UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

An efficient system of drainage to carry away surface and soil water from a building is essential. If
the drain is unsound and leaking, the escaping water may be a risk to public health and may also
wash away the soil below the foundations, causing undue settlement of the building.

Drains must satisfy various technical considerations and very often drainage economy influence the
sitting and planning of a building.

Where a public sewer is available, it is usually economical to discharge the drainage into it.

If the public sewer passes within 30m of the site, the local authority may insist that drainage be
connected to it.

Systems of Drainage

There are three types, which are:

Combined drainage

Separate drainage

Partially separate drainage.
The system used depends upon the local authority regulations.

Combined System

This uses a single drain to convey both foul and surface water to a shared sewer. The system is
economical to install, but the processing costs at the treatment plant are high.

Separate System

Foul water discharges are conveyed by foul water drains to a foul water sewer or private sewer
disposal plant, while surface water is drained to a public surface water sewer or soak away.

This is shown on the diagram above.

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Partially Separate System

Basically a separate system but in order to serve on drainage costs some isolated drain water inlets,
usually at the rear of the building, are allowed to be connected to a foul water drainage.

Comparison between the Separate and Combined System

Separate System Combined System

1. Two sets of drains, increases the cost - Only one drain for both foul & surface
of drainage. water which reduces the cost of drainage,
although this can be offset by size of
drain.
2. There is risk of wrong connection – - No risk of wrong connection
foul drain to surface water drain.
3. Foul water drain not thoroughly - Foul water thoroughly flushed by the
flushed by rainwater. surface water.
4. Size of sewer disposal plant is much - The size is greater.
smaller
5. Cost of sewage purification is less - Cost is greater
6. If sewage is pumped to the sewage - Possibly greater pumping costs.
disposal works there is reduction in cost
of pumping.

Points to consider in the design of a good drainage system.

Number of traps, bends and manholes to be kept at a minimum.

Pipes laid in straight lines from point to point.
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Pipes should be non-absorbent, durable and smooth.

Foul water drains adequately ventilated to prevent accumulation of foul gases and fluctuation of air
pressure, leading to unsealing of gully or WC traps

All parts of drainage system should be accessible for cleaning and inspection.

Pipes should be laid to a self-cleansing gradient.

Velocity of flow should not be less than 0.8m/sec, which will prevent stranding of solid matter.

Branch connections should be swept in the direction of flow.

Pipes should not pass under a building unless absolutely necessary and they should also not be laid
close to building foundations.

Drainpipes should be at least 900mm below roads and at least 600mm below fields and gardens.

Clay pipes under roads should have their strength increased by surrounding them with 150mm
thickness of insitu concrete.

Drain Diameters

The size of surface water drain should be sufficient to carry away the usual maximum rainfall
intensity for the area, with an allowance for the impermeability factors of various types of surfaces.

Type Of Surface Impermeability Factor

Water tight roof surfaces 0.70 - 0.95
Asphalt pavement in good order 0.85 - 0.90
Closely jointed wood and stone pavements 0.80 - 0.85
Macadam roadways 0.25 - 0.45
Lawns and gardens 0.025 - 0.25
Wooded areas 0.01- 0.20

If a drain is oversized, the depth of water will be reduced, which may not be sufficient to carry the
solids.
An undersized drain, on the other hand will lead to a surcharge and water will backflow through the
gully traps and becomes a nuisance to the environment.

An allowance must be considered if there is a possibility of future expansion of community.

Discharge capacity depends upon gradient, diameter and smoothness of the bore and accuracy pipe
laying.

Various tables and charts may be used to find the diameter of both foul and surface water drains.
Alternatively the diameter may be found by calculations:

Use of a discharge formula:

Q = Area to be drained (m2) x Rainfall intensity (m/hr) x Impermeability factor

3600 (hrs to sec)

= A x RI x IF
3600

After getting Q then use the following formula

Q = VA Where Q = volume of flow (m3/s)

V = velocity of flow (m/s)
A = Area of pipe (m2)

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 So that is how pipe diameter is calculated

Question one

Calculate the diameter of a main surface water drain for an asphalt covered car park measuring 100 x 75m.
Assume the following:

Rainfall intensity = 50mm/hr

Velocity = 0.8m/sec

Impermeability factor = 0.90

Answer = 386mm diameter

Question two

The total surface area of footpaths and roadways of a building development scheme is found to be 4000m2.
Calculate the diameter of the main surface water drain, using the following data:

Rainfall intensity = 50mm/hr

Impermeability factor = 0.80

Full bore discharge

Velocity of flow = 0.80m/s

Note: Use the 2 formulae above to get the answer

Answer = 266mm diameter

Nearest size is 300m

Gradient

Various formulae and tables may be used to find the gradient or fall of the drain. One of the best known
formulae which may be used for pipes and channels, is known as ‘Chezy’s” expressed as follows:

where C = Chezy constant

V = velocity of flow in m/s
m = hydraulic mean depth
i = inclination or fall.
Chezy constant = 55 (from calculations)

hydraulic mean depth (m) = Wetted area

Wetted perimeter

For half or full bore discharge, the hydraulic mean depth is = D/4 (also from calculations)

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Example
Calculate the gradient required for a 150 mm diameter private sewer flowing half full bore at a velocity of
0.8m/s.

