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Advances in genetics have produced cloned animals and transgenic animals, in which there has
been a deliberate modification of the genome so that it contains foreign DNA. In transgenic
animals, recombinant DNA technology is used to make a heritable or non-heritable modification
so that the resulting animals, or their offspring, might be used to study the biology of genetic
regulation and the influence of certain proteins or hormones in the body, to produce specific
proteins or hormones, to test the toxicity of drugs or other interventions, and/or to improve
growth and yields in agriculture. This type of genetic alteration goes beyond selective breeding
for desired traits because it inserts genetic material foreign to the animal’s genome. One potential
use for this technology is to create animals with organs or tissue suitable for transplant to humans
—xenotransplantation. Nuclear transfer or other techniques can be used to clone animals either
to preserve a genetically altered animal or to create identical animal lines.
Transgenic animals
A transgenic animal is an animal in which foreign DNA has been incorporated into its original
DNA. Transgenic animals are altered so that their DNA produces chemicals that normally they
would not produce. There are numerous different ways to create transgenic animals. The most
popular is microinjection of recombinant DNA into the male pronucleus of an in vitro fertilized
egg. The second most popular method is embryonic stem cell transfer. Other methods include but
are not limited to chemical or viral delivery into embryonic stem cells, or homologous
recombination with embryonic stem cells.
disease models
transpharmers
xenoplanters
food sources
scientific models
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Disease models are animals that have been modified to exhibit the symptoms and progression of
a particular disease, so that treatments for that disease can be tested on them.
Transpharmers are animals modified to express a particular protein or suite of proteins in their
milk to avoid animal sacrifice when obtaining the drug. The proteins can be purified to produce
medicines and hormones to treat humans, or can possibly be administered as medicinal milk
itself.
Xenoplanters are animals that have been engineered to not express the foreign antigens that
normally prevent the transplantation of their organs into humans.
Food sources are animals that grow bigger or faster to produce more food in a shorter amount of
time with fewer resources.
Scientific models are animals producing more or less of a particular protein than usual, letting us
observe that protein’s purpose in biological mechanisms or development, which can in turn be
applied to humans.
Ethics
Ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is a law philosophy that addresses questions about
morality — that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, justice, virtue, etc. Ethical
issues have become more salient in many walks of life and are often the matter of wide-reaching
policy decisions.
Meta-ethics, about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how
their truth-values (if any) may be determined;
Normative ethics, about the practical means of determining a moral course of action;
Applied ethics, about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations;
Moral psychology, about how moral capacity or moral agency develops and what its
nature is; and
Descriptive ethics, about what moral values people actually abide by.
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Transgenic animals and ethics
Ethical concerns about the genetic engineering of animals may conveniently be divided into two
basic types. The genetic engineering of a living organism may for a variety of reasons be thought
of as being morally problematic in itself; for example, such engineering may be perceived as
wrong or morally dubious due to the mode of production or to the source of genetic material. But
genetic engineering may also be thought of as morally problematic because of its consequences.
Ethical issues associated with genetically modified animals are sometimes discussed as though
they are synonymous with welfare issues, although they arise from many sources, primarily:
Our views and beliefs about animals and nature, and the relationship of animals with
humans.
The demonstrable and possible consequences of producing and using transgenic animals,
including those related to animal welfare, ecology and the environment, economic and
social factors, and human health.
Is it ethical to use transgenic animals where the purpose of that genetic modification
means that disease or disability or environmental degradation will be inevitable? The
often-cited example is that of oncomice, mice genetically modified to inevitably develop
cancers. A second example is the Australian proposal to release transgenic bacteria which
will make ruminant stock animals more immune to the poisonous effects of fluoroacetate.
This proposal was rejected by the Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee after
widespread criticism on environmental grounds. The genetic modification would have
enabled livestock grazing to be expanded and intensified in areas of native vegetation
which was previously protected by its naturally high levels of fluoroacetate, with
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probable effects on the conservation of native fauna and flora. The high risk of spread to
feral ruminant populations was also of concern.
Is it ethical to establish transgenic animal lines where there is much greater "wastage" of
animals? Some sources of wastage include low success rates of current techniques to
create novel lines of transgenic animals (often cited at 2% or less), and inherent
phenotypic instability that requires culling of variant animals in order to keep the
transgenic line "pure". A third source may be variable demand for a wide range of animal
lines, placing pressure on businesses that supply animals to manage their stock animals in
ways which increase economic efficiencies but require more culling.
Is it ethical to develop transgenic animals where benefits are not primarily for health,
welfare or environment? For example, mare economic efficiencies, human comfort (such
as baldness cures or pets with novel characteristics), or scientific curiosity and public
acclaim (such as the much-publicized plan by the Australian Museum to clone the
Tasmanian tiger) sufficiently ethical reasons to develop transgenic animals?
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animals are often implanted with traits from a different species entirely. However, most
scientists see transgenesis as a logical step beyond selective breeding, a way to open
doors past what we previously have known to cure diseases and possibly end world
hunger entirely. In fact it could be argued that for some transgenic animals, the presence
of the transgene confers less overall change to the animal than selective breeding. This
would especially be the case for transpharmers that show no expression of the transgene
outside the milk. It is current policy that experimenters must predict as accurately as
possible how the transgene will affect the animal and minimize suffering to the best of
their knowledge.
Transgenic art
Creating monsters simply because it can be done certainly should not be a motivation for
scientists, and it almost certainly is not currently allowed by university animal care
committees that oversee such research. Trusted scientific journals publish articles in order
to increase biological and medical knowledge. There is little knowledge to be made from
making monsters. However, there are some privately funded experiments done for “art’s
sake”. Here I am referring to “Alba,” the rabbit that glows under UV light, designed by
and created for Eduardo Kac. The rabbit is part of Eduardo Kac’s plan to create
“transgenic art.” This refers to animals and plants with a planned genome intended to
express an artistic idea symbolized by the proteins they code for. With more species
going extinct every day, Kac hopes that artists can add to the biodiversity by creating new
species of their own design (Kac, 1998). Although Kac does speak of artists having the
responsibility to take care of the new life they create, “transgenic art” is created largely
for the sake of doing it, with no thought for medical advancement or saving lives. In
plants, this can be interesting and compelling. However, in animals, it crosses the line of
what is necessary.
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is also nonviolent. So according to this thinking, taking and using a medicine produced in
the cow’s milk is not against the Ahimsa beliefs of Hinduism, although many Hindus
argue that tampering at all with a cow, or interfering with its daily routines is to be
avoided, so these Hindus may take issue with transgenic cows. Certainly, the cow
probably does not notice which proteins are produced in her milk, as long as it is not
expressed in the blood, and does no harm to her calf. Such discussion needs to take place
on these issues, even if the process is difficult, to promote greater understanding. In spite
of the Hindu stance, the authors of this IQP argue that creating transgenic cows should be
allowed when human lives are to be saved and no animal suffering occurs, especially in
the case of transpharmers, although we are against any growth hormone bovine
transgenesis.
Conclusion
When ethical assessments need to be made in a practical setting, an explicit framework or tool to
assist this task should be employed in order to allow for greater transparency and quality control.
Ethical and welfare assessments of animal biotechnology are necessary and, in spite of their
value dimensions, are far from being relegated to the realm of the merely subjective and
idiosyncratic. Science and ethics can work together to make such assessments practical and
transparent. It is hoped that this can pave the way for ethics and animal welfare aspects to
become concrete and permanent features of our regulatory systems and to be integrated in
routine quality assessments of animal biotechnology for transgenic animal production.
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