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volume 34, no. 11 N ove m b e r 2008

Distribution Shah Rahman is vice president,
Pipelines Division, Fibrwrap Construction
(www.fibrwrapconstruction.com), Ontario, Calif.

Technology is helping utilities locate water main breaks, estimate damage, and
repair specific sections quickly and cost-effectively. BY SHAH RAHMAN

DON’T STRESS OVER

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CYLINDER

PIPE FAILURES
C
ARBON FIBER-REINFORCED poly-
mers (CFRPs) have been used to
structurally rehabilitate steel and
concrete structures in North America
for more than two decades. Using these advanced
composite systems, engineers routinely strengthen forced concrete structure. CFRPs consist of fibers
bridges, buildings, waterfront piers, industrial
facilities, and many other civil works structures
that have been in service for many years. Struc-
tural renewal of large-diameter pressure pipe-
lines also has been performed with CFRPs in
201 in. (about 17 ft). Pipe retrofits can also be
performed externally.
CFRP composites used in strengthening applica-
tions are additional tension members that bond to
and supplement the strength of an existing rein-
of high-tensile strength combined with a resin
matrix. Several thousand carbon fiber filaments
are twisted together to form a yarn that can be
woven or stitched into a fabric (Figure 1). CFRPs
are held together by a resin matrix—the “poly-
PHOTOGRAPHS: FIBRWRAP CONSTRUCTION

municipal and industrial facilities for more than mer” component of the CFRP (Figure 2). CFRPs
a decade. The method is typically trenchless and are high-strength-to-weight ratio materials that are
performed completely inside pipes with diame- ideal for high-tensile strength, low-weight, and
ters of 30-in. and larger—even pipes as large as low-thermal-expansion applications.

