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ASSIGNMENT
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Q1.(a) Consider x(t) = 10 cos [108 πt +5 sin(2π104t)]. The maximum phase deviation and
maximum frequency deviation is ____ and ____, respectively.
Solution: x(t) = 10 cos [108 𝜋t +5 sin(2π104t)].
Modulation index = mf = 5
wm = 2π fm = 2π104
fm = 104 Hz (modulation frequency)

Frequency Deviation= δf = mf * fm
δf = 50 kHz.
Phase Deviation= δp = mf
δp = 5 radians.

Q1.(b) The phase information of a sinusoidal signal can be obtained by integrating

frequency with time.

Q1.(c) A 108 MHz carrier signal is frequency-modulated by sinusoidal modulating signal.

The maximum frequency deviation is 100 kHz. The approximate transmission bandwidth of
the FM signal is _____ if the frequency of the modulating signal is 1 kHz.

Solution: δ= 100 kHz , fm = 1 kHz

Modulation Index = mf = δ/ fm

mf = 100
As m>1 , it is wide band frequency modulation
For wide band frequency modulation
Bandwidth= 2 fm (mf +1)
Bandwidth= 2*(1khz)*(100+1)
Bandwidth = 202 kHz.

Q1.(d) An FM signal is generated by using carrier signal, Vc(t) = 10cos2π ∗ 20 ∗ 103t and
modulating signal , Vm(t) = 3cos2π ∗ 103t. If the deviation constant, Kf = 2000Hz/V , then
the expression for FM signal is

Solution: Carrier Signal= 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 10𝑐𝑜(2𝜋∗20∗103t)

Modulating Signal= 𝑉(𝑡) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋∗103t)

Deviation Constantt = Kf = 2000Hz/V

For required FM signal:
Modulation index = mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm
mf = (2000*3)/ 103 = 6

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FM Wave=10 cos (2𝜋∗20∗103t + 6 sin (2𝜋∗103t))

Q1.(e) An FM modulator has frequency deviation sensitivity of 1.5 kHz/V. The carrier signal
is modulated by the modulating signal having peak amplitude of 4V and modulating
frequency of 1 kHz. The frequency modulation index of FM signal is given by

Solution: Modulation index = mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm

mf = (1500*4)/ 103
mf = 6 radians

Q2(a). An angle-modulated signal is given as x c(t) = 20cos(400π + πt2). Determine the

instantaneous frequency. How does it vary with time? Determine instantaneous
frequency:-

Solution: 𝑥c(𝑡) = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠(400𝜋t + 𝜋t2)

θ = 400πt + πt2 = ∫ w dt

2πf = w = dθ / dt

Instantaneous Frequency = f = 200 + t

Q2(b). Define the terms: Frequency-modulation index, Peak frequency deviation. Write their
expressions also.

Solution: I. Frequency-modulation index ( mf ): It is used to describe the ratio of maximum

frequency deviation of the carrier ( δ ) to the maximum frequency deviation of the
modulating signal ( fm ). It is given by mf = δ/ fm

II. Peak frequency deviation: It is the maximum difference between an FM

modulated frequency and the nominal carrier frequency .It is given by:

δ = Kf x Vm = mf x fm

Q2(c). What is meant by Carson’s rule for determining FM bandwidth? Distinguish between
FM bandwidth in case of NBFM and WBFM.

Solution: Carson’s Rule for determining Bandwidth:- It defines that the

approximate bandwidth requirements of communications system components for a carrier
signal that is frequency modulated by a continuous or broad spectrum of frequencies rather
than a single frequency. Carson's rule does not apply well when the modulating signal
contains discontinuities, such as a square wave.
Carson's bandwidth rule is expressed by the relation: CBR= 2(∆f +fm)
where: CBR is the bandwidth requirement;
 ∆f is the peak frequency deviation;
 fm is the highest frequency in modulating signal.

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For NBFM, mf <1, so effective formula for Bandwidth becomes CBR= 2 fm

For WBFM, mf >1, so formula for Bandwidth remains same i.e. CBR= 2(∆f +fm)

Q2 (d) “FM is significantly more immune to noise than AM.” Draw FM noise triangle to
justify this statement.

