Note for PMRET-102 by Rony Parvej

Incourse Exam II
Institute of Energy, University of Dhaka

Sl Question Mark Exam

.
1 With a suitable diagram describe the principle of operation of a simple loop generator. 5 CT-2, MRET-17
2 What are the components of a practical generator? Describe the construction of any three 2+3 CT-2, MRET-17
of them.
3 What is pole-pitch and coil-pitch? Give a comparison between lap-winding and wave- 2+3 CT-2, MRET-17
winding.
4 Derive the emf equation of a generator. 5 What are the losses of a practical generator? 5 CT-2, MRET-17
5 Derive the condition for the maximum efficiency. 2+3 CT-2, MRET-17
6 Describe construction and operation principle of a hydrogen fuel cell. 2.5+2.5 CT-2, MRET-17
7 What is back-pitch, front-pitch and resultant pitch? - Suggestion
8 Types of Generator - Suggestion
9 Different Characteristics of separately excited and self-excited generator - Suggestion
10 Draw a developed diagram of a simple 2-layer lap-winding for a 4-pole generator with - Suggestion
16 coils. Hence, point out the characteristics of a lap-winding. Example 26.1
11 Draw a developed diagram of a simplex 2-layer wave-winding for a 4-pole d.c. - Suggestion
generator with 30 armature conductors. Hence, point out the characteristics of a simple Example 26.2
wave winding.
 Solutions
1 With a suitable diagram describe the principle of operation of a simple loop generator. 5 CT, MRET-17

Let us consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed as
shown in Fig.(1.1). As the loop rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD changes continuously. Hence
the e.m.f. induced in these coil sides also changes but the e.m.f. induced in one coil side adds to that induced in
the other.

(i) When the loop is in position no. 1 [See Fig. 1.1], the generated e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides
(AB and CD) are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to it.

(ii) When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and, therefore, a
low e.m.f. is generated as indicated by point 2 in Fig. (1.2).

(iii) When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides (AB and CD) are at right angle to the flux and are,
therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate. Hence at this instant, the generated e.m.f. is maximum
as indicated by point 3 in Fig. (1.2).

(iv) At position 4, the generated e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an angle.

(v) At position 5, no magnetic lines are cut and hence induced e.m.f. is zero as indicated by point 5 in
Fig. (1.2).

(vi) At position 6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the direction of
generated e.m.f. is reversed. The maximum e.m.f. in this direction (i.e., reverse direction, See Fig.
1.2) will be when the loop is at position 7 and zero when at position 1. This cycle repeats with each
revolution of the coil.

Note that e.m.f. generated in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side, say AB has e.m.f. in one
direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under the influence of S-pole. If
a load is connected across the ends of the loop, then alternating current will flow through the load. The
alternating voltage generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage by a device called commutator.
We then have the d.c. generator. In fact, a commutator is a mechanical rectifier.

[Reference: Principle of Electrical Machines by V.K. Mehta]

2 What are the components of a practical generator? Describe the construction of any three 2+3 CT, MRET-17
of them.

Components of a Practical Generator

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke 5. Armature Windings or Conductors

2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes 6. Commutator

3. Pole Coils or Field Coils 7. Brushes and Bearings

4. Armature Core

Armature core
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It consists of slotted soft-iron
laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a cylindrical core as shown in Fig-A. The
laminations (Fig-B) are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical
contact with each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The laminations are
slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter air gap for
the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

Armature winding
The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner. This is known as
armature winding. This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are
connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel
paths so as to increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the
conductors being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops.

Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the armature winding
into direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by
mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine (Fig-C). The armature conductors are soldered to the
commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding. Depending upon the manner in
which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of armature
winding in a d.c. machine viz., (a) lap winding (b) wave winding.

Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to bounce,
producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and carbonise the commutator.

[Reference: Principle of Electrical Machines by V.K. Mehta]

3 What is pole-pitch and coil-pitch? Give a comparison between lap-winding and wave-- 2+3 CT, MRET-17
winding.

Lap Winding Wave Winding

1. In this winding all the coils carrying current in the

same direction are connected in series i.e.,
1. In this winding all the pole groups of the coils
coils carrying current in one direction are connected
generating e.m.f in the same direction at any instant of
in one series circuit and coils carrying current in
time are connected in parallel by the brushes.
opposite direction are connected in other series
circuit.

2. Lap winding is also known as parallel windings. 2. Wave winding is also known as series winding.

3. The number of parallel path is equal to the number of 3. The number of parallel paths is always equal to 2
poles i.e., A = P. i.e., A = 2.

4. The number of brush required by this winding is 4. The number of brushes required by this winding is
always equal to the number of poles. always equal to 2.

5. The machine using wave winding does require

5. The machine using lap winding requires equalizer
dummy coils to provide the mechanical balance for
rings for obtaining better commutation.
the armature.

6. Lap windings are used for low voltage and high 6. Wave windings are used for high voltage and
current machines. low current machines.

