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Chapter 1
General Principles
Introduction
the flight crew's understanding and
Today's modern airplanes are powered working knowledge of airplane turbine
by turbofan engines. These engines are engine operation and malfunctions to the
quite reliable, providing years of trouble- topics and depth covered here. Upon
free service. However, because of the completing this material, flight crews
rarity of turbofan engine malfunctions, should understand that some engine
and the limitations of simulating those malfunctions can feel and sound more
malfunctions, many flight crews have severe than anything they have ever
felt unprepared to diagnose engine experienced; however, the airplane is
malfunctions that have occurred. still flyable, and the first priority of the
flight crew should remain "fly the
The purpose of this text is to provide airplane."
straightforward material to give flight
crews the basics of airplane engine Propulsion
operational theory. This text will also
provide pertinent information about
malfunctions that may be encountered
during the operation of turbofan-
powered airplanes, especially those
malfunctions that cannot be simulated
well and may thus cause confusion.
1
engine is that, as the air escapes out the
open end, the pressure inside the
container would rapidly drop. This
engine would deliver propulsion for only
a limited time.
Fig 2 showing balloon with released stem. A turbine engine is a container with a
Arrow showing forward force has no opposing hole in the back end (tailpipe or nozzle)
arrow. to let air inside the container escape, and
thus provide propulsion. Inside the
If there is a hole in the container, gas container is turbomachinery to keep the
(air) cannot push against that hole and container full of air under constant
thus the gas escapes. While the air is pressure.
escaping and there is still pressure inside
the container, the side of the container
opposite the hole has pressure against it.
Therefore, the net pressures are not
balanced and there is a net force
available to move the container. This
force is called thrust.
The simplest example of the propulsion Fig 3 showing our balloon with machinery in
principle is an inflated balloon front to keep it full as air escapes out the back
(container) where the stem is not closed for continuous thrust.
off. The pressure of the air inside the
balloon exerts forces everywhere inside
the balloon. For every force, there is an
opposite force, on the other side of the
balloon, except on the surface of the
balloon opposite the stem. This surface
has no opposing force since air is
escaping out the stem. This results in a
net force that propels the balloon away
from the stem. The balloon is propelled
by the air pushing on the FRONT of the Fig 4 showing turbine engine as a cylinder of
balloon. turbomachinery with unbalanced forces pushing
forward.
The simplest propulsion engine
Components of a turbine engine
The simplest propulsion engine would
be a container of air (gas) under pressure The turbomachinery in the engine uses
that is open at one end. A diving energy stored chemically as fuel. The
SCUBA tank would be such an engine if basic principle of the airplane turbine
it fell and the valve was knocked off the engine is identical to any and all engines
top. The practical problem with such an that extract energy from chemical fuel.
2
The basic 4 steps for any internal the air is exhausted through the exit
combustion engine are: nozzle.
1) Intake of air (and possibly fuel). The laws of nature will not let us get
2) Compression of the air (and possibly something for nothing. The compressor
fuel). needs to be driven by something in order
3) Combustion, where fuel is injected (if to work. Just after the burner and before
it was not drawn in with the intake air) the exhaust nozzle, there is a turbine that
and burned to convert the stored energy. uses some of the energy in the
4) Expansion and exhaust, where the discharging air to drive the compressor.
converted energy is put to use. There is a long shaft connecting the
turbine to the compressor ahead of it.
These principles are exactly the same
ones that make a lawn mower or
automobile engine go. Compressor combustor turbine nozzle
3
The compressor of an airplane turbine airfoils behind the rotating disk. This
engine has quite a job to do. The row is stationary and its airfoils are at an
compressor has to take in an enormous opposing angle.
volume of air and compress it to 1/10th
or 1/15th of the volume it had outside the What has just been described is a single
engine. This volume of air must be stage of compression. Each stage
supplied continuously, not in pulses or consists of a rotating disk with many
periodic bursts. blades on the rim, called a rotor stage,
and, behind it, another row of airfoils
The compression of this volume of air is that is not rotating, called a stator. Air
accomplished by a rotating disk on the backside of this rotor/stator pair is
containing many airfoils, called blades, accelerated rearward, and any tendency
set at an angle to the disk rim. Each for the air to go around circumferentially
blade is close to the shape of a miniature is corrected.
propeller blade, and the angle at which it
is set on the disk rim is called the angle
of attack. This angle of attack is similar
to the pitch of a propeller blade or an
airplane wing in flight. As the disk with
blades is forced to rotate by the turbine,
each blade accelerates the air, thus
pumping the air behind it. The effect is
similar to a household window fan.
4
it does in the front of the engine before it behind the turbine that drives the high-
is compressed. In particular, this means pressure compressor. The low-pressure
that the speed that the compressor rotors compressor is connected to the low-
must have at the back of the compressor pressure turbine by a shaft that goes
is different than at the front of the through the hollow shaft of the high
compressor. If we had only a few rotor. The low-pressure rotor is called
stages, this difference could be ignored; N1 for short.
but, for 10 to 15 compressor stages, it
would not be efficient to have all the The N1 and N2 rotors are not connected
stages rotate at the same speed. mechanically in any way. There is no
gearing between them. As the air flows
The most common solution to this through the engine, each rotor is free to
problem is to break the compressor in operate at its own efficient speed. These
two. This way, the front 4 or 5 stages speeds are all quite precise and are
can rotate at one speed, while the rear 6 carefully calculated by the engineers
or 7 stages can rotate at a different, who designed the engine. The speed in
higher, speed. To accomplish this, we RPM of each rotor is often displayed on
also need two separate turbines and two the engine flight deck and identified by
separate shafts. gages or readouts labeled N1 RPM and
N2 RPM. Both rotors have their own
redline limits.