Solution:

FM systems are better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise is generally uniformly
spread across the spectrum and varies randomly in amplitude. The change in amplitude can
modulate the signal and be picked up in an AM system. FM systems are inherently immune
to random noise. For noise to interfere in FM, it will have to modulate the frequency
somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude.
Hence, minimum interference is picked up in FM receivers

Q2. (e) A phase modulator has = 2 radians/Volt. Compute the RMS voltage of a modulating
signal which would cause phase modulation index, mp of π/3 radians.

a) Kp = 2 radians/Volt
mp= π/3
Peak Voltage of Modulating Signal is given by:-
Vm= mp/ Kp
Vm= π/6 V =0.524V
RMS Voltage of Modulating Signal is given by:-
Vrms = [Vm /sqrt(2)]=(0.524/1.414)= 0.37 V

Q2. (f) How does the bandwidth change in PM and FM with a change in the modulation
frequency?:-

Solution: For FM: The frequency modulation bandwidth increases with modulation frequency
but it is not directly proportional to it.

For PM: The frequency modulation bandwidth is independent of modulation frequency

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Q3. (a) For the sinusoidal FM signal, Vc(t) = 10cos2π ∗ 20 ∗ 103t , Vm(t) = 3cos2π ∗ 103t and

Deviation constant, Kf = 2000 Hz/ V, write the resulting expression for FM signal. Draw the FM

Signal waveform also.

Solution: Carrier Signal= 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 10𝑐𝑜(2𝜋∗20∗103t)

Modulating Signal= 𝑉(𝑡) = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋∗103t)

Deviation Constant = Kf = 2000Hz/V

Now for FM Signal:-

Modulation index = mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm

mf = (2000*3)/ 103 = 6

FM Wave= 10 cos (2𝜋∗20∗103t + 6 cos (2𝜋∗103t))

Q3. (b) How is transmission efficiency comparable with that of AM and FM?:

Solution: The following are points of comparison

 Generally a modulated FM signal will occupy more bandwidth than an AM signal. In

that respect, it is less efficient with respect to bandwidth.
 FM carries power throughout the signal, whereas AM has power only in its carrier.
 However, higher bandwidth results in a demodulated signal with a higher SNR than
AM.
 Reception in FM is limited to line of sight communication.

Q3. (c) Compare Narrowband and Wideband FM in terms of design parameters such as
modulation index, transmission bandwidth, modulating frequency range, maximum
frequency deviation, and modulation index at maximum fm.
Solution:

S.No Narrow Band FM Wide Band FM

.
1 Modulation index< 1
2 Maximum permissible Frequency
Deviation = 5KHz
3 Modulating Frequency = 3KHz
4 Maximum modulating index might
tend unity
5 Bandwidth =2fm
Modulation index > 1
Maximum permissible Frequency
Deviation = 75KHz
Modulating frequency range from 30 Hz to
15KHz
Maximum value of modulating index in
2500
Bandwidth is 15 times that of NBFM,
according to Carson’s rule

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Q3. (d) A modulating signal 𝑉(𝑡) = 105𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚𝑡 is phase modulated on an analog carrier signal
with frequency of 90 MHz. The deviation constant of phase modulator is specified as 𝐾𝑝 = 5
rad/V. Find the maximum instantaneous frequency of PM signal.

Solution:

Q4. A modulating signal 𝑉𝑚(𝑡) = 2 sin 2π103t modulates a carrier signal of frequency 1 MHz
with frequency modulation index of 10 units (in FM) and phase modulation index of 10 (in
PM).Determine the bandwidth for FM and PM signal. Also find the bandwidth under the
following conditions:(a) when modulating frequency is doubled. (b) when amplitude of the
modulating signal is also halved.
Solution: mf = 10 mp = 10 fm= 1kHz
For FM:
Wide Band Frequency Modulation
BW (FM) = 2 fm (mf +1)
BW (FM) = 22kHz
a) fm is doubled, fm= 2kHz
As mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm
So mf is halved i.e mf = 5
BW(FM) = 2 fm (mf +1)
BW (FM) = 24kHz
b) fm is halved, fm= 0.5kHz
As mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm
So mf is doubled i.e mf = 20
BW (FM) = 2 fm (mf +1)
BW (FM) = 21kHz

For PM:

BW (PM) = 2 fm (mp +1)