V=C D x1
4 L

remember that m (hydraulic mean depth) = D/4, so:

(55 / 0.8) 2 x 0.150 / 4

L = 4726.5625 x 0.0375

L = 177

Gradient = 1 in 177

Where sewer disposal is not provided by a municipal sewage system, it is necessary to install a small
sewage purification plant.

Where a sewer is within 30m of site boundary the local authority often compels an owner of property
to connect his foul water to the public sewer.

In rural areas, however, considerations of expense often prevent the LA from providing sewers and
sewage purification plants and it becomes necessary to install a small sewage purification plant for
one or more isolated buildings.

Pipe Bedding, Haunching and Backfilling

• The bottom of trenches to receive underground pipes must be stable, giving uniform support and
sufficient bearing capacity in order to maintain pipe alignment and also sufficiently carry any
imposed loads.
• Bedding layer is provided in order to establish line and grade and to provide firm, but not hard
pipe support. Prior to bedding, leveling out any irregularities of the bottom of a trench may be
achieved by providing a foundation layer. The bedding material should be clean, granular/course
sand or well graded crushed rock or any such material which flows readily into position when
compacted.
• The pipe can be placed on the bedding, then backfilled under the haunches. Haunching area of
the backfill envelope provides the majority of the resistance against soil and traffic loadings.
• The initial backfill material provides adequate pipe support, and protects it from stones and
cobbles in the final backfill. If any compaction is required it should be done in a manner which
does not disturb pipe alignment.

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Manholes
A manhole or other approved means of access shall be constructed on the premises upon which the
sewer is laid and shall be located not more than 1.2m from the connection of such premises or in such a
position as may be authorized by the local authority for accessibility to both the private and public
sewer. There are different types of manholes and these include:

i. Junction Manhole

These are common manholes or

inspection chambers.

Gradient of the private sewer has to be
adjusted in such a way that the soffit of
the branch sewer is at a higher level than
the soffit of the main sewer.

Branch sewer is joined to the main sewer
at an angle of 45 degrees or less.

ii. Deep manholes 1.5-2.7m

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Deep Manhole over 2.7m

Drop manhole

This is constructed where the branch sewer is higher than 60cm from the main line.

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Waste water treatment

The purpose of sewage treatment can be summarized by the aims given below:
• To protect public health
• To protect the environment
• To convert waste water into stable end-products
• To dispose off the end products in a safe manner
• To recover and recycle materials if possible
• To operate without nuisance or offence
• To provide and economic system
• To comply with appropriate standards and legislation

Sewage Treatment Process

The techniques and processes can be grouped in terms of their operating principles under the following:
a. Physical process, e.g. screening, sedimentation, filtration, centrifugation, reverse osmosis.
b. Chemical processes, e.g. neutralization, precipitation, oxidation reduction, ion-exchange.
c. Biological processes, e.g. biological filtration, activated sludge, stabilization ponds, anaerobic
digestion.

Options for Sewage Treatment

These methods can be alternative to the large scale treatment plants
They however share the same physical, chemical and biological processes used in large sewage
treatment plants and may be more appropriate in the following situations:
a. Single buildings
b. Isolated groups of buildings
c. Communities who wish to use more natural methods of sewage treatment
d. Communities with enough land which can be used
e. Initial treatment of strong industrial waste water
f. Tertiary treatment of effluent from some treatment plants.

Siting of Disposal System

Factors that you would consider for the proper siting of this disposal system:
• Site hydrology
• Sufficiency of area
• Minimum distance and complexity of conveyance route
• Site constructability constraints
• Reuse of treated effluent
• Slope and terrain, etc

1. A cesspool
• A watertight underground container used for the storage of household sewage.
• No treatment occurs and the tank must be periodically emptied and the sewage taken away for
treatment
• Constructed in a variety of ways including insitu concrete and prefabricated plastic and fibreglass
which are usually set in concrete.
• In order to reduce periodic empting costs a large capacity is desirable with min (BS) being 18m3.
• On the other extreme its not structurally viable to construct a cesspool of over 50m3.
• Effective storage calculations may be based on 150L per person/day
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E.g. a 3-person household at 60 days emptying interval = 3 x 150 x 60 = 27000L/27m3

2. Septic / Settlement Tank

A septic tank is a watertight chamber in which the sewage is acted upon by anaerobic bacteria
which breaks up the crude sewage and converts it into gases and liquid forms.