5
bypass air, and the ratio of bypass air to
core air is called the bypass ratio.
6
7) Compression is accomplished by pressure section can be referred to as
successive stages of rotor/stator N2.
pairs. 10) A fan is the first stage of
8) The compressor stages are usually compression where the rotor and its
split into low-pressure and high- mating stator are larger in diameter
pressure compressor sections. than the rest of the engine.
9) The low-pressure section can be
referred to as N1 and the high-
7
Chapter 2
Engine systems
From an engineer's point of view, the These airplane systems are not
turbofan engine is a finely-tuned piece of associated with continued function of the
mechanical equipment. In order for the engine or any engine malfunctions, so
engine to provide adequate power to the they will not be discussed in this text.
airplane at a weight that the airplane can The airplane systems may provide cues
accommodate, the engine must operate for engine malfunctions that will be
at the limit of technical feasibility. At discussed in the chapter on engine
the same time, the engine must provide malfunctions.
reliable, safe and economical operation.
Accessory drive gearbox
Within the engine, there are systems that
keep everything functioning properly. The accessory drive gearbox is most
Most of these systems are transparent to often attached directly to the outside
the pilot. For that reason, this text will cases of the engine at or near the bottom.
not go into deep technical detail. While The accessory drive gearbox is driven by
such discussion would be appropriate for a shaft that extends directly into the
mechanics training to take care of the engine and it is geared to one of the
engine, it is the purpose of this text to compressor rotors of the engine. It is
provide information that pilots can use in usually driven by the high-pressure
understanding the nature of some engine compressor.
malfunctions that may be encountered
during flight.
8
are the starter and the fuel pump/fuel The fuel delivered from the pump is
control. generally used to cool the engine oil and
integral drive generator (IDG) oil on the
Fuel system way to the fuel control. Some fuel
systems also incorporate fuel heaters to
The fuel system associated directly with prevent ice crystals accumulating in the
the propulsion system consists of: fuel control during low-temperature
operation and valves to bypass those
1) A fuel pump heat exchangers depending on ambient
2) A fuel control temperatures.
3) Fuel manifolds
4) Fuel nozzles The fuel control is installed on the
5) A fuel filter engine on the accessory gearbox,
6) Heat exchangers directly to the fuel pump, or, if there is
7) Drains an electronic control, to the engine case.
8) A pressurizing and dump valve. The purpose of the fuel control is to
provide the required amount of fuel to
All are external to the engine except the the fuel nozzles at the requested time.
fuel nozzles. The rate at which fuel is supplied to the
nozzles determines the acceleration or
The airplane fuel system supplies deceleration of the engine.
pressurized fuel from the main tanks.
The fuel is pressurized by electrically-
driven boost pumps in the tanks and then
flows through the spar valve or low
pressure (LP) shut-off valve to the
engine LP fuel pump inlet.
9
the flight crew. A fuel flow meter a rear and front bearing to support the
measures the fuel flow sent to the rotor. That means that the N1 rotor has
engines by the control. two bearings and the N2 rotor has two
bearings for a total of 4 main bearings in
In older engines, the fuel control is the engine. There are some engines that
hydromechanical, which means that it have intermediate and/or special
operates directly from pressure and bearings; however, the number of
mechanical speed physically input into bearings in a given engine is usually of
the control unit. little direct interest to a basic
understanding of the engine.
On newer airplanes, control of the fuel
metering is done electronically by a The lubrication system of a turbine
computer device called by names such as engine includes:
"EEC" or "FADEC." EEC stands for
Electronic Engine Control, and FADEC 1) An oil pump.
stands for Full Authority Digital Engine 2) An oil storage tank.
Control. The net result is the same. 3) A delivery system to the bearing
Electronic controls have the capability of compartments (oil lines).
more precisely metering the fuel and 4) Lubricating oil jets within the bearing
sensing more engine operating compartments.
parameters to adjust fuel metering. This 5) Seals to keep the oil in and air out of
results in greater fuel economy and more the compartments.
reliable service. 6) A scavenge system to remove oil
from the bearing compartment after the
The fuel nozzles are deep within the oil has done its job. After the oil is
engine in the combustion section right scavenged, it is cooled by heat
after the compressor. The fuel nozzles exchangers, and filtered.
provide a precisely-defined spray pattern 7) Oil quantity, pressure, temperature,
of fuel mist into the combustor for rapid, gages and filter bypass indications on the
powerful, and complete combustion. It flight deck for monitoring of the oil
is easiest to visualize the fuel nozzle system.
spray pattern as being similar to that of a 8) Oil filters.
showerhead. 9) Heat exchangers. Often, one
exchanger serves as both a fuel heater
The fuel system also includes drains to and an oil cooler.
safely dispose of the fuel in the 10) Chip detectors, usually magnetic, to
manifolds when the engine is shut down, collect bearing compartment particles as
and, in some engines, to conduct leaked an indication of bearing compartment
fuel overboard. distress. Chip detectors may trigger a
flight deck indication or be visually
Lubrication system examined during line maintenance.