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BW (PM) = 22kHz
a) fm is doubled, fm= 2kHz
As mp = (Kf x Vm)
mp will not change
BW (PM) = 2 fm (mp +1)
BW (PM) = 44kHz

b) fm halved, fm= 0.5kHz

As mp = (Kf x Vm)
mp will not change
BW (PM) = 2 fm (mp +1)
BW (PM) = 11kHz

Q5. An FM modulator operates at carrier frequency of 500 kHz with frequency deviation
sensitivity of 1.5 kHz/V. A PM modulator also operates at carrier frequency of 500 kHz with
phase deviation sensitivity of 0.75 rad/V. Both FM and PM modulators are modulated by the
same modulating signal having peak amplitude of 4V and modulating frequency of 2 kHz.
(a) Is it possible to distinguish the FM spectrum from the PM spectrum?
(b) If the modulating frequency is changed to 1 kHz, is it now possible to distinguish the FM
spectrum from the PM spectrum?
Solution: Kf=1.5 kHz/V, Vm=4V, fm= 2 MHz, Kp =0.75 rad/V
a) mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm
mf = 3

mp = (Kp x Vm)
mp = 3

Since mf and mp are same, their spectrums will also be the same for modulating
frequency of 2kHz. Therefore, they can’t be distinguished from each other.

b) fm= 1kHz
mf = (Kf x Vm)/ fm
mf = 6

mp = (Kp x Vm)
mp = 3

Since mf and mp are not equal, their spectrums will not be the same for modulating
frequency of 1kHz. Therefore, they can be distinguished from each other.

Q6 (a) The AM broadcast receiver is tuned to a radio station at 590 kHz.

(i) Find the image frequency.
(ii) Calculate the image-frequency rejection ratio in dB, assuming that the input filter consists
of one tuned circuit with a Q of 40.
Solution:
(i) Image Frequency = fi= fs + 2fif = 590 + 2(455) kHz
fi = 1.5MHz
(ii) Q= 40

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ρ= fi/fs – fs/fi
ρ= (1500/590)-(590/1500)= 2.15
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio= α = √ 1+ ρ2 Q 2
α = √ 1+( 4.6225∗1600)
α = 86
Converting In decibels,
αdb=20log(α)
αdb = 38.68 dB

Q6 (b) Compare the performance of square law and envelope AM demodulators.

Solution: 1. Square Law Demodulator:-

 It is used for detecting modulating signal with modulation index > 1 or < 1
 However, it is rarely used as it has some DC component as well.
 The receiver end does not need to know the carrier frequency

2.Envelope Demodulator:-

 It is used for detecting modulating signal with modulation index < 1 only.
 It creates envelope of AM wave based on charging and discharging of
capacitor.
 Charging should be fast (Tc>> RsC) while discharging should be slow (Td <<
RLC), to avoid diagonal clipping.

Q6 (c) List the factors on which the sensitivity of an AM receiver depends. Suggest some
means with which the sensitivity of an AM receiver be improved?

Solution: Sensitivity of a receiver is the ability of the receiver to amplify weak signals
received by the receiver. It is the voltage that must be applied at the input terminals of the

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receiver to achieve a minimum standard output at the output of the receiver. The factors that
on which the sensitivity of super heterodyne receiver are-

 Gain of the IF & RF amplifier

 Noise figure of the receiver

Changes to improve sensitivity-

 Reducing the Noise Level

 Optimise Impedance Matching
 Reducing Bandwidth of the Receiver
 Increasing Gain of RF amplifier

Q6 (d) What is AGC? Why is it required in a practical receiver?

Solution: Automatic Gain Control or AGC is a circuit design which maintains the same level
of amplification for sound or radio frequency. It is a closed-loop feedback regulating circuit
in an amplifier or chain of amplifiers, the purpose of which is to maintain a suitable signal
amplitude at its output, in spite of variation of the signal amplitude at the input.

It si required for following purposes:

 The average or peak output signal level is used to dynamically adjust

the gain of the amplifiers, enabling the circuit to work satisfactorily with a
greater range of input signal levels.
  If the signal is too low the AGC circuit will increase (amplify) the level and if
is to high will lower it to maintain a constant level as possible
 In a typical receiver the AGC feedback control signal is usually taken from
the detector stage and applied to control the gain of the IF or RF amplifier
stages.
 Without AGC the sound emitted from an AM radio receiver would vary to an
extreme extent for a weak to a strong signal.
 The AGC effectively reduces the volume if the signal is strong and raises it
when it is weaker.

Q7 (a) Compute the figure of merit in case of FM signal for a sinusoidal modulation with
maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz and baseband bandwidth of IF filter of 15 kHz:.

