EQUIPMENT EARTHING

Chapter

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EQUIPMENT EARTHING
1. General
In the preceding chapter, the principles of system earthing have been discussed. Also,
the performance of the earthed and isolated systems under fault conditions has been
explained. Thus, the advantages and disadvantages of neutral earthing have been
presented.
In this chapter, specific equipment earthing is explained. Two important examples of
equipment are dealt with here, namely, the transformer neutral point earthing and
earthing of the equipment of a high voltage laboratory or similar.
2. Transformer neutral point earthling
It has been found through practice that single live to ground faults represents from 70
to 90 of the total network faults. Hence, the earthing of the transformer neutral point is
of considerable importance.
The selection of the earthing of the neutral point depends on the system voltage as well
as on the system MVA capacity. Thus, the neutral point of a transformer is earthed by
one of the following methods:
1. Direct earthing to ground.
2. Earthing through a suitable impedance.
a. Resistance grounding.
b. Reactance grounding.
c. Tuned reactor or Peterson coil.
2.1 Direct earthing
This method is called earthing or solidly grounding and can be used when the
transformer capacity is too small compared to the system capacity to help stabilizing the
voltage when a phase is short circuited to ground. It generally provides for almost equal
voltages for the 3-phases however the current is different in them.
As well, direct earthing is used for earthing transformers in case of isolated systems to
provide a feeding source for the protective relays.
Effective grounding in such a system is appropriate.
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It is clear that earthing the neutral point directly is the cheapest for the following
reasons:
1. No equipment like a resistor or inductor.... etc. is required.
2. Only an arrester is used in parallel with the neutral point isolating switch to absorb
over voltages at the neutral point.
3. Case of winding Y connection, the cost is minimum, case of A connection an
earthing transformer can be used increasing the cost to a limited extent.
Advantages
A major advantage for this method of earthing is that the resulting short circuit current
under all types of S.C. faults, is sufficient to operate the protective relays.
Disadvantages
1. Single line to ground faults may result in high current values exceeding the 3-ph S.C.
current, requiring higher S.C. capacity circuit breakers.
2. High S.C. currents may contain “high frequency oscillations, interfering with
communication circuits.
This disadvantages could be overcome by using high speed circuit breakers, working at
very short times, thus not affected by high frequency oscillations. In this case, the S.C.
capacity required is the 3-ph S.C. capacity.
2.2 Earthing through a suitable impedance
As a single line to ground S.C. takes place, the S.C. current shall be too high to reduce
the S.C. current by a defined value, an impedance is connected by the transformer
neutral point and the ground. This impedance can be:
1. A resistance.
2. A reactance, see Fig (2).
Thus, it is noted here that a better performance of the system is obtained with earthing
through a suitable impedance other than in cases of an insulated system or a directly
earthed one.
The effective grounding can be defined from sec. 32 - 1.05 of AIEE standard No 32
May 1974.
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Example:

In case of earthing through suitable impedance, there is no danger for supply continuity
as the current at the fault point does not cause rapid breakdown. The S.C. current is the
sum of the capacitive current and the current through the neutral point impedance.
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Fig. 2

In many cases, the earthing impedance may be increased to the extent that only normal
active currents pass through the point of S.C. fault. Further as a result of only active
current flow through the arcing fault point the arcing is less rigorous and can be
allowed for the short duration required for the protective gear to operate.
Earthing through a suitable impedance can be:
1. Resistance grounding.
2. Reactor grounding.
3. Tuned reactor or Peterson coil.
2.2.1 Resistance Grounding

In this system, a suitable resistance is connected between the neutral point and the
ground. In most cases the earthing resistance value is taken larger than the system
reactance. The single line to ground S.C. current is defined according to the earthing
resistance. As well, the earthing resistance can be defined according to the value of the
S.C. current allowed to flow during the S.C. period, Fig (3). The power loss in the
resistor during a S.C. fault should be considered. Fig. (4) presents for example the
relation between the power loss (as percentage of the system capacity) and the
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Fig. 4

Example:
In the given system

X1=X2=16% X1=X2=x0=8%
Z0=3R+j8
Z1 =Z2=j(16+8)=j24

3  100 300
PermitFaultCurrent I f = =
3R + j8 + j 24 + j 24 3R + j 56

Voltage Drop across R = ER + I F R

PR= the power loss in R = If ER = I2fR
If ER is in terms of normal value/phase, PR is in normal value/ph.
If PR is expressed in terms of a 3-ph system 10
I R2 R
PR =
3
If in p.u., R in %.
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The resistance value thus depends on:

1. The system voltage.
2. The system capacity.
Figure (5) presents, for example, the relation between the grounding resistance and the
system capacity (KVA) at various system voltages.