11) Drains to safely dispose of leaked oil
An airplane turbine engine, like any overboard.
engine, must be lubricated in order for
the rotors to turn easily without The gages in item 7 are the window that
generating excessive heat. Each rotor the flight crew has to monitor the health
system in the engine has, as a minimum, of the lubrication system.
10
Ignition system 2) Cables to connect the igniter boxes to
the igniter plugs.
The ignition system is a relatively 3) Ignitor plugs.
straightforward system. Its purpose is to
provide the spark within the combustion For redundancy, the ignition system has
section of the engine so that, when fuel two igniter boxes and two igniter plugs
is delivered to the fuel nozzles, the per engine. Only one igniter in each
atomized fuel mist will ignite and the engine is required to light the fuel in the
combustion process will start. combustor. Some airplanes allow the
pilot to select which igniter is to be used;
Since all 4 steps of the engine cycle in a others use the engine control to make the
turbine engine are continuous, once the selection.
fuel is ignited the combustion process
normally continues until the fuel flow is Bleed system
discontinued during engine shutdown.
This is unlike the situation in a piston Stability bleeds
engine, where there must be an ignition
spark each time the combustion step The compressors of airplane turbine
occurs in the piston chamber. engines are designed to operate most
efficiently at cruise. Without help, these
Turbine engines are provided with a compressors may operate very poorly or
provision on the flight deck for not at all during starting, at very low
"continuous ignition." When this setting power, or during rapid transient power
is selected, the ignitor will produce a changes, which are conditions when they
spark every few seconds. This provision are not as efficient. To reduce the
is included for those operations or flight workload on the compressor during
phases where, if the combustion process these conditions, engines are equipped
were to stop for any reason, the loss of with bleeds to discharge large volumes
power could be serious. With of air from the compressor before it is
continuous ignition, combustion will fully compressed.
restart automatically, often without the
pilot even noticing that there was an The bleed system usually consists of:
interruption in power.
1) Bleed valves.
Some engines, instead of having 2) Solenoids or actuators to open and
continuous ignition, monitor the close the bleed valves.
combustion process and turn the igniters 3) A control device to signal the valves
on as required, thus avoiding the need when to open and close.
for continuous ignition. 4) Lines to connect the control device to
the actuators.
The ignition system includes:
In older engines, a control device
1) Igniter boxes which transform low- measures the pressure across one of the
voltage Alternating Current (AC) from engine compressors, compares it to the
either a gearbox-mounted alternator or inlet pressure of the engine, and directs
from the airplane into high-voltage higher-pressure, high-compressor air to
Direct Current (DC). an air piston-driven actuator at the bleed
11
valve to directly close the valve. In as the outside air. The air is cooled and
newer engines, the electronic fuel filtered before it is delivered to the
control determines when the bleed cabins or used for auxiliary power.
valves open and close.
Start system
Generally, all the compressor bleed
valves are open during engine start. When the engine is stationary on the
Some of the valves close after start and ground, it needs an external source of
some remain open. Those that remain power to start the compressor rotating so
open then close during engine that it can compress enough air to get
acceleration to full power for takeoff. energy from the fuel. If fuel were lit in
These valves then remain closed for the the combustor of a completely non-
duration of the flight. rotating engine, the fuel would puddle
and burn without producing any
If, during in-flight operation, the fuel significant rearward airflow.
control senses instability in the
compressors, the control may open some A pneumatic starter is mounted on the
of the bleed valves momentarily. This accessory gearbox, and is powered by air
will most often be completely unnoticed originating from another engine, from
by the flight crew except for an advisory the auxiliary power unit (APU), or from
message on the flight deck display in a ground cart. A start valve controls the
some airplane models. input selection. The starter drives the
accessory gearbox, which drives the
Cooling/clearance control bleeds high-compressor rotor via the same drive
shaft normally used to deliver power TO
Air is also extracted from the the gearbox.
compressor, or the fan airflow, for
cooling engine components and for Fuel flow during starting is carefully
accessory cooling in the nacelle. In scheduled to allow for the compressor's
some engines, air extracted from the poor efficiency at very low RPM, and
compressor is ducted and directed onto bleeds are used to unload the compressor
the engine cases to control the clearance until it can reach a self-sustaining speed.
between the rotor blade tips and the case During some points in a normal engine
wall. Cooling the case in this way start, it may even look as if the engine is
shrinks the case closer to the blade tips, not accelerating at all. After the engine
improving compression efficiency. reaches the self-sustaining speed, the
starter de-clutches from the accessory
Service bleeds gearbox. This is important, as starters
can be damaged with exposure to
The engines are the primary source of extended, high-speed operation. The
pressurized air to the airplane for cabin engine is able to accelerate up to idle
pressurization. In some airplanes, thrust without further assistance from the
engine bleed air can be used as an starter.
auxiliary power source for back-up
hydraulic power air-motors. Air is taken The starter can also be used to assist
from the high compressor, before any during in-flight restart, if an engine must
fuel is burned in it, so that it is as clean be restarted. At higher airspeeds, the
12
engine windmill RPM may be enough to some compressor air, via a bleed, and
allow engine starting without use of the duct it to the engine inlet or any other
pneumatic starter. The specific Airplane place where anti-ice protection is
Flight Manual (AFM) should be necessary. Because the compressor
consulted regarding the conditions in bleed air is quite hot, it prevents the
which to perform an in-flight restart. formation of ice and/or removes already-
formed ice.