10 Opflow November 2008 www.awwa.org/communications/opflow

CFRP repair requires the host pipe to be placed out
of service and dewatered for entry by repair personnel
and manual application of the composite layers.
Distribution
Figure 1. Dry Carbon
Fiber Fabric
Carbon fiber filaments are twisted
together to form a yarn that can be
woven or stitched into a fabric.
The resin matrix serves as a load
path between each fiber filament, mak-
ing the composite pliable and protecting
the fiber. Epoxy is the most commonly
used resin in strengthening applica-
tions. Each epoxy has unique properties
and contributes to a composite’s unique
strength, stiffness, and other physical/
mechanical properties for engineered
applications.
AWWARF RESEARCH ON PCCP
Most water transmission mains in North
America are large-diameter prestressed
concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) and steel
pipe. Because these pipes are so large,
their failures can be catastrophic, usually
Figure 2. Cross-Sectional View of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer Composite
CFRPs are held together by a resin matrix—the “polymer” component of the CFRP.
Carbon Fiber
Resin Matrix
12 Opflow November 2008
affecting large populations. According to
a recent Awwa Research Foundation study
on PCCP, Failure of Prestressed Concrete
Cylinder Pipe:
O
Almost 100 million ft (about 19,000 mi)
of PCCP was manufactured between
1940 and 2006.
O
A database of PCCP failures contains
592 independent entries, representing
three categories of failure in 35 states
and the District of Columbia.
O
Within 50 yr of installation, one rup-
ture and 66 other failures occurred for
every 264,000 ft (50 mi) of pipe.
O
A significant increased failure rate
occurred for pipe installed between
1971 and 1979 because of the type
of prestressing wire used during this
period.
O
Half of the recorded catastrophic leaks
and breaks involved pipe manufac-
tured or installed between 1971 and
1979.
In the last decade, electromagnetic
and acoustic technologies have been
developed that can help municipalities
locate and accurately estimate the num-
ber of wire breaks in pipe sections. Fur-
ther analysis of the electromagnetic and
acoustic data helps pipeline owners pri-
oritize rehabilitation initiatives. The abil-
ity to precisely isolate and repair specific
deficient pipe sections results in tremen-
dous cost and time savings.
Single Carbon
Fiber Filament
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
When a structurally deficient pipe section
has been identified, it can be repaired
with CFRP. Most pipes rehabilitated with
CFRP have been PCCP, but large-diameter
steel pipes also have been repaired using
this technology.
CFRP repair provides several bene-
fits. The CFRP repair method is trench-
less, eliminating the need to dig around or
through surface structures. All components
of the system—fiber, epoxies, tack coats,
primers, and top coats—must be NSF-61
certified and ideal for potable water appli-
cations. The volatile organic compounds
in all CFRP epoxies should be well below
US Environmental Protection Agency
limits and environmentally friendly.
The segmental repair system allows
personnel to repair only a specific pipe
section. Significant time savings result. For
example, 20-ft pipe sections with diame-
ters larger than 66-in. can be rehabilitated
in as little as 72 hr, which is often less time
than is required to remove and replace a
pipe section or for other repair options.
Because one layer of CFRP is only 0.04-in.
thick, pipeline flow losses are negligible.
A typical high-pressure application usually
renders only a ¼- to ½-in.-thick compos-
ite liner. In addition, the CFRP system pro-
vides a significantly smoother flow surface
than the host pipe. However, CFRP repair
requires the host pipe to be placed out of
service and dewatered for entry by repair
personnel and manual application of the
composite layers.
SYSTEM DESIGN
CFRP composite systems are linearly
elastic to failure, whereas steel yields
and plastically deforms to failure. When
designing a structural strengthening sys-
tem, it’s important to consider stiffness,
strength, and strain. In CFRP liners, elas-
tic modulus and strain limitations control
the system’s performance. Inside a PCCP
line, the CFRP liner acts as a barrier that
controls the level of strain experienced
by the steel cylinder in the host pipe. The
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composite liner enables the steel cylin-
der to perform within its elastic range—
at or below industry-recommended
levels—to ensure the pipeline’s long-
term performance is maintained.
STEP BY STEP
INSIDE A CFRP REHABILITATION PROJECT
The wet lay-up carbon fiber-reinforced poly-
mer (CFRP) process is a method by which the
dry CFRP fabric is saturated in the field with
epoxy resin, then applied internally to full sec-
tions/pieces of structurally deficient pipe.
1. Before commencing repairs, assess
the host pipe’s condition, set up emergency
plans, check for hazardous gases, and set
up ventilation and dehumidification systems.
2. In PCCP lines (2a), use a high-pressure
hydroblasting unit to remove a minimum
1 2a
3a
5a
www.awwa.org/communications/opflow
In CFRP liners, elastic modulus
and strain limitations control
AWWA-recommended strain limita-
tions are 50 percent and 75 percent
of the steel yield point for operating and
surge conditions, respectively. Conse-
quently, these limits result in low CFRP
1/16-in.of concrete from the inner core sur-
face. In steel lines (2b), the cement–mortar
lining or any other type of internal lining
should be removed first, followed by a further
abrasive treatment of the pipe to white steel.
