of propelling (driving), impulsive and a source of
pain; Tamas is negative, destructive and ignorance. It accepts three pramāṇas as the
reliable means of gaining knowledge. They are: 1. Perception (Pratyakṣa) 2. Inference
(Anumāna) and 3. Word (Śabda).

4. Yogā

The word "yoga" is derived from the root word Yuj -o'h\_ which means "to add", "to join",
"to unite" or "to attach" in its most common literal sense. Like the Sāṅkhya School, the
Yoga school also relies on three Pramānas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.

The Yoga School was expounded by the sage Patanjali  in the second century B.C. Like
the Sāṅkhya tradition, the Yoga darśana holds that the cosmos is the result of the
interaction of two categories: Nature (Prakṛti) and Person (Puruṣa) and also comprised
of three qualities (Guṇas) – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas.

The Yoga philosophy consists of the Eight Limbs (Astāṅga yoga). They are:
1. Yama – abstention from evil-doing, which specifically consists of abstention from
harming others (Ahiṃsā), abstention from telling falsehood (Asatya), abstention
from acquisitiveness (Asteya) -, abstention from greed (Aparigraha) and sexual
restraint (Brahmacaryā)
2. Niyama -lgod_ – various observances, which include the cultivation of purity
(Sauca), contentment (Santoṣ) and austerities (Tapas)
3. Āśana – posture
4. Prāṇāyāma – control of breath
5. Pratyāhāra – withdrawal of the mind from sense objects
6. Dhāraṇā– concentration
7. Dhyāna – meditation
 8. Samādhi – absorption in the self
 
5. Mīmāṃsā/ Pūrvamīmāṃsā

The word mimāṃsā is originated from the root ‘man’ which refers to ‘thinking’ or
‘investigating’. Mimamsā refers to acquire knowledge or critical review and investigation
of the Vedas.

Each of the Vedas is considered to be composed of four parts: Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas,

Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣaḍs The first two parts are generally focused on the rituals and
they form the Karma-kaṇḍa - portion of the Vedas. The latter two parts forms the Jnāna-
kaṇḍa (concerned with knowledge) portion of the Vedas. The Pūrvamīmāṃsā is based
on the earlier (Purva) parts of the Vedas and the Uttarmīmāṃsā is based on the later
(Uttar) parts of the Vedas. In popular terms, Pūrvamīmāṃsā is known simply as
mīmāṃsā and Uttarmīmāṃsā as Vedanta.

The Pūrvamīmāṃsā School was founded by the sage Jaimini in the second century
A.D. and pursues liberation through action. It has a detailed philosophy related to ritual,
worship and ethical conduct. The key text of the Mīmāṃsā School is
the Pūrvamīmāṃsā Sutras. This philosophical school believes in six reliable means of
gaining knowledge. They are:

1. Perception (Pratyakṣa)
2. Inference (Anumāṇa)
3. Comparison and analogy (Upamāna)
4. Postulation or Pre-conception (Arthāpatti): It is related to the circumstances or
said to be circumstantial implication. As for example, if a person left in a boat on
river earlier and the time is now past for the expected time of his arrival. Then the
circumstances support the truth and postulate that the person has arrived. Many
scholars considered this pramāṇa as invalid or weak means because the boat
may have got delayed or diverted. 
5. Non-perception (Anupalabdhi) or non-existence (Abhāva): It suggests that
knowing a negative, such as "there is no jug in this room" is a form of valid
knowledge.
6. Word/ testimony of past or present reliable experts (Śabda). 

6. Vedānta

The Vedanta school was based on the teachings of the Upaniṣads and Brahmasutras. It
was founded by the sage Vādarāyana in the first century A.D. The Pūrvamīmāṃsā
concerns with the former portion of the Vedas and the Vedānta school concerns the end
(Anta) of the Vedas. The principal concern of the earlier portion of the Vedas is action
and dharma (rules, morality) whereas the principal concern of the latter portion of the
Vedas is knowledge and Mokṣa.