Solution: Frequency deviation=75kHz fm=15kHz

Modulation Index (m) =(Frequency deviation)/ fm =(75kHz)/(15kHz) = 5

For sinusoidal wave modulation

Figure of Merit = NFFM = 3kf2P/w2 = (3/2) m2
NFFM = 3*(5)2/2
NFFM = 37.5
NFFM(db) = 10log(37.5)=15.74db

Q7 (b) How is communication receiver different from standard FM radio receiver?

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Solution: Communication Receiver- It’s main function is the reception of signals used for
communication, rather than entertainment designed to perform tasks of low and high
frequency reception much better than radio sets found commonly at homes. Also used to
detect signals from high frequency impedance bridges.

FM Radio Receivers-It is used for much higher operating frequencies in pre-

emphasis and de-emphasis thus improving signal to noise ratio .It has applications in
demodulators and AGC.

Q7 (c) Why is commercial stereo FM noisier than monophonic FM?

Solution: A stereo FM signal transmits both Mono (L+R) and stereo (L-R) signals
multiplexed together, plus pilot tones, to allow the signal to be decoded by the receiver
whereas a mono-only signal transmits only the mono signal, with no pilot tone. The
difference, at long distances, is that the mono-only signal is twice as powerful as the stereo
signal. Also, if the receiver is moving (like in a car) there is less multi-path interference. In
fringe areas, the stereo signal can become weak enough to be undecodable, causing the
receiver to switch between mono and stereo modes, which are disconcerting to the average
listener, especially during music.Thus, commercial FM stereo is noisier than monophonic
FM.

Q7 (d) How can threshold effect in FM receivers be reduced?

Solution: FM threshold is the Carrier-to-Noise ratio at which demodulated Signal-to-Noise

ratio falls 1dB below the linear relationship. This is the effect produced in an FM receiver
when noise limits the desired information signal.

To limit threshold effect we Reduce the following i.e. noise at IF amplifier, IF bandwidth,
frequency deviation at the transmitter, as bandwidth depends on it. Thus Flywheel effect of
tank circuit can come into role due to this

Q7 (e) List various methods of FM generation and types of FM demodulators

Solution: FM Generation-

1. Direct Method-
fi= fc + Kf *m(t)
In Direct FM system, instantaneous frequency is directly varied with
information signal.
To vary the frequency of carrier, Oscillator is used, whose resonant frequency
can be varied with its components. The carrier frequency is thus varied with
amplitude of modulating signal.

a.Varactor Modulator-

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b.Reactance Modulator-

2. Indirect Method-
X(t)= A cos (wc(t) + θ(t))
t

θ(t) = 2πKpm(t) = 2πKf∫ m ( τ ) dτ

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Angle Modulation involves frequency and phase modulation.
Since FM is produced by PM , the later is referred to as indirect FM.
The information signal is first integrated and then used to phase modulate a
crystal-controlled oscillator, which provides frequency stability.
In order to minimize the distortion in the phase modulator, the modulation
index is kept small, thereby is resulting in a narrow-band FM-signal.

Armstrong Method-

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FM Demodulation-

1.Slope Detector-

In this method, the input FM signal is converted to an AM signal by

the differentiator.
Then an AM demodulation method is used to demodulate the converted
signal.

2.Balanced Slope Detector-

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This circuit uses two slope detectors, connected in back to back

fashion, to opposite ends of center- tapped transformer, and so fed 180 o out of
phase.
The top secondary circuit is tuned above the IF by an amount δf, and
bottom circuit is tuned below IF by δf.
Each circuit is connected to diode detectors with suitable RC loads.
The output is taken across series combination of loads, so that it is sum of the
individual outputs.

3. Foster Seeley Discriminator-

In this all the tuned circuits are tuned to the same frequency.
Balanced Slope Detector circuit with some changes is used.
This circuit yields far better linearity than slope detection.
Voltage across diode= Vin + Secondary voltage/2
In Transformer voltage is induced in the secondary as a result of
current in primary.

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4. Ratio Detector-

Ratio detector demodulator is modified Foster- Seeley circuit in order

to incorporate amplitude limiting.