Fig. 5

This example takes into consideration the following assumptions:

1. The S.C. current value is 1/4 full load current of the system (the sum of all system
capacities at the base voltage)0.
2. The grounding resistance value is the resultant of the grounding resistances
connected in parallel, for example, in Fig. (6).
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Advantages of grounding through a resistor:

1. The resulting S.C. current is less than in case of direct grounding.
2. The resulting S.C. current is sufficient for protective relays operator.
3. The arcing ground fault is less rigorous and thus reducing the transient over
voltages occurring in an insulated system.
4. Network stability during S.C. to ground fault is improved as the reduction in power
due to reduced voltage is approximately equal to the power loss in the grounding
resistor, consequently reducing the increase in the swing angle.
Specifications
A grounding resistor is specified by the following parameters:
1. The resistance value in ohms.
2. The maximum current to flow in the resistor and frequency.
3. Minimum time required between two successive current flows.
4. Rated insulation level.
Liquid or Water Resistance
In general, there are two main types of resistors used for neutral point grounding:
1- Metal resistor
Generally consists of copper plates or bars (with heat radiators for cooling), connected
in series and supported on MV insulators, It is connected from one end to the neutral
point via an isolating switch and a suitable length of MV cable. A current transformer is
inserted in the circuit. The other end is connected to the common earth.
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2- Liquid or water resistor

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It is characterized by being cheap, practical can be maintained easily with any

considerable cost, and can withstand high currents.
Water resistor consists of a galvanized barrel (about 600 liters) filled with distilled water.
A galvanized iron cylinder of about 1/3 diameter of the barrel is suspended inside the
distilled water with a screwed iron bar coming out through a 11 KV bushing insulator.
Suitable amount of Sodium Bicarbonate (Na Hca O3)13 dissolved inside a glass of
distilled water and added with continuous stirring. The value of the resulting resistance
is measured and adjusted by further addition of sodium bicarbonate or addition of
distilled water.
After connecting the resistor to the neutral point of the transformer, some variations of
characteristics may take place, therefore, it should be disconnected after 48 hours of
operation and recalibrated, Fig (7).

Fig. 7

L = 25 - 30 cms

r1 and r2 are the radii of the cylinder and barrel.

 = specific resistivity of the liquid. cm. and should not be less than 10 kilo ohm. cm.
Effect of Temperature
As the electrolyte is the conducting medium in the liquid resistance, the increase of
temperature due to the flow of the unbalance current almost continuously in addition
to the S.C. currents when a fault occurs causes the reduction of the total resistance as
temperature increases, Fig (8) (i.e. a negative resistance). This results in increasing the
S.C. currents. To overcome this difficulty, a three perforated concentric cylinders
arrangement is used instead of one cylinder providing better cooling, Fig(9) % variation
of initial resistance with temperature
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Fig. 8:

Fig.9

Three electrodes water resistor Fig. 9

2.2.2 Earthing through a reactance

In this case, the neutral point is grounded through a reactance. In many cases, this
taked the form of a grounding transformer which is normally used to ground delta
connected transformers.
The earthing transformer is a short-time device, i.e. operates during short durations of
the faults. Therefore, its size and cost is much less than a power transformer having the
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same capacity but continuous duty one. The earthing transformer can be two windings
of transformation ratio 1:1, Z connected as in Fig (10).
The specifications of a typical earthing transformer are as follows:
• Class A.
• 3-phase.
• 50Hz.
• Voltage rating 11000 v zig zag.
• Designed to introduce 22 - 29 ohm impedance between each line terminal and
neutral.
• To carry 850 amp through the neutral bushing to ground for 10 sec without exceeding
a final temperature of218°C.