The Vedānta focuses on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than
traditional ritualism. The text of Vedānta philosophy is called the Vedānta Sūtras. The
Vedānta School includes six methods as reliable means of gaining knowledge: 1.
Perception (Pratyakṣa) 2. Inference (Anumāna) 3. Comparison and
analogy (Upamāna) 4. Postulation, derivation from circumstances (Arthāpatti) 5. Non-
perception, negative/cognitive proof (Anupalabdi) and 6. Word/ testimony of past or
present reliable experts (Śabda).

The Vedānta school is further divided into six sub-schools:

1. Advaita (Non-dualism/ Monism)

2. Viśiṣṭavāda (Qualified monism)

3. Dvaita (Dualism)

4. Dvaita- advaita (Dualism-Non-dualism)

5. Śuddhadvaita (Pure non-dualism)

6. Achintya Bheda Abheda schools

Six Atheistic Philosophy

In the sixth century B.C. writing was hardly used. The records were preserved in the
form of recitation and memorization. The Buddha's teachings were handed down orally
through succession of teachers (Acāryaparamparā).

About a hundred years after Buddha's demise (Mahāparinibbāṇa), disagreement arose

among the monks in regard to the actual words of the Buddha and their interpretations
which ultimately led to the origin of different schools of Buddhism. And within a few
hundred years of his Mahāparinibbāṇa eighteen or more sects came into existence.

The first dissension was created by the monks of Vesāli -j}zfnL_ through the breach of
the rules of discipline as laid down in the Vinaya Pitaka -ljgo lk6s_. The orthodox monks
opposed to them and were expelled from the Saǹgha -;+3_. Those expelled monks
convened council separately in which ten thousand monks participated. It was indeed, a
great council in the history of Buddhism. It is known as Mahāsaǹgiti -dxf;f+l3s_ (Great
Council). The monks who joined the council were later on called the Mahāsānghikas,
while the orthodox monks were distinguished as the Theravādins -y]/jfbL_. Thus, the
first schism occurred in Buddhism which divided the Buddhist Saǹgha into two primitive
schools - the Theravāda and the Mahāsānghika.
This schism was followed by a series of schisms and in course of time, several sub-
sects branched off from these two sects. The Theravāda was split up into twelve sub-
sects and the Mahāsānghika into six. But these different sects could not maintain their
individual existences for long. Most of them either disappeared or merged with other
sects shortly after their origin, only four schools survived. The four schools that could
outlive and expand their own field of influence were the Vaibhāṣika, Sautrantika
,Mādhyāmika and Yogācara .

1. Vaibhāṣika

The Vaibhāśikas are identified as the Sarvāstivādins deriving its name from the word
"Sarvam asti" meaning everything exists. The Vaibhāśika philosophy was based
exclusively on the commentary (Vibhāsā) and hence were called by the name
Vaibhāśika. It came into prominence in the third century after Mahāparinibbāṇa. It
rejected the authority of the Sutras and admitted only the Abhidharma of Sarvāstivādins.
Their main centre of foothold is in Gāndhāra and Kāśmir. They believe in the existence
of seventy-five dharmas which are divided into Saṃskṛta dharmas and Asaṃskṛta
dharmas. The Saṃskṛta dharmas are impermanent, impure and originated from causes
(Hetus) while Asaṃskṛta dharmas permanent, pure and causeless.

The Saṃskṛta Dharmas are classified into four divisions. (Total = 72)

Rupa (Form) – 11, Citta – 1, Cittasamprayukta – 46, Cittaviprayukta – 14

The Asaṃskṛta dharmas (Total = 3)

1. Ākāśa 2. Pratisaǹkhyanirodh and 3. Apratisaǹkhyanirodh

Ākāśa: It is the absence of the form.

Pratisaǹkhyanirodh: Elimination of defilements (Kleśa) through the realization of

Four Noble Truth.

Apratisaǹkhyanirodh: The act of cessation which does not allow arising un-produced
Kleśas.

Sub-schools
According to the geographical location the Vaibhāśika are divided into two:

1. Gāndhāra Vaibhāśika and 2. Kāśmira Vaibhāśika

Later these two Vaibhāśikas agreed to be one as Mulasarvāstivādina

-d"n;jf{l:tjfb_ .

