Chapter

p 7
Periodic Properties of the
Elements

Periodic Table

Elements are
arranged in
order of atomic
number.

Elements are
grouped
according to
similar
properties
(shading).

Metals, Metalloids, Nonmetals

Path to Periodic Table

John Dalton – molecule weights
• (1780s)

Amedeo Avogadro – molecular gases

(1800s)
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/periodic/dalton.html

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 Path to Periodic Table
Bunsen and Kirchoff (1850s)–
properties of elements, new
elements Cesium, Rubidium

Bunsen Burner & Spectroscope

http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/periodic/dalton.html

Path to Periodic Table

• Julius Meyer (1860s)

• Used atomic weight, valences in

classification

• Knew to leave spaces for

undiscovered elements

Path to Periodic Table

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1860s)

Periodic Law

http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/periodic/dalton.html

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 Path to the Periodic Table
Henry Mosley (1913) contributed atomic
numbers

– Correctly placed K after Ar

(used x-ray crystallography)

– Identified holes in the periodic table which led

to the discovery of new elements

Elemental Discoveries

Today’s Classification
• Used to organize and remember
chemical facts.

• Outer shell electrons (valence

(
electrons) account for both the
similarities and differences in
physical and chemical properties.

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What are Periodic Trends?
• Electron configurations
• Ionic Charges
• Increasing atomic weight/number
• Sizes of atoms and ions
• Ionization energy
• Electron affinity

Energy Orbitals/e- configs

Ionic Charges

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 Ordering
• chemical & physical properties occur
periodically when arranged in increasing
atomic weight

• What are exceptions?

– K, Ar

Additional Trends
– Sizes of atoms and ions.

– Ionization energy.

– Electron affinity

Effective Nuclear Charge

• Effective nuclear charge – the net
charge of the nucleus felt by the
outer electrons

• Shielding – electrons decrease the

effective nuclear charge on the
outer electrons

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 Effective Nuclear Charge
The effective nuclear
charge, Zeff, is:
Zeff = Z − S
Z = atomic
t i number
b
S = # e- between
nucleus and electron in
question

Atomic Sizes
• The closest distance
separating the nuclei of
two atoms that are non-
bonded Æ nonbonding
atomic radius

• The distance separating

the nuclei of atoms
when they are
chemically bonded Æ
bonding atomic radius

Atomic Size Trends

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 Ionic Size

• Ionic size
depends upon:
– Nuclear charge.
– Number of
electrons.
– Orbitals in which
electrons reside.

Ionic Sizes “rules”

• Charge impacts size:
– Cations are smaller than their parent
atoms.
– Anions are larger than their parent atoms.

• For ions of the same charge

charge, size increases as
you go down a group.

• Isoelectronic series – ions possess the same

number of electrons.

• The radius of the ion decreases with increasing

nuclear charge.
– Ex. Radii: O2- < F- < Na+ < Mg2+ < Al3+

Ionization Energy
• Definition – The amount of energy
required to remove an electron from the
ground state of a gaseous atom or ion.

– First ionization energy - energy required to

remove first
fi t electron.
l t
Na (g) Æ Na+(g) + e-

– Second ionization energy - energy required

to remove second electron
Na+ (g) Æ Na2+(g) + e-

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 Ionization Energy
• As ionization energy increases, it is more
difficult to remove an electron.
• Every successive removal pulls an electron
away from an increasingly more positive
ion (I1<I2<I3).
– Increase is even greater when inner shell
electrons are removed

• A large increase in ionization energy occurs

when electrons are removed from the
noble gas core of elements.
– Evidence that valence electrons are involved in
reactions

IE Column Trends
• As one goes down
a column, less
energy is required
to remove the first
electron.
electron
– For atoms in the
same group, Zeff is
essentially the
same, but the
valence electrons
are farther from the
nucleus.

IE Row Trends

• Generally, as one
goes across a
row, it gets
h d to
harder t remove
an electron.
– As you go from
left to right, Zeff
increases.

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 IE Trend Summary
• In each row, IE generally increases with
increasing atomic number
– 1A lowest, 8A highest (some irregularities)

• In each group
group, IE generally decreases
with increasing atomic number.

• The representative elements (s & p

block) show a larger range of IEs than
do the transition elements.

IE and electron configs

• When electrons are removed to form a
cation, they are always removed from
the orbital with the largest n first.

– Ex. Fe: [Ar]3d64s2 Æ Fe2+: [Ar]3d6

• When electrons are added to form an

anion, they are added to the orbital
with the lowest n.

– Ex. F: 1s22s22p5 Æ 1s22s22p6

Electron Affinity
Definition – energy change that
accompanies addition of electron to a
gaseous atom:
Cl + e− ⎯⎯→ Cl−
• Ene
Energy
g is ttypically
picall released
eleased when
hen an
electron is added.
– The greater the attraction, the more
negative the EA value.
• So, electron affinity measures the ease
with which an atom gains an electron

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 EA Trends

In general,
electron affinity
becomes more
exothermic
th i as
you go from left
to right across a
row.

EA Trends
– What happens with noble gases?

– Why do halogens have the highest EA?

– Why
Wh does
d Groups
G 2A nott follow
f ll a pattern?
tt ?
• Added electron must go in p-orbital, not s-orbital.

• Electron is farther from nucleus and feels

repulsion from s-electrons

– Why does Group 5A not follow a pattern?

• Group 5A has a half-filled p subshell. Adding an
electron increases the electron-electron repulsions

Metal & Nonmetal Properties

• How do we distinguish these
properties?
Metals Nonmetals
Shiny Luster No luster
Malleable ductile
Malleable, Brittle solids
Conduct heat & electricity Poor conductors
Metal oxides are basic Nonmetal oxides are acidic
Form cations in aq sln Form anions or oxyoanions in aq sln.
Form ionic compounds

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 Metalloids
• Characteristics of both metals and
nonmetals

• Example: silicon looks shiny,

shiny but is brittle
and fairly poor conductor.

Groups & Properties

Alkali Metals
– Found only as compounds in nature.

– Have low densities and melting points.

– Are oxidized in chemical reactions.

reactions

– Have low ionization energies.

– Valence electrons are easily lost.

• Group 1A Æ 1+

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 Alkaline Earth Metals
– Have higher densities and melting points
than alkali metals.

– Have low ionization energies, but not as low

as alkali metals

– Reactivity tends to increase when moving

down the group

– Valence electrons are easily lost.

• Group 2A Æ 2+

Chalogens
• May be nonmetal, metalloid or metal
down the group

• Oxygen readily oxidizes (attract

electrons))
– Peroxides and superoxides react with
themselves forming water and oxygen
– Allotropes form: ozone

• Sulfur not as reactive as oxygen

– Many allotropes
– Most sulfur is present in metal sulfides

Halogens
– Nonmetals, Group 7

– Diatomic elements

– Large, negative electron affinities

– Oxidize other elements easily

– React directly with metals to form metal

halides

– From the Greek halos and gennao: “salt

formers”

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 Noble Gases
– Nonmetals, Group 8

– High ionization energies

– Positive electron affinities

– Therefore, relatively unreactive, inert

– Monatomic gases at room temperature

– Electron config s and p filled

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