The anaerobic bacteria work in the absents of oxygen hence the septic tank should be covered.

Slug falls onto the bottom of the tank and scum floats on top of the liquid.

Scum acts as an air-excluder and the liquid will flow out of the tank as new sewage enters.

The inlet and outlet pipes of the tank should be submerged to ensure that the sewage can not flow
across the top of the tank without being broken down by bacteria and also to prevent the scum
which forms on top of the liquid from being broken. Bacteria, therefore, should not be destroyed
by passing in disinfectant into the lavatory pan or WC.

The second process (aerobic digestion) collects liquid from the septic tank and allows it to
percolate through the soil or passing the liquid through a biological filter.

Alternatively the effluent can be passed through a chamber that is filled with stones or broken
bricks which is ventilated for oxygen.

The liquid is sprinkled onto broken stones or bricks whose surface will eventually get covered a
jelly containing one celled animals called ciliates together with aerobic bacteria.

The ciliates feed on bacteria carried by water from 1st chamber while bacteria break down
organic materials such as urea aerobically.

Water that runs out of the second chamber is quite safe to be deposited into rivers, or it can be
directed to orchards, fields or piped to a soak away.

Slug (sediments) is removed from time to time at intervals of 6 - 12 months, pumped out by LA
vehicles or shoveled out and buried in pits / burned / used as fertilizers. Burying or burning is
very appropriate during times of disease outbreaks like cholera.

Size
The code of practice BS 1697 Small Sewage Treatment Works 1983 gives the following formula for
the total capacity of the tank, where dislodging is carried out at not more than 12 months:

C = 180P + 2000 where C = capacity of tank in liters with a minimum value of 2700 ltrs
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 P = population with min of 4.

Where the number of people served is 4 the capacity of the tank is: C = 180 x 4 + 2000
= 2720 liters.

This is in line with the Building regulations 1992 where the minimum capacity of the tank is 2700
liters.

Note that a double chamber septic tank is suitable for a community of 100 people and above.

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Soak ways

Pit is dug on a sloping ground so that water flows away from the house ( if it for surface water only)
or pipe laid to a gradient from the septic tank.
The pit is filled with stones or brick rubbles to prevent sides caving in. Unfilled or hollow soak ways
be built of precast concrete or masonry.

3. Stabilization ponds

• A stabilization pond or lagoon is any enclosed body of water where organic waste is allowed
to oxidise by natural activity.
• Ponds can be simply contained by earth embarkments
• Easiest to operate where there is plenty of sunshine and land,
• Also simple to maintain and very effective at removing pathogens.
• They are the most common form of treatment in developing countries.
• Operation of ponds can be loosely grouped as follows:
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 Anaerobic ponds – the formation of sludge and a top crust creates good anaerobic
conditions. These are particularly suitable for strong and thicker waste.
Oxidation ponds– aerobic systems where oxygen is taken from the atmosphere and also
supplied by the activity of algae in the ponds. The ponds are kept shallow (1-2m) to allow
maximum penetration of sunlight.
Aeration ponds – in these ponds oxygen is supplied by aerators and not by the action of
algae.

4. Wetlands and Reed beds

The natural process associated with the growth of aquatic plants can be used in the treatment of
waste water.
E.g. Of plants include submerged algae, floating plants like hyacinth and emerging plants like
reeds
Micro-organisms develop around the plants and their root systems and these allow both aerobic
and anaerobic bacteria to develop and to digest the sewage products
This vegetation can encourage the formation of artificial wetlands or reed beds and these can
then be used for the secondary and tertiary treatment of sewage
The plants are grown on beds of soil or gravel which are retained by an impervious lining.

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List of references

1. Hall F. and Greeno R., 2007., Building Services Handbook, 4th edition, Butterworth Heinemann,
Oxford.
2. Barry R., 1998., Building Services, 3rd edition, Black Science, UK.
3. Burberry P., 1994., Environment and Services, 3rd edition, Black Science, UK.
4. Hall F., 1994., Building Services and Equipment One, 3rd edition, London, UK.
5. Hall F., 1994., Building Services and Equipment One, 2nd edition, London, UK.
6. Hall F., 1994., Building Services and Equipment One, 1st edition, London, UK.
7. Model Building By-Laws, Government Printers, Harare
8. https://plasticpipe.org/pdf/chapter-6_installation_construction.pdf

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