Propounders

1. Vasubandhu– Abhidharmakośa
2. Dignāg - Pramāṇa Samucchaya
3. Bhadanta Vasumitra
4. Bhadanta Buddhadeva

2. Sautrāntika
The Sautrāntika were believed to be descended from the Sthaviravāda by way of their
immediate parent school, the Sarvāstivādins (All-is-real Doctrine) in the second century
B.C. The Sautrāntika accept only the sutras of the Buddha as authentic teachings. They
do not accept Abhidharma as the words of the Buddha. The Sautrāntika differed from
their parent school, the Sarvāstivādins. The Sautrāntika subscribed to a doctrine of
"extreme momentariness" that held that only the present moment existed.

The Sautrāntika is characterized as a transitional school that led to the development of

Mahāyāna -thought. The Sautrāntika doctrine is similar in several aspects to Mahāyāna
thought and is regarded by some scholars as the origin of the Consciousness-only or
Yogācāra teaching.

According to Sautrāntika, there are forty three dharmas.

1. Rupa– 8
2. Vedanā – 3
3. Saǹjnā – 6
4. Vijnāna – 6
5. Saǹskāra – 20
Total = 43

Sub-schools
There are two kinds of Sautrāntikas:
1. The Sautrāntikas following scriptures (Āgama followers)
2. The Sautrāntikas following logic (Yukti followers) 

Propounders
1. Kumārlat– Kalpanamanda tikā dṛṣtānta paǹkti
2. Śri Labha (Śrilata) – Sautrāntika Vibhāṣā
3. Yaśomitra- Abhidharmakoṣabhyākhyā Sputārtha

3. Yogācāra
Yogācāra (Yogā practice) or Vijñānavāda  (the doctrine of consciousness) or Vijñapti-
mātra (Consciousness-only) or Cittamātra (Mind-only) is an influential school of
Buddhist philosophy and psychology. It is called Yogācāra because in it the aspirant
must go through the practice of Yoga. It is also known as Vijnānavāda since according
to it all things are consciousness.

Those who have the experience of Samādhi will know that in the state of Samādhi the
entire physical world seems to disappear in Citta and it is only after awakening from
Samādhi that the things of the external world are gradually perceived. It is on the basis
of this experience that the Yogācāra philosophers have concluded that Citta is
everything. This Citta is known as Ālaya Vijnāna.

Classification of Consciousness

Consciousness is of two kinds: —

1. Pravrtti Vijnāna (Personal consciousness)

2. Ālaya Vijnāna (Absolute consciousness)

Personal consciousness is of seven types:

1. Visual or Eye consciousness (Chakṣu Vijnāna)

2. Auditory or Ear consciousness (Śrota Vijnāna)
3. Olfactory or Nose consciousness (Ghrāna Vijnāna)
4. Gustatory or Tongue consciousness (Jihwā Vijnāna)
5. Tactile or Body consciousness (Kāya Vijnāna)
6. Mental or Mind consciousness (Mano Vijnāna)
7. Klista Vijnāna – Idea of self (Ātma dṛṣti), I am (Ātma mana), self-love (Ātma
sneha), Ignorance (Ātma moha) are associated with Klista Vijnāna.
Ālaya Vijnāna is that which unites all these. Thus Ālaya Vijnāna is the Ālaya, the home
or store house of different types of Vijnānas. All types of knowledge remain in it.

There are hundred dharmas in Yogācāra.

1. Saǹskṛta Dharma (Total 94): 1. Rupa – 11 2. Citta – 8 3. Caitasika – 51 and 4.
Cittaviprayukta – 24
2. Asaǹskṛta Dharma (Total 6): 1. Ākāśa 2. Pratisaǹkhyanirodha 3.
Apratisaǹkhyanirodha 4. Acala (Equanimity state) 5. Saǹjnā vedananirodha
(State of cessation of feeling) and 6. Tathata(Suchness)
Propounders
1. Asaǹga – Mahāyāna Saṃparigraha , Abhidharma Samuccaya , Yogācārabhūmi
Śāstra -(Treatise on the Stages of Yogā Practice), Mahāyāna Sutralaǹkāra
Vajrachhedikā -dxfofg Akṣayamati Sutra.