Fig. 10

Earthing of  connected transformer winding:

For this objective, the star point of the winding is artificially made by earthing
transformers having internal Y connection (zig zag connection), Fig. (11) or Y - 
connection as in Fig. (12).
The theory of operation of these earthing transformers have been explained in Chapter
1.
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2.2.3 Earthing through a tuned reactor (Peterson Coil)

The neutral points in H.V. networks are usually isolated. To operate the protection
equipment during faults, it is due to add an arc suppression coil between the neutral
point of the power transformer and the ground. Through this coil, called Peterson Coil,
the coil current IL compensates the capacitive current IC such that the difference
between them, which is the arc current (fault current) shall be very small, and the arc is
suppressed at the fault point, avoiding burning of conductors and breakdown of
insulation.
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The detailed theory of operation has been presented in Chapter 1.

The value of the coil inductance, hence IL’ can be varied to compensate IC by varying
the coil air gap (e.g. using an electric motor).
The technical data of a typical arc suppression tuned reactor, oil cooled, single phase
are as follows:
Type ZTCc 1250
Rated network voltage 11 KV 50 Hz
Rated output 1270 KVAr
Arc suppression coil rated 6.36 KV
Rated current 200 A
Regulation range 30 - 60 A
Load 120 Min.
Cooled Oil
Permissible temp. of D1, D2 75°c
Permissible temp. of oil 70°c
Motor drive 3 x 380 V
2.6 A, 1.1 Ky, 50Hz
3. Earthing system of high voltage laboratories and similar
The inside walls of corrugated aluminum sheets act as a faraday cage giving complete
screening.
Floor earthing system

Multilayer earthing network has been provided, use is made of the steel reinforcement
bars as an earthing network. The oxide layer acts chemically with the concrete and the
bar surface becomes conducting. As special steel is used for reinforcement it was not
permitted to weld to it. The following procedures has been adopted:
3.1 First Earthing Layer

A network composed of soft iron bars (two bars 10 mm 0 each) laid over the steel
reinforcement spaced 1.35 m apart & wrapped to the upper layer by soft iron wire.
The cross points of the soft iron mesh should be electrically welded. Each cross point
welding should be carefully checked to ensure solid connection (mechanical test is
sufficient).
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3.2 Second earthing layer:

Copper bars of 100 mm2 section (25 x 4mm) are laid at a spacing of 2.7 m. over the soft
iron network as shown in the sketch.
The copper bars are brazed at the cross points via copper to copper and copper to soft
iron at all cross points.

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Important note:
All welding and brazing at cross points should be well checked point by point to ensure
good mechanical and electrical connection.
At the cross points (cu - cu) two earthing leads of flexible copper cable are brought out
to connect: a) the flanged pipe pieces which support the columns of the protecting
earthed fence, b) to the final expanded copper mesh layer which forms the 3rd earthed
layer.

Copper network & earthed flanged pipe pieces Sketch of flanged pipe pieces placed at
2.7 m distance to serve as support for protecting earthed fence.

3.3 Third earthed layer

Over the main concrete slab a layer of soft cement mortar about 5 cm thick is provided.
In this layer the 3rd earthed network is provided. It is composed of expanded metal
copper mesh, the rolls of the expanded metal mesh should be brazed together with an
overlap of about 10cm. The 2nd earthing lead from the copper bars are brazed to this
copper mesh.
Further the flanged pipe pieces are fitted with 3 arms of expanded copper mesh brazed
to the piece & these arms are also brazed to the copper mesh.
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Expanded copper mesh pieces 80cm length 25mm width brazed to the flanged pipe
piece. The arms are brazed 10 the expanded metal copper mesh layer.

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Connection to the earth

The steel reinforcement bars are connected to earth by means of two steel bars 90 mm
0 each put in the foundation piles.
To ensure good electrical connection, this is done externally through an earthing bar
connection.

Bitail of copper mesh arms of the flanged arms of the flanged pipe piece
3.5 Suggestions for desert areas

As the site of the projected lab is in a desert area where the earth resistance may
be high, earthing electrodes at the corners of the lab building with copper
electrode inside steel pipe reaching the subsoil level, electrode & pipe connected
electrically together.
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