3. In preparation for the fiber saturation
process, epoxy resins are mixed on-site (3a).
A specially designed saturator is used to sat-
urate measured lengths of 2-ft-wide dry fiber
fabric (3b). When saturation is complete, the
composites must be applied within three hr.
3b
5b
the system’s performance.
stresses, providing a factor of safety
greater than 5 for the CFRP liner. So when
a composite liner is used, the retrofitted
pipeline will have the ability to address
standard operating and surge pressures
4. After the surface is properly prepared
and the walls have dried, additional repairs
to the concrete surface can be conducted if
necessary. Next, the surface is primed for
application of composite layers.
5. The saturated rolls of composite are
applied to the pipe wall. When the composite
is applied in the circumferential direction, the
pipe is strengthened for hoop stress (5a).
When the composite is applied in the longi-
tudinal direction, some level of resistance to
bending moments is accomplished (5b).
6. A final topcoat further protects the
composite layers.
2b
4
6
November 2008 Opflow 13
Distribution
per industry recommendations, but will
also have the ability to control short-
term pressures common to unforeseen
rapid valve closures that result in transient
pressures up to five times operating con-
ditions. Therefore, CFRP-liner designs are
CASE STUDIES
CFRP TO THE RESCUE
Case studies demonstrate that carbon fiber-
reinforced polymer (CFRP) repair saves time
and money, eliminating the need for large
open-trench repair projects.
Southwest Transmission Main, Mary-
land. Following a 2006 condition assess-
ment of Maryland’s Southwest Transmission
Main—a PCCP line that serves the city of
Baltimore and Baltimore, Howard, and Anne
Arundel counties—it was determined that
repairs were necessary to avoid future cata-
strophic failures. Deficiencies identified pre-
stressing wire breaks, longitudinal cracking,
and delamination of the concrete core.
Fully structural CFRP renewal was carried
out on 68 sections of 54-in. and 36-in. pipe,
with internal pressures ranging from 75 psi to
150 psi. Another 19 sections of pipe in Anne
Arundel County with minor circumferential
cracking were “stitched” with CFRP to prevent
groundwater infiltration through the cracks.
Howard County’s 33 sections of 36-in. pipe
were completed in 23 days. Feasibility stud-
ies had shown that traditional repair methods
would have taken four to six mo.
The Southwest Transmission Main
called for internal visual and sounding
inspections before surface preparation
could begin.
14 Opflow November 2008
based on strain compatibility between the
liner and host pipeline. Controlling strain
significantly increases long-term durability
by ensuring the CFRP and host materi-
als don’t exceed limits for stress, crack-
ing, and creep.
Conduit 94, Denver. In February 2008,
Denver Water experienced a catastrophic
failure in a 66-in.-diameter section of steel
pipe in Conduit 94 because of a pump fail-
ure. The failed section, located near an
elbow where the steel pipe transitioned to
PCCP, was replaced on an emergency basis
with 40 ft of new cement–mortar-lined steel
pipe that was procured from the inventory
of a local steel pipe manufacturer. The two
new sections were 0.307-in. and 0.375-in.
thick, which didn’t meet the Denver Water
Board’s specified factor of safety of 2 for
the design working pressure of 225 psi
and surge pressure of 90 psi. Due to the
location of the line 15 ft directly under-
neath the highway, CFRP repair was the
only available option to upgrade the pipe.
CFRP design considered safety factors
for long-term load, short-term load, core
crushing, and radial tensile strength. The
parameters were met by using eight layers
of carbon-fiber composites. The cement–
mortar lining was removed, and one lon-
gitudinal layer of glass fiber served as a
dielectric barrier. The project was com-
pleted in a week during a scheduled main-
tenance shutdown.
Denver Water’s John Bambei (left)
investigated the failed pipe section
with Dr. Mehdi Zarghamee (right).
ONGOING AWWARF RESEARCH
AWWARF and USEPA are funding research
being performed by the US Bureau of
Reclamation on the use of CFRP for the
structural renewal of PCCP. AWWA RF
Project No. 4114, Fiber Rehabilitation of
Superior Pipeline, Phoenix. The 60-in.
PCCP Superior Pipeline conveys surface
water from the Val Vista Water Treatment
Plant to customers in southern Phoenix. It
was designed for 175 psi, a working pres-
sure of 125 psi and 50 psi surge pressure.
In October 2006, a 24-ft section catastroph-
ically failed. The failure was later attributed
to corrosion of prestressing wire due to
hydrogen embrittlement and possible pipe
damage during installation.
Before placing the pipeline back into ser-
vice, inspection revealed that 22 sections of
the 60-in. line needed immediate structural
repair, which was performed using CFRP. Due
to high demand on the water main and the
short time allowed for completing the work,
repair schedules were tight. On all occa-
sions, the projects were completed on time
or ahead of schedule.
Author’s Note: The case studies on the
Southwest Transmission Main and the Supe-
rior Pipeline were adapted from technical
papers presented at the American Society of
Civil Engineers Pipelines International Con-
ference 2008, Atlanta, authored by Frank
Donaldson et al. and Aimee Conroy et al.,
respectively.
On the Superior Pipeline project,
crews performed repairs farther from
the access point than they had ever
attempted.
www.awwa.org/communications/opflow
 New CFRP research and development
will continue to yield more efficient
systems and economical solutions.