Anti-ice system
On the flight deck, the flight crew has
An airplane turbine engine needs to have the capability to turn anti-ice on or off.
some protection against the formation of There is generally no capability to
ice in the inlet and some method to control the amount of anti-ice delivered;
remove ice if it does form. The engine is for example, "high," "medium" or "low."
equipped with the capability to take Such control is not necessary.
13
Chapter 3
Engine instrumentation in the flight deck
Airplanes in service today are equipped A low EPR reading may be caused by
with devices available to the flight crew engine rollback or flameout, or internal
that provide feedback information about damage such as an LP turbine failure.
the engine to set engine power and Rapid EPR fluctuations may be caused
monitor the condition of the engine. In by engine operational instability, such as
older airplanes, these devices were gages surge, or rapidly-changing external
on the panel. In newer airplanes, the conditions, such as inclement weather or
airplane is equipped with electronic bird ingestion. Unexpectedly high EPR
screens which produce computer- may indicate a fuel control malfunction,
generated displays that resemble the or malfunction or clogging of the inlet
gages that used to be on the panel. air pressure probes.
Whether gages or electronic displays are
used, the information given to the flight
crew is the same.
14
instability such as surge. Higher rotor There is an operational limit for EGT,
speeds will be required at high altitudes since excessive EGT will result in
to achieve takeoff-rated thrust. turbine damage. Operational limits for
Unexpectedly high N1 may indicate a EGT are often classified as time-at-
fuel control malfunction. temperature.
15
Low oil pressure may result from pump after the oil quantity gage reads zero, but
failure, from a leak allowing the oil the oil supply will be near exhaustion
system to run dry, from a bearing or and a low pressure indication will soon
gearbox failure, or from an indication be seen. A large increase in the oil
system failure. High oil pressure may be quantity may be due to fuel leaking into
observed during extremely low the oil system, and should be
temperature operations, when oil investigated before the next flight.
viscosity is at a maximum. Flight crews should be especially
vigilant to check other oil system
Low Oil Pressure Caution. Generally, indications before taking action on an
if the oil pressure falls below a given engine in-flight solely on the basis of
threshold level, an indication light or low oil quantity.
message is provided to draw attention to
the situation. Oil Filter Bypass Indication. If the oil
filter becomes clogged with debris
(either from contamination by foreign
material or debris from a bearing
failure), the pressure drop across the
filter will rise to the point where the oil
bypasses the filter. This is announced to
the pilot via the oil filter impending
Oil Temperature Indicator. The Oil bypass indication. This indication may
temperature indicator shows the oil go away if thrust is reduced (because oil
temperature at some location in the flow through the filter and pressure drop
lubrication circuit, although this location across the filter are reduced).
differs between engine models.
Fuel Filter Impending Bypass. If the
Elevated oil temperatures indicate some fuel filter at the engine fuel inlet
unwanted source of heat in the system, becomes clogged, an impending bypass
such as a bearing failure, sump fire or indication will alert the crew for a short
unintended leakage of high temperature while before the filter actually goes into
air into the scavenge system. High oil bypass.
temperature may also result from a
malfunction of the engine oil cooler, or Fuel Heat Indication. The fuel heat
of the valves scheduling fluid flow indicator registers when the fuel heat is
through the cooler. on. Fuel heat indicators are not needed
for engines where fuel heating is
Oil Quantity Indicator. The oil passively combined with oil cooling, and
quantity indication monitors the amount no valves or controls are involved.
of oil in the tank. This can be expected
to vary with power setting, since the Engine Starter Indication. During
amount of oil in the sumps is a function assisted starting, the start valve will be
of rotor speed. indicated open until starter disconnect.
The position of the start switch shows
A steady decrease in oil quantity may the starter status (running or
indicate an oil leak. There is likely to disconnected). If the starter does not
still be some usable oil in the tank even disconnect once the engine reaches idle,
16
or if it disconnects but the starter air
valve remains open, the starter will fail
when the engine is at high power,
potentially damaging other systems.
More recent engine installations may
also have advisory or status messages Fuel Inlet Pressure Indicator. The fuel
associated with engine starting. inlet pressure indicator measures the
pressure at the inlet to the engine-driven
Vibration Indication. A vibration gage fuel pump. This pressure will be the
indicates the amount of vibration pressure of the fuel supplied from the
measured on the engine LP rotor and/or airplane.
HP rotor. Vibration is displayed in non-
dimensional units, and is used for
condition monitoring, identification of
the affected engine after foreign object
ingestion, and detection of fan unbalance
due to icing. The level of vibration will
change with engine speed.
17
Chapter 4
Engine Malfunctions
18
notice the fluctuation. (Some of the
more recent engines may even have fuel-
flow logic that helps the engine self-
recover from a surge without crew
intervention. The stall may go
completely unnoticed, or it may be
annunciated to the crew – for
information only – via EICAS
messages.) Alternatively, the engine
may surge two or three times before full
self-recovery. When this happens, there
is likely to be cockpit engine
instrumentation shifts of sufficient
This escape is sudden, rapid and often
magnitude and duration to be noticed by
quite audible as a loud bang similar to an
the flight crew. If the engine does not
explosion. Engine surge can be
recover automatically from the surge, it
accompanied by visible flames forward
may surge continually until the pilot
out the inlet and rearward out the
takes action to stop the process. The
tailpipe. Instruments may show high
desired pilot action is to retard the thrust
EGT and EPR or rotor speed changes,
lever until the engine recovers. The
but, in many stalls, the event is over so
flight crew should then SLOWLY re-
quickly that the instruments do not have
advance the thrust lever. Occasionally,
time to respond.
an engine may surge only once but still
not self-recover.