2. Vasubandhu – Trisvabhāva Nirdeśa -(Treatise on the Three Natures), Viṃśaṭikā

Kārikā (Treatise in Twenty Stanzas) and Triṃśitikā Kārikā (Treatise in Thirty
Stanzas), Saddharmapundarika Tikā, Mahāparinibbaṇa Sutra Tikā,
Vajrachhedikā Prjnāpārmitā Tikā

3. Maitreyanāth – Mahāyāna Sutralaǹkāra

4. Dignāga - Pramāṇa Samucchaya

5. Dharmakṛti – Nyāyavindu , Saṃandhi Parikṣa

The Three Natures
The Yogācārins defined three basic modes by which we perceive our world. These are
referred to in Yogācāra as the three natures of perception. They are:

1. Parikalpita (literally, "fully conceptualized"): "imaginary nature", Ordinary

experience, Things are incorrectly comprehended based on conceptual
construction, through attachment.
2. Paratantra (literally, "other dependent"): "dependent nature", This is the realm of
relative knowledge. It comprehends that phenomena are interdependent and
impermanent.
3. Pariniṣpanna (literally, "fully accomplished"): "absolute nature", Absolutely real
level. This knowledge consists in the direct awareness of the emptiness of all
phenomena. It is called "Thusness." 

4. Madhyāmika
The Mādhyāmika is based on Prajñāpāramitā sutras (Perfection of Wisdom). It was
founded by Nāgārjuna who retrieved Prajñāpāramitā sutras from the world of the
Nāgas. Within the Mahāyāna context, wisdom (Prajñā) figures as the most prominent in
a list of Six five s (Pāramitās) that a Bodhisattva needs to cultivate in order to achieve
Buddhahood (Enlightenment). This philosophy adopts the middle path (Madhyam
Mārga). Mādhyāmika is the rejection of extreme philosophies and therefore represents
the "middle way" between eternalism (Śāśvatavāda) (the view that something is eternal
and unchanging) and nihilism (Ucchedavāda) (the assertion that all things are
intrinsically already destroyed or rendered non-existent). Mādhyāmika is also known as
Theory of Emptiness (Śunyavāda). According to the Mādhyāmikas, all phenomena are
empty of "self-nature" or "essence" (Svabhāva), meaning that they have no intrinsic,
independent reality apart from the causes and conditions from which they arise. "Form
is Emptiness, Emptiness is Form" (Rupam Śunyatā, Śunyatā Rupam)

Two Truths

1. Conventional Truth or Empirical Truth (Samvṛitti Satya)

2. Ultimate Truth or Absolute Truth (Paramārtha Satya)

Madhyāmika advocates that all dharma do not exist ultimately, but conventionally they
do exist.

Propounders

1. Nāgārjuna – Mula Madhyamkārikā , Pratitya Samutpāda Hṛdayakārikā, Ratnāvali

2. Āryadeva – Citta Viśuddhi Prakaraṇa
3. Buddhapālita - Madhyāmikavṛti
4. Bhāvaviveka – Tarka Jwālā
5. Candrakīrti – Prasannapāda
6. Śāntideva - Bodhicaryāvatāra, Śikṣasamuccaya -l
7. Śāntarakṣita - Tattvasaṃgraha

Sub-schools
There are two schools of Mādhyāmika.
1. Svātantrika Mādhyāmika
2. Prāsāǹgika Mādhyāmika
The Svātantrika Madhyāmika is a form of Madhyāmika in which reasoning is used to
establish that phenomena (Dharmas) have no self-nature and further arguments to
establish that the true nature of all phenomena is emptiness. This school differs from
the Prāsāǹgika Madhyāmika in that the later refrain from making any assertions
whatsoever about the true nature of phenomena. The absolute is free of any assertion
of emptiness, because it is beyond all conventions and mental fabrications.
5. Jainism

The word "Jain" derives from the Sanskrit word Jina (conqueror). A human being who
has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed etc. and
therefore, possesses pure infinite knowledge (Kevala Jnāna) is called Jina. Followers of
the path practised and preached by the Jinas are known as Jains.

Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings of the twenty-four  Tirthaǹkaras

(Ford-makers) of whom Mahāvira was the last. The central tenets of Jain philosophy
were established by Mahāvira in the 6th Century B.C., although Jainism as a religion is
much older. The name of the first and twenty-third Tirthaǹkara recorded was
Ṛṣabhadeva and Pārsvanāth respectively.

Mahāvira, also known as Vardhamāna, is "the Great Hero" of Jainism. He was a

contemporary of the Buddha. He was born in 599 B.C. and died 527 B.C. at the age of
72 at Pāvā. He renounced his family life at the age of 28 upon death of his parents. For
12 years, he wandered from place to place and lived a life of the greatest austerity,
wearing only a single piece of cloth but discarded even that later.

The goal of Jainism is to obtain liberation from cycle of reincarnation. They believed in
existence of soul and matter. Animals and plants have souls. These are at different
levels of growth and evolution. The soul is originally pure but is covered by Karmic
particles that bind the soul to Samsāra. Karma consists of fine and subtle particles that
adhere to soul, as clay to pot. The state of soul is due to karma accumulated over
countless lives. Heavy Karma is a result of selfish and cruel actions. To achieve
salvation (Mokṣa), man must free his soul from matter through his own efforts, by
practicing austerities. By eliminating the effects of past Karma and preventing the influx
of new karma, the soul is liberated and becomes pure again. They do not believe in a
creator God, relying on oneself to achieve liberation.

Three Jewels (Tri-Ratna)

The following three jewels of Jainism constitute the threefold path to liberation.
1. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnāna)
2. Right Faith or View (Samyak Darśaṇa)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Caritra)
Right Knowledge is knowing the Jain creed (doctrine), Right Faith is believing in it and
Right Conduct through following it.

Five Great Vows (Panchamahāvrata)

Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of personal wisdom and
self-control through five main vows:

1. Ahiṃsā - Non-violence in all parts of a person: Body, Speech and Mental.

Commenting an act of violence against a human, animal or even a vegetable
generates negative karma which on turn adversely affects one's next life.

Ahiṃsā means non-violence or non-injury. The first major vow taken by Jains is to
cause no harm to living beings. It involves minimizing intentional and unintentional harm
to other living creatures by actions, speech or thoughts. The vow of Ahiṃsā is
considered the foremost among the 'five vows of Jainism'. The principle of Ahiṃsā is the
most fundamental and well-known aspect of Jainism. 
After humans and animals, insects are the next living being offered protection in Jain
practice with avoidance of intentional harm to insects emphasized. For example, insects
in the home are often escorted out instead of killed. Intentional harm and the absence of
compassion make an action more violent according to Jainism. After non-violence
towards humans, animals and insects, Jains make efforts not to injure plants any more
than necessary. Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food,
they accept such violence only in as much as it is indispensable for human survival.
Strict Jains, including monastic, do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions
and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because
a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a living being.

2. Satya – speaking truth; avoiding falsehood.

Satya means truth. This vow is to always speak the truth. Given that non-violence has
priority, other principles yield to it whenever they conflict, in a situation where speaking
truth could lead to violence, silence may be observed.

3. Asteya– to not seal from others.

Asteya means not stealing. Jains should not take anything that is not willingly
offered. Attempting to extort material wealth from others or to exploit the weak is
considered theft. Fair value should be given for all goods and services purchased.

4. Brahmacharyā – remaining celibate or sexually monogamous to one's spouse

only.
Brahmacharyā means chastity for laymen and celibacy for Jain monks and nuns. This
requires the exercise of control over the senses to control indulgence in sexual activity.

5. Aparigraha – detach from people, places and material things. Avoiding the
collection of excessive material possessions, abstaining from over-indulgence,
restrictions one's needs.
Aparigraha means non-possessiveness. This includes non-materialism and non-
attachment to objects, places and people. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce
property and social relations. Jainism emphasizes taking no more than is necessary.
Followers should minimize the tendency to hoard unnecessary material possessions
and limit attachment to current possessions. Further, wealth and possessions should be
shared and donated whenever possible. Jainism believes that unchecked attachment to
possessions can lead to direct harm to oneself and others.