Q8(a) Determine the value of the capacitive reactance obtainable from a reactance FET FM
modulator whose trans conductance is 10 mill Siemens (mS). Assume that the gate to source
resistance is one- eighth of reactance of the drain to gate capacitive reactance. The operating
frequency is 5 MHz
Solution: f=5 MHz , gm=10mS R=1/8(Xc)
Now
Ceq= gm/(2𝜋fn)
2𝜋fCeq = gm/n or (1/ Xc) = gm/n

Xc= n/ gm = 8/(10* 10-3) = 800 ohm

Q8.(b) Describe the operation of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator with the help of its circuit
diagram.
Solution:

In this all the tuned circuits are tuned to the same frequency. Balanced Slope Detector circuit
with some changes is used. This circuit yields far better linearity than slope detection. In
Transformer voltage is induced in the secondary as a result of
current in primary.
Voltage across diode= Vin + Secondary voltage/2

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When the instantaneous input equals the carrier frequency, the two halves of the tuned
transformer circuit produce the same rectified voltage and the output is zero. If the frequency
of the input changes, the balance between the two halves of the transformer secondary
changes, and the result is a voltage proportional to the frequency deviation of the carrier.

It operates using a phase difference between signals. To obtain the different phased signals a
connection is made to the primary side of the transformer using a capacitor and this is taken
to the centre tap of the transformer. This gives a signal that is 90° out of phase.
The limiter/amplifier circuit is a special amplifier circuit which limits the amplitude of the
signal. This limiting keeps interfering noise low by removing 3-13 excessive amplitude
variations from signals.

Based on this analysis,

1. Fin=Fc then Vin leads Vab by 90.

2. Fin>Fc then Vin leads Vab by more than 90.
3. Fin>Fc then Vin leads Vab by less than 90.

Q8(c) Compare the major features (of Balanced Slope FM detector, Ratio FM Detector and
Phase FM discriminator.
Solution:
Major features of Slope FM detector, Ratio FM detector and Phase FM
discriminator are as follows:

 RATIO DETECTOR: It uses a double-tuned transformer to convert the

instantaneous frequency variations of the fm input signal to
instantaneous amplitude variations. This detector demodulates fm

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signals and suppresses amplitude noise without the need of limiter

stages. The ratio detector is not affected by amplitude variations on the
fm wave. Ratio detectors can operate with as little as 100 millivolts of
input. This is much lower than that required for limiter saturation and
less gain is required from preceding stages.

 PHASE FM DISCRIMINATOR: It uses a double-tuned RF transformer to

convert frequency variations in the received fm signal to amplitude
variations. The output of the Foster-Seeley discriminator is affected not
only by the input frequency, but also to a certain extent by the input
amplitude. Using limiter stages before the detector is necessary. When
weak AM signals (too small in amplitude to reach the circuit limiting
level) pass through the limiter stages, they can appear in the output.
These unwanted amplitude variations will cause primary voltage ep to
fluctuate with the modulation. This unwanted AM interference is
cancelled out in the ratio detector.

 BALANCED SLOPE FM DETECTOR: Two slope detectors are used and are
connected in back to back manner. Difficult to tune. Amplitude limiting
is not available. One circuit is tuned at frequency slightly above the
carrier frequency while other one tuned at frequency slightly below the
carrier frequency.

Q8(d) In a Armstrong FM transmitter, the narrowband carrier frequency f1 = 0.1 MHz , and
second carrier frequency f2 = 8.5 MHz, output carrier frequency = 100 MHz and Δf = 75 kHz.
Calculate multiplying factors n1 and n2 if narrowband frequency deviation is 10 Hz. Verify
the results and show various parameters in its functional block diagram .
Solution:

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Q8(e) The FM receiver also operates on the principle of `super heterodyning’ as the AM
receiver. Give suitable illustration of a simplified block diagram of FM super heterodyne
receiver. Also bring out the major differences between FM and AM super heterodyne
receivers

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Solution: FM Receiver also works on the principle of superhetrodyne receiver. RF amplifier

is used to reduce the noise figure which otherwise poses a big problem as it requires large
bandwidth. Also matched input impedance of receiver to the antenna.Excited oscillators are
used, while colpitt and clap being predominant ones. Tuning frequency is much less than that
in AM broadcasting. Intermediate frequency is very high and also bandwidth is high which
reduces gain at each stage. More than 1 IF amplifiers are provided. Amplitude limiter used to
remove amplitude variations. AF amplifier is used to increase power level and we get original
sound signal from speaker.

Difference between FM and AM receiver:

 Much higher operation frequency in FM.
 Need for limiting de-emphasis if FM.
 Totally different demodulation technique.
 Different methods to obtain automatic gain control.

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