Once the air from within the engine
escapes, the reason (reasons) for the
The actual cause for the compressor
instability may self-correct and the
surge is often complex and may or may
compression process may re-establish
not result from severe engine damage.
itself. A single surge and recovery will
Rarely does a single compressor surge
occur quite rapidly, usually within
CAUSE severe engine damage, but
fractions of a second. Depending on the
sustained surging will eventually over-
reason for the cause of the compressor
heat the turbine, as too much fuel is
instability, an engine might experience:
being provided for the volume of air that
is reaching the combustor. Compressor
1) A single self-recovering surge
blades may also be damaged and fail as a
2) Multiple surges prior to self-recovery
result of repeated violent surges; this
3) Multiple surges requiring pilot action
will rapidly result in an engine which
in order to recover
cannot run at any power setting.
4) A non-recoverable surge.
Additional information is provided
For complete, detailed procedures, flight
below regarding single recoverable
crews must follow the appropriate
surge, self-recoverable after multiple
checklists and emergency procedures
surges, surge requiring flight crew
detailed in their specific Airplane Flight
action, and non-recoverable surge. In
Manual. In general, however, during a
severe cases, the noise, vibration and
single self-recovering surge, the cockpit
aerodynamic forces can be very
engine indications may fluctuate slightly
distracting. It may be difficult for the
and briefly. The flight crew may not
19
flight crew to remember that their most 2% with no change in thrust lever
important task is to fly the airplane. position. After 10 seconds, the engine
gages should return to pre-surge values.
Single self-recoverable surge
Surge recoverable after flight crew
The flight crew hears a very loud bang action
or double bang. The instruments will
fluctuate quickly, but, unless someone When surges occur as described in the
was looking at the engine gage at the previous paragraph, but do not stop,
time of the surge, the fluctuation might flight crew action is required to stabilize
not be noticed. the engine. The flight crew will notice
the fluctuations described in
For example: During the surge event, “recoverable after two or three bangs,”
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) can drop but the fluctuations and bangs will
from takeoff (T/O) to 1.05 in 0.2 continue until the flight crew retards the
seconds. EPR can then vary from 1.1 to thrust lever to idle. After the flight crew
1.05 at 0.2-second intervals two or three retards the thrust lever to idle, the engine
times. The low rotor speed (N1) can parameters should decay to match thrust
drop 16% in the first 0.2 seconds, then lever position. After the engine reaches
another 15% in the next 0.3 seconds. idle, it may be re-accelerated back to
After recovery, EPR and N1 should power. If, upon re-advancing to high
return to pre-surge values along the power, the engine surges again, the
normal acceleration schedule for the engine may be left at idle, or left at some
engine. intermediate power, or shutdown,
according to the checklists applicable for
Multiple surge followed by self- the airplane. If the flight crew takes no
recovery action to stabilize the engine under these
circumstances, the engine will continue
Depending on the cause and conditions, to surge and may experience progressive
the engine may surge multiple times, secondary damage to the point where it
with each bang being separated by a fails completely.
couple of seconds. Since each bang
usually represents a surge event as Non-recoverable surge
described above, the flight crew may
detect the "single surge" described above When a compressor surge is not
for two seconds, then the engine will recoverable, there will be a single bang
return to 98% of the pre-surge power for and the engine will decelerate to zero
a few seconds. This cycle may repeat power as if the fuel had been chopped.
two or three times. During the surge and This type of compressor surge can
recovery process, there will likely be accompany a severe engine damage
some rise in EGT. malfunction. It can also occur without
any engine damage at all.
For example: EPR may fluctuate
between 1.6 and 1.3, Exhaust Gas EPR can drop at a rate of .34/sec and
Temperature (EGT) may rise 5 degrees EGT rise at a rate of 15 degrees C/sec,
C/second, N1 may fluctuate between continuing for 8 seconds (peaking) after
103% and 95%, and fuel flow may drop the thrust lever is pulled back to idle.
20
N1 and N2 should decay at a rate is likely that the autopilot is in use. The
consistent with shutting off the fuel, with autopilot will compensate for the
fuel flow dropping to 25% of its pre- asymmetrical thrust up to its limits and
surge value in 2 seconds, tapering to may then disconnect. Autopilot
10% over the next 6 seconds. disconnect must then be accompanied by
prompt, appropriate control inputs from
Flameout the flight crew if the airplane is to
maintain a normal attitude. If no
A flameout is a condition where the external visual references are available,
combustion process within the burner such as when flying over the ocean at
has stopped. A flameout will be night or in IMC, the likelihood of an
accompanied by a drop in EGT, in upset increases. This condition of low-
engine core speed and in engine pressure power engine loss with the autopilot on
ratio. Once the engine speed drops has caused several aircraft upsets, some
below idle, there may be other of which were not recoverable. Flight
symptoms, such as low oil pressure control displacement may be the only
warnings and electrical generators obvious indication. Vigilance is
dropping off line – in fact, many required to detect these stealthy engine
flameouts from low initial power failures and to maintain a safe flight
settings are first noticed when the attitude while the situation is still
generators drop off line and may be recoverable.