The Jain philosophy of Anekantavāda and Syādvāda, which posits that the truth or
reality is perceived differently from different points of view and that no single point of
view is the complete truth, have made very important contributions to ancient Indian
philosophy.

Non-absolutism (Anekantavāda) is the idea that reality is perceived differently from

different points of view and that no single point of view is completely true (similar to the
Western philosophical doctrine of "Subjectivism"). This includes the recognition of all
perspectives and a humble respect for differences in beliefs. Jainism encourages its
adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties.

Jains illustrate this theory through the parable of the blind man and an elephant. In this
story, each blind man feels a different part of an elephant: its trunk, leg, ear and so on.
All of them claim to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant but,
due to their limited perspectives, can only partly succeed. The concept of
Anēkāntavāda extends to and is further explained by Syādvāda.

Syādvāda is the doctrine extending from Anekantavāda. This recommends the

expression of anekānta by prefixing the epithet Syād to every phrase or expression. The
Sanskrit etymological root of the term Syād is "perhaps" or "may be", but in the context
of Syādvāda it means "in some ways" or "from some perspective." There are seven
conditioned propositions in Syādvāda as follows:

1. Syād-asti— in some ways, it is;

2. Syād-nāsti— in some ways, it is not;
3. Syād-asti-nāsti— in some ways, it is, and it is not;
4. Syād-asti-avaktavyaḥ— in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable;
5. Syād-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ— in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable;
 6. Syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ— in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable;
7. Syād-avaktavyaḥ— in some ways, it is indescribable.
Sects in Jainism

In the course of time, Jainism was divided into two sects. The only schism to have a
lasting effect concerned a dispute over proper monastic practice.
1. Śvetāmvara (White-Robed) - sect arguing that monks and nuns should wear
white robes.
2. Digambara  (Sky-Clad; i.e., naked) - sect claiming that a true monk (but not a
nun) should be naked.
6. Cārvāka

Cārvāka, originally known as Lokāyata (Commoner) is the ancient school of

Indian materialism. Ajita Keśakambala is credited as the forerunner of the
Chārvākas, while Brihaṣpati -a[x:klt_ is usually referred to as the founder of Chārvāka
philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Chārvāka is missing or lost. Its teachings
have been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the
Śāstras (such as the Arthaśastra), sutras and the epics (Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa)
of Hinduism as well as in the Buddhist and Jain literature.

The word Chārvāka means "agreeable speech" or "sweet-tongued" (from

Sanskrit's Cāru "agreeable" and Vāk "speech"). Some says that it derives from the
root Chārv meaning "to eat" possibly alluding to the philosophy of "eat, drink and be
merry".

The Chārvāka School of philosophy had a variety of atheistic and materialistic beliefs.
They held perception (Pratyakṣa) to be the valid and reliable source of knowledge.
Chārvāka does not believe in karma, rebirth or afterlife, soul, efficacy of religious rites,
other worlds (heaven and hell), fate and accumulation of merit or demerit through the
performance of certain actions. There was no continuity in the Chārvāka tradition after
the 12th century.

Confucianism

Confucianism is developed by Chinese philosopher Confucius in 6 th century BC. It was

mainstream ideology in China. Confucianism is characterized as a system of social and
ethical philosophy rather than a religion. Confucianism is built on an ancient religious
foundation to establish the social values, institutions and transcendent ideals of
traditional Chinese society. It could be understood as a social ethic and humanist
system focusing on human beings and their relationships. Its primary purpose is to
achieve harmony, the most important social values. The teachings of Confucius during
%00 BC, has played an important role in forming Chinese character, behavior and way
of living. Number of Confucianism followers in the world is 0.09%.

The Five Relationships:

1. Kindness in the father, filial piety in son. 
2. Gentility in the eldest brother, humility and respect in the younger. 
3. Righteous behavior in the husband, obedience in the wife. 
4. Humane consideration in elders, deference (respect) in juniors.
5. Benevolence in rulers, loyalty in ministers and subjects.