Prestressed Concrete Pipe, is addressing CFRP repair can also be performed

CFRP material properties and installation externally when appropriate.
issues, as well as taking an in-depth look at
design issues and long-term material dura-
bility. At the conclusion of the three-year
study, an AWWARF report will be produced,
along with a USBR specification on CFRP
rehabilitation that can be used as a basis
for designing and installing CFRP systems
for PCCP repair and renewal. These efforts
will supplement current design methods
and may also serve to initiate what will
eventually result in the publication of an
AWWA Standard. In recent AWWA Con-
crete Pipe Committee discussions, it has
been suggested that the report may be a
good basis for the inclusion of a chapter
on the rehabilitation of PCCP in the AWWA
Manual of Water Supply Practice M9, Con-
crete Pressure Pipe.

ON THE HORIZON
Faced with the challenges of structur-
ally deficient large-diameter PCCPs, some
of which fail catastrophically, there is
a conscious effort today on the part of
many large infrastructure owners to be
proactive rather than reactive. Using
various electromagnetic and acoustic
technologies, they are making worthwhile
investments in investigating and analyz-
ing their large-diameter buried transmis-
sion lines and taking immediate action
to structurally rehabilitate the worst pipe
sections with CFRP technology. New CFRP
research and development will continue
to yield more efficient systems and eco-
nomical solutions.

CFRP INSTALLATION R ESO URCES

AWWA Manual of Water Supply Practices
QUALITY CONTROL IS KEY TO EFFECTIVE USE O

M9: Concrete Pressure Pipe, 1995.

The performance and long-term durability of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sys- O
ICC AC 125: Acceptance Criteria for Con-
tems inside pipelines can be ensured by crete and Reinforced and Unreinforced
O
using experienced installers who have more than five years of underground infrastruc- Masonry Using Externally Bonded Fiber-
ture work experience and an equal amount of experience with CFRP applications. Reinforced Polymer.
O
submitting structural and durability testing results by the materials manufacturer and O
ICC ESR 2103: Concrete and Masonry
the applicator (examples include full-scale external load testing and internal pressure Strengthening Using the Tyfo Fibrwrap
testing of pipes, environmental durability testing, biological growth-support-potential Fiber-Reinforced Composite Systems.
testing, anticavitation testing, checking for volatile organic compounds in resins, and O
Loera, R. 2006. PCCP Carbon-Fiber-Liner
ultraviolet testing for external applications). Repair Standard Specifications. In: Atalah,
O
material approvals from independent agencies such as International Code Council. A., Tremblay, A., editors. Service to the
O
ensuring that all components of the CFRP system, including the fiber, epoxies, tack Owner. Proceedings of the American Soci-
coats, primers, and top coats are all certified to NSF 61 requirements for potable water ety of Civil Engineers Pipelines Interna-
applications. tional Conference, Chicago. Reston, Va.
O
confirming in-field sample tensile strength for all applications per ASTM D3039, Stan- O
Romer, A.E., Bell, G.E.C. 2008. Failure
dard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials and of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe.
adhesion testing on bond-critical projects per ASTM D4541, Standard Test Method for AWWA Research Foundation. Report
Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers. No. 91214, Denver.

www.awwa.org/communications/opflow November 2008 Opflow 15