initially mistaken for electrical
problems. The flameout may result from
the engine running out of fuel, severe
inclement weather, a volcanic ash
encounter, a control system malfunction,
or unstable engine operation (such as a
compressor stall). Multiple engine
flameouts may result in a wide variety of
flight deck symptoms as engine inputs
are lost from electrical, pneumatic and
hydraulic systems. These situations
have resulted in pilots troubleshooting
the airplane systems without recognizing Once the fuel supply has been restored
and fixing the root cause – no engine to the engine, the engine may be
power. Some airplanes have dedicated restarted in the manner prescribed by the
EICAS/ECAM messages to alert the applicable Airplane Flight or Operating
flight crew to an engine rolling back Manual. Satisfactory engine restart
below idle speed in flight; generally, an should be confirmed by reference to all
ENG FAIL or ENG THRUST message. primary parameters – using only N1, for
instance, has led to confusion during
A flameout at take-off power is unusual some in-flight restarts. At some flight
– only about 10% of flameouts are at conditions, N1 may be very similar for a
takeoff power. Flameouts occur most windmilling engine and an engine
frequently from intermediate or low running at flight idle.
power settings, such as cruise and
descent. During these flight regimes, it
21
Fire times when the control tower has
mistakenly reported the flames
associated with a compressor surge as an
engine "fire."
22
(ATC) to witness is a tailpipe fire. Fuel effective during sub-idle operation, and
may puddle in the turbine casings and turbine temperatures may appear
exhaust during start-up or shutdown, and relatively high. This is known as a hot
then ignite. This can result in a highly- start (or, if the engine completely stops
visible jet of flame out of the back of the accelerating toward idle, a hung start).
engine, which may be tens of feet long. The AFM indicates acceptable
Passengers have initiated emergency time/temperature limits for EGT during
evacuations in these instances, leading to a hot start. More recent, FADEC-
serious injuries. controlled engines may incorporate auto-
start logic to detect and manage a hot
There may be no indication of an start.
anomaly to the flight crew until the
cabin crew or control tower draws Bird ingestion/FOD
attention to the problem. They are likely
to describe it as an “Engine Fire,” but a Airplane engines ingest birds most often
tailpipe fire will NOT result in a fire in the vicinity of airports, either during
warning on the flight deck. takeoff or during landing. Encounters
with birds occur during both daytime
If notified of an engine fire without any and nighttime flights.
indications in the cockpit, the flight crew
should accomplish the tailpipe fire By far, most bird encounters do not
procedure. It will include motoring the affect the safe outcome of a flight. In
engine to help extinguish the flames, more than half of the bird ingestions into
while most other engine abnormal engines, the flight crew is not even
procedures will not. aware that the ingestion took place.
Since the fire is burning within the When an ingestion involves a large bird,
turbine casing and exhaust nozzle, the flight crew may notice a thud, bang
pulling the fire handle to discharge or vibration. If the bird enters the engine
extinguishant to the space between core, there may be a smell of burnt flesh
casings and cowls will be ineffective. in the flight deck or passenger cabin
Pulling the fire handle may also make it from the bleed air.
impossible to dry motor the engine,
which is the quickest way of Bird strikes can damage an engine. The
extinguishing most tailpipe fires. photo on the next page shows fan blades
bent due to the ingestion of a bird. The
Hot starts engine continued to produce thrust with
this level of damage. Foreign Object
During engine start, the compressor is Damage (FOD) from other sources, such
very inefficient, as already discussed. If as tire fragments, runway debris or
the engine experiences more than the animals, may also be encountered, with
usual difficulty accelerating (due to such similar results.
problems as early starter cut-out, fuel
mis-scheduling, or strong tailwinds), the Bird ingestion can also result in an
engine may spend a considerable time at engine surge. The surge may have any
very low RPM (sub-idle). Normal of the characteristics listed in the surge
engine cooling flows will not be section. The engine may surge once and
23
recover; it may surge continuously until
the flight crew takes action; or it may
surge once and not recover, resulting in
the loss of power from that engine. Bird
ingestion can result in the fracture of one
or more fan blades, in which case, the
engine will likely surge once and not
recover.
24
Engine Seizure appropriate to the severe engine damage
type failure.
Engine seizure describes a situation
where the engine rotors stop turning in Engine Separation
flight, perhaps very suddenly. The static
and rotating parts lock up against each Engine separation is an extremely rare
other, bringing the rotor to a halt. In event. It will be accompanied by loss of
practice, this is only likely to occur at all primary and secondary parameters for
low rotor RPM after an engine the affected engine, noises, and airplane
shutdown, and virtually never occurs for yaw (especially at high power settings).
the fan of a large engine – the fan has Separation is most likely to occur during
too much inertia, and the rotor is being take-off/climb-out or the landing roll.
pushed around by ram air too forcefully Airplane handling may be affected. It is
to be stopped by the static structure. The important to use the fire handle to close
HP rotor is more likely to seize after an the spar valve and prevent a massive
in-flight shutdown if the nature of the overboard fuel leak; refer to the airplane
engine malfunction is mechanical flight or operations manual for specific
damage within the HP system. Should procedures.
the LP rotor seize, there will be some
perceptible drag for which the flight Fuel System Problems
crew must compensate; however, if the
HP rotor seizes, there will be negligible Leaks
effect upon airplane handling.
