2&1‫احصاء‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬

Lecture 1

Statistics: is collection of scientific methods for collecting, displaying, analyzing, and

drawing conclusions from data.

Q/ Explain the importance of statistic in scientific research?

1- Selecting research problem

2- Data collection
3- Stating of hypothesis
4- Displaying and drawing of data
5- Analyzing and data interpretation

Q/ Explain the sources of data collection?

1- Primary data: are information collected by a researcher specifically for a research

assignment. Such data is original is generated by survey conducted by individuals.

Methods collect the primary data:

 Direct personal interviews

 Indirect oral interviews
 Information from correspondents
 Questionnaire method

2- Secondary data: are those data which have been already collected for some other
purpose and at different time in the past.

Questionnaire: is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful

information about a given topic.

Q/ what are the conditions for designing the questionnaire?

1- Questions should be written in a straightforward, direct language.

2- Questions should be kept short and simple.
3- Specific questions are for the most part better than general ones.
4- Avoid Questions that are overly personal or direct, especially when dealing with
sensitive issues.

Sampling: is a process of selecting samples from a group or population to become the

foundation for estimating and predicting the data.

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 2&1‫احصاء‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬
Q/ Enumerate types of sampling techniques?

1- Probability sampling
a) Random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Systematic sampling
d) Cluster sampling

2- Non- Probability sampling

a) Quota sampling
b) Purposive sampling

Lecture 2
CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION
Classification: is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups according to
separating them into different but related parts.

Important types of classification

1) Geographical (i.e., on the basis of area or region wise)

2) Chronological (On the basis of Temporal / Historical, i.e. with respect to time)
3) Qualitative (on the basis of character/ attributes)
4) Quantitative (on the basis of magnitude)

1- Geographical Classification
In geographical classification, the classification is based on the geographical regions.

Example/ Sales of the company (in Million Rupees) (region – wise)

Region Sales
North 285
South 300
East 185
West 235

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 2&1‫احصاء‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬
2- Chronological Classification
If the statistical data are classified according to the time of its occurrence, the type of
classification is called chronological classification.

Month Sales (Rs.) in Lakhs

January 22
February 26
March 32
April 25
May 27

3- Qualitative Classification
In qualitative classifications, the data are classified according to the presence or
absence of attributes in given units.
Example/ a) Population in to Male / Female
b) Population into Educated / Uneducated
4- Quantitative Classification
In Quantitative classification, the classification is based on quantitative measurements.
Ex: For a 50 marks test, Marks obtained by students as classified

Marks No. of students

0 – 10 5
10 – 20 7
20 – 30 10
30 – 40 25

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 2&1‫احصاء‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬
Tabulation: may be defined, as systematic arrangement of data is column and rows.

Differences between Classification and Tabulation

1. First data are classified and presented in tables; classification is the basis for
tabulation.
2. Tabulation is a mechanical function of classification because is tabulation classified
data are placed in row and columns.
3. Classification is a process of statistical analysis while tabulation is a process of
presenting data is suitable structure.

Types of
variables

Quantitative Qualitative

It can be measured For example: Not capable of being measured

Some of them can be ordered (called -
- The heights of adult males ordinal) and some of them can't be
- The ages of patients ordered (called nominal)
For example/ Gender (male, female)

Continuous Nominal Ordinal

Can assume any Classified into Can be ranked
Discrete
value within a various or ordered
Interruptions in according to
specified mutually
the values that it relevant interval some criterion
can assume exclusive Ex:Grades
of values
assumed by the categories Excellent-
variable Ex:Male-female V.good-Good

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 2&1‫احصاء‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬
Frequency Distribution: defined as a way of summarizing data by showing the number
of observations that belong in the different categories or classes.

Grouped Frequency Distribution

To prepare a grouped frequency distribution, following steps are taken into constructing
frequency tables:

1- Find the largest and smallest values

2- Calculate the range of the data. The range is the difference between the highest and
smallest values of the given data.
Range = (Highest Value - Lowest Value) +1
3- Select the number of classes desired. This is usually between 5 and 20
Sturges formula to find number of classes is given below:
K =1+ 3.322 log N
Where: K = no. of class
log N = Logarithm of total no, of observations
4- Find the class width=Range/Number of classes
The class all taken together should cover at least the distance from the lowest value
in the data up to the highest value
5- Your starting point is the lower limit of the first class. Continue to add the class
width to this lower limit to get the rest of the lower limits.
6- To find the upper limit of the first class, subtract one from the lower limit of the
second class. Then continue to add the class width to this upper limit to find the rest
of the upper limits.
7- Tally the data.
8- Find the frequencies

9- Find the midpoint =

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 2&1‫احصاء‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬
Example\ Construct the frequency distribution for the following data:
62 58 58 52 48 53 54 63 69 63
57 56 46 48 53 56 57 59 58 53
52 56 57 52 52 53 54 58 61 63

1- Largest value = 69, Lowest value = 46

2- Range = (69-46) + 1 = 24
3- K=1+3.322 log(30) = 5.9~6 (Rounded off)
4- Class width = 24/6 = 4
Use 46 (minimum value) as first lower limit. Add the class width of 4 to get the
lower limit of the next class
46+4=50-1=49

Class interval Tally bars Frequency

46-49 III 3
50-53 IIII IIII 8
54-57 IIII IIII 8
58-61 IIII II 6
62-65 IIII 4
66-69 I 1