7. Lap windings are generally used for machines of 7. Wave windings are generally used for machines of
ratings above 500 kW. ratings below 560 kW
4 Derive the emf equation of a generator. 5 CT, MRET-17

5 What are the losses of a practical generator? Derive the condition for the maximum 2+3 CT, MRET-17
efficiency.

The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided into three classes viz
(i) copper losses (ii) iron or core losses and (iii) mechanical losses.
All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature of the machine. They also lower the efficiency of the
machine.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Hence, the efficiency of a d.c. generator will be maximum when the load current is such that variable loss is equal
to the constant loss. Figure shows the variation of with load current.
6 Describe construction and operation principle of a hydrogen fuel cell. 2.5+2.5 CT, MRET-17

Construction:

There are four basic elements of a PEM Fuel Cell:

Anode:
It is the negative post of the fuel cell. It conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that
they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over
the surface of the catalyst.
Cathode:
It is the positive post of the fuel cell. Cathode has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface
of the catalyst. It also conducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can
recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
Electrolyte:
The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material, which looks something like
ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only conducts positively charged ions. The
membrane blocks electrons. For a PEMFC, the membrane must be
hydrated in order to function and remain stable.
Catalyst:
The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen
and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly
coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so
that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the
hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the
PEM.
Proton Exchange Membrane:
The heart of the cell is the proton exchange membrane. It allows protons
to pass through it virtually unimpeded, while electrons are blocked. So,
when the H2 hits the catalyst and splits into protons and electrons (proton
is the same as an H+ ion) the protons go directly through to the cathode
side, while the electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit.
Along the way they perform useful work, like lighting a bulb or driving a
motor, before combining with the protons and O2 on the other side to
produce water.
Working Principle:
Cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O
Anode: 2H2 → 4H+ + 4e–
Overall: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) entering the fuel cell on the anode side. This gas is forced through the catalyst by
the pressure. When an H 2 molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two H+ ions
and two electrons (e-). The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make their way through the
external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to the cathode side of the fuel cell.
 Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O 2) is being forced through the catalyst, where it
forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts the two
H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the
external circuit to form a water molecule (H2O).

All these reaction occurs in a so called cell stack. The expertise then also involves the setup of a complete system
around core component that is the cell stack.

The stack will be embedded in a module including fuel, water and air management, coolant control hardware and
software. This module will then be integrated in a complete system to be used in different applications.

Due to the high energetic content of hydrogen and high efficiency of fuel cells (55%), this great technology can
be used in many applications like transport (cars, buses, forklifts, etc)  and backup power to produce electricity
during a failure of the electricity grid.

7 What is back-pitch, front-pitch and resultant pitch? Suggestion

Back Pitch (YB)

It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the two sides of a coil at the back of the
armature (Figure). It is denoted by Y B. For example, if a coil is formed by connecting conductor 1 (upper
conductor in a slot) to conductor 12 (bottom conductor in another slot) at the back of the armature, then back pitch
is YB = 12 - 1 = 11 conductors.

Front Pitch (YF)

It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the coil sides attached to any one commutator
segment (Figure). It is denoted by Y F For example, if coil side 12 and coil side 3 are connected to the same
commutator segment, then front pitch is YF = 12 - 3 = 9 conductors.

Resultant Pitch (YR)

It is the distance (measured in terms of armature conductors) between the beginning of one coil and the beginning
of the next coil to which it is connected (Figure). It is denoted by Y R. Therefore, the resultant pitch is the algebraic
sum of the back and front pitches.
8 Types of Generator Suggestion

Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. Generators may be
divided into (a) separately-excited generators and (b) self-excited generators.
(a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an independent
external source of dc current.
(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced by the
generators themselves. There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in
which their field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
(i) Shunt wound: The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature
conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them.
(ii) Series Wound: The field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors. As they
carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips. Such generators
are rarely used except for special purposes i.e. as boosters etc.
(iii) Compound Wound: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and can be
either short-shunt or long-shunt. In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the
series field. When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-
compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be
differentially compounded.
9 Different Characteristics of separately excited and self-excited generator Suggestion

The following are the three most important characteristics of a d.c. generator:

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E 0) and the field current (I f) at constant
speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for
all generators whether separately or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by
operating the generator at no load and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field
current is varied.

2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. on load (E) and the armature current (I a). The e.m.f. E
is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open
circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). The internal characteristic is of interest chiefly to the designer. It cannot be
obtained directly by experiment. It is because a voltmeter cannot read the e.m.f. generated on load due to the
voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal characteristic can be obtained from external characteristic if
winding resistances are known because armature reaction effect is included in both characteristics.

3. External characteristic (V/IL)

This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I L). The terminal voltage V will
be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal
characteristic. This characteristic is very important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given
purpose. It can be obtained by making simultaneous measurements of terminal voltage and load current (with
voltmeter and ammeter) of a loaded generator.

Seperately
Excited

O.C.C. Internal and External characteristic

Series

O.C.C., Internal and External characteristic

 Shunt

O.C.C., Internal and External characteristic

Compound

External characteristic

10 Draw a developed diagram of a simple 2-layer lap-winding for a 4-pole generator with Suggestion
16 coils. Hence, point out the characteristics of a lap-winding. Example 26.1
11 Draw a developed diagram of a simplex 2-layer wave-winding for a 4-pole d.c. Suggestion
generator with 30 armature conductors. Hence, point out the characteristics of a simple Example 26.2
wave winding.