Major leaks in the fuel system are a
Seizure cannot occur without being concern to the flight crew because they
caused by very severe engine damage, to may result in engine fire, or, eventually,
the point where the vanes and blades of in fuel exhaustion. A very large leak can
the compressor and turbine are mostly produce engine flameout.
destroyed. This is not an instantaneous
process – there is a great deal of inertia Engine instruments will only indicate a
in the turning rotor compared to the leak if it is downstream of the fuel
energy needed to break interlocking flowmeter. A leak between the tanks
rotating and static components. and the fuel flowmeter can only be
recognized by comparing fuel usage
Once the airplane has landed, and the between engines, by comparing actual
rotor is no longer being driven by ram usage to planned usage, or by visual
air, seizure is frequently observed after inspection for fuel flowing out of the
severe damage. pylon or cowlings. Eventually, the leak
may result in tank imbalance.
Symptoms of engine seizure in flight
may include vibration, zero rotor speed, In the event of a major leak, the crew
mild airplane yaw, and possibly unusual should consider whether the leak needs
noises (in the event of fan seizure). to be isolated to prevent fuel exhaustion.
There may be an increased fuel flow in
the remaining engines due to aircraft It should be noted that the likelihood of
automatic compensations; no special fire resulting from such a leak is greater
action is needed other than that which is at low altitude or when the airplane is
25
stationary; even if no fire is observed in Oil System Problems
flight, it is advisable for emergency
services to be available upon landing. The engine oil system has a relatively
large number of indicated parameters
Inability to shutdown Engine required by the regulations (pressure,
temperature, quantity, filter clogging).
If the engine fuel shut-off valve Many of the sensors used are subject to
malfunctions, it may not be possible to giving false indications, especially on
shut the engine down by the normal earlier engine models. Multiple
procedure, since the engine continues to abnormal system indications confirm a
run after the fuel switch is moved to the genuine failure; a single abnormal
cutoff position. Closing the spar valve indication may or may not be a valid
by pulling the fire handle will ensure indication of failure.
that the engine shuts down as soon as it
has used up the fuel in the line from the There is considerable variation between
spar valve to the fuel pump inlet. This failure progressions in the oil system, so
may take a couple of minutes. the symptoms given below may vary
from case to case.
Fuel filter Clogging
Oil system problems may appear at any
Fuel filter clogging can result from the flight phase, and generally progress
failure of one of the fuel tank boost gradually. They may eventually lead to
pumps (the pump generates debris which severe engine damage if the engine is
is swept downstream to the fuel filter), not shut down.
from severe contamination of the fuel
tanks during maintenance (scraps of rag, Leaks
sealant, etc., that are swept downstream
to the fuel filter), or, more seriously, Leaks will produce a sustained reduction
from gross contamination of the fuel. in oil quantity, down to zero (though
Fuel filter clogging will usually be seen there will still be some usable oil in the
at high power settings, when the fuel system at this point). Once the oil is
flow through the filter (and the sensed completely exhausted, oil pressure will
pressure drop across the filter) is drop to zero, followed by the low oil
greatest. If multiple fuel filter bypass pressure light. There have been cases
indications are seen, the fuel may be where maintenance error caused leaks on
heavily contaminated with water, rust, multiple engines; it is therefore
algae, etc. Once the filters bypass and advisable to monitor oil quantity
the contaminant goes straight into the carefully on the good engines as well.
engine fuel system, the engine fuel Rapid change in the oil quantity after
control may no longer operate as thrust lever movement may not indicate
intended. There is potential for a leak – it may be due to oil “gulping” or
multiple-engine flameout. The Airplane “hiding” as more oil flows into the
Flight or Operating Manual provides the sumps.
necessary guidance.
26
Bearing failures such as when flying over the ocean at
night or in IMC, asymmetric thrust may
Bearing failures will be accompanied by persist for some time without the flight
an increase in oil temperature and crew recognizing or correcting it. In
indicated vibration. Audible noises and several cases, this has led to airplane
filter clog messages may follow; if the upset, which was not always
failure progresses to severe engine recoverable. As stated, this condition is
damage, it may be accompanied by low subtle and not easy to detect.
oil quantity and pressure indications.
Symptoms may include:
Oil pump failures
Multiple system problems such as
Oil pump failure will be accompanied by generators dropping off-line or low
low indicated oil pressure and a low oil engine oil pressure.
pressure light, or by an oil filter clog Unexplained airplane attitude
message. changes.
Large unexplained flight control
Contamination surface deflections (autopilot on) or
the need for large flight control
Contamination of the oil system – by inputs without apparent cause
carbon deposits, cotton waste, improper (autopilot off).
fluids, etc. – will generally lead to an oil Significant differences between
filter clog indication or an impending primary parameters from one engine
bypass indication. This indication may to the next.
disappear if thrust is reduced, since the
oil flow and pressure drop across the If asymmetric thrust is suspected, the
filter will also drop. first response must be to make the
appropriate trim or rudder input.
No Thrust Lever Response Disconnecting the autopilot without first
performing the appropriate control input
A “No Thrust Lever Response” type of or trim may result in a rapid roll
malfunction is more subtle than the other maneuver.
malfunctions previously discussed, so
subtle that it can be completely Reverser malfunctions
overlooked, with potentially serious
consequences to the airplane. Generally, thrust reverser malfunctions
are limited to failure conditions where
If an engine slowly loses power – or if, the reverser system fails to deploy when
when the thrust lever is moved, the commanded and fails to stow when
engine does not respond – the airplane commanded. Failure to deploy or to
will experience asymmetric thrust. This stow during the landing roll will result in
may be partly concealed by the significant asymmetric thrust, and may
autopilot’s efforts to maintain the require a rapid response to maintain
required flight condition. directional control of the airplane.
27
and have led to Airworthiness Directives It is not easy to identify the cause of the
to add additional locking systems to the vibration in the absence of other unusual
reverser. As a consequence of this indications. Although the vibration from
action, the probability of inadvertent some failures may feel very severe on
deployment is extremely low. The the flight deck, it will not damage the
airplane flight or operations manual airplane. There is no need to take action
provides the necessary system based on vibration indication alone, but
information and type of annunciations it can be very valuable in confirming a
provided by the airplane type. problem identified by other means.
28
Wrap-up
The tabulation of engine conditions and their symptoms below shows that many failures
have similar symptoms and that it may not be practicable to diagnose the nature of the
engine problem from flight deck instrumentation. However, it is not necessary to
understand exactly what is wrong with the engine – selecting the “wrong” checklist may
cause some further economic damage to the engine, but, provided action is taken with the
correct engine, and airplane control is kept as the first priority, the airplane will still be
safe.
Surge
Bird ingestion/FOD
Tailpipe fires
Fire
Hot start
Icing
Fuel leak
Severe damage
Flameout
Seizure
Bang O X X O O O
Fire Warning O O O X
Visible flame O O O O O X O
Vibration X O X O X X
Yaw O O O O O O O X
High EGT X X O O X O X O
N1 change X X O O X X X X
N2 change X X O O X X X X
Fuel flow change X O O O X O O X
Oil indication change X O O O X O
Visible cowl damage X X O X
Smoke/odor in cabin O O O
bleed air
EPR change X X X O X X X X
29
Appendix
30
Engine Stall/Surge
Event Description Symptoms
Engine Stall or Surge is a momentary reversal of the High power: Loud
compressor airflow such that high-pressure air escapes bang and yaw
(may be
out of the engine inlet.
repetitive).
Corrective action
Flames from inlet
After stabilizing airplane flight path, observe engine and tailpipe.
instruments for anomalies. Stall/surge may be self- Vibration. High
correcting, may require the engine to be throttled back, EGT/TGT.
or may require engine shutdown, if the engine can be Parameter
positively identified and the stall will not clear. fluctuation
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
EGT OVERLIMIT
N1
FLUX N2
31
Flameout
Event Description Symptoms
Engine Flameout is a condition where the combustor is Single engine:
no longer burning fuel. Core speed, EGT,
Corrective action EPR all decay.
Electrical
After stabilizing airplane flight path, verify fuel supply to
generator drops
engine. Re-start engine according to AFM. off line; low oil
pressure warning
as core speed
drops below idle.
Multiple engines:
As above, but
also hydraulic,
pneumatic and
electrical system
problems.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
OIL LO PR
BLD OFF
LOW N2
32
Fire
Event Description Symptoms
Engine fire is a fuel, oil or hydraulic fluid fire between Fire warning.
the engine casing and the cowlings (or occasionally a Flame or smoke
may be observed.
metal fire). It could result from severe damage. Hot air
leaks can also give a fire warning.
Corrective action
After stabilizing airplane flight path, shut the engine
down and discharge extinguishant. Avoid restarting the
engine.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
EPR ENG FIRE
EGT
N1
NORMALL N2
33
Tailpipe fire
Event Description Symptoms
Fuel puddles in the tailpipe and ignites on hot surfaces. Observed flames
Corrective action and smoke. No
Shut off fuel to the engine and dry motor it. fire warning.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
EGT
N1
LOW N2
34
Bird Ingestion
Event Description Symptoms
A bird (or other creature) is sucked into the engine inlet. Thud, bang,
Note: ingestion of ice slabs, blown tires, etc., will vibration. Odor in
cabin. Surge may
produce similar, but more severe, symptoms.
result from bird
Corrective action
ingestion.
After stabilizing airplane flight path, watch engine
instruments for anomalies. If the engine surges, throttle
back or shut down as necessary. If multiple engines are
affected, operate engines free of surge/stall to maintain
desired flight profile.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
EPR
ENG STALL
EGT OVERLIMIT
EGT
VIB
N1
NORMAL N2
35
Severe Engine Damage
Event Description Symptoms
The engine hardware is damaged to the point where the Depending on
engine is in no condition to run – such as bearing nature of damage
– surge/stall,
failure, major fan damage from ingestion of foreign
vibration, fire
objects, blade or rotor disk failures, etc. warning, high
Corrective action EGT, oil system
After stabilizing airplane flight path, observe engine parameters out of
instruments for anomalies. Shut down engine. limits, rotor speed
and EPR decay,
yaw.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
EGT OVERLIMIT
VIB
OIL LO PR
N1
LOW N2
36
Engine Seizure
Event Description Symptoms
Engine seizure is the locking up of one or more rotors. After shut down,
It only happens after engines are shut down for severe zero speed on
one of the rotors.
damage.
Minor increase in
Corrective action
required thrust for
Trim and adjust power for increased drag. flight conditions.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
EGT
N1
LOW N2
37
Engine Separation
Event Description Symptoms
Engine Separation is the departure of the engine from Loss of all engine
the airplane due to mount or pylon failure. parameters.
Corrective action Hydraulic,
pneumatic and
After stabilizing airplane flight path, observe engine
electrical system
instruments for anomalies. Turn off fuel to appropriate problems
engine.
POSSIBLE MESSAGES
HYD OFF
BLD OFF
N1
ZERO N2
38