AIIMS TOPPER

SATHVIK
REDDY ERIA
AIR 1st
Q Achieving top position was a surprise
for you or you were expecting it.
Sathvik- It was definitely a surprise.
Q Please share your feelings after
achieving such a mile stone.
Sathvik- I am really happy that I shall be
able to join my dream college.
Q In how many attempts did your get
this success?
Sathvik- My first attempt.
Q How did you manage to prepare for
board examinations and competitive
exams simultaneously?
Sathvik- Preparation was mainly for
entrances. Once I was clear with the
basics board exams were not difficulty
to clear.
SCORE CARD
Q Tell us something about your source
98.8% Telangana Board of inspiration.
Sathvik- My parents always encouraged
me to do better and they are my source of
inspiration.
Q What was your study plan; please
explain in details so that our readers
can also follow it?
Sathvik- I focused mainly on NCERT
books for all subjects as most of the
questions asked in medical entrances are
MESSAGE TO FUTURE directly from NCERT. Once I was
ASPIRANTS thorough with NCERT I took as many
mock tests as possible which helped me
Hard work and dedication, focus on your identify my weak areas.
aim and concentrate on your study for
two years.
Q Please share the secret of your success Q Which is you dream institution and
with our readers. which stream do your wish to pursue?
Sathvik- Hard work and studying according to a proper plan. Sathvik- AIIMS Delhi, MBBS.

Q Did your study plan remain same
throughout the year, i.e. at the start of the
session, after completion of syllabus and
just 1-2 months before the exam or you
had different plans for different phases?
Sathvik- Throughout the year the focus was on completing
syllabus and revising the weak topics. One month before the
exam, the focus was on solving practice papers.
Q Besides studies, what do you do, i.e.
what are your hobbies and how you match
up with these hobbies during your studies?
What you do during the breaks from your
studies?
Sathvik- I watch movies and play table tennis with friends to
bust stress.

Q How many hours or study, is sufficient
for such a success?
Sathvik- There is no such thing one must prepare time table
and devote sufficient time the complete all the topics.
Q Tell us something about your study
techniques like how do your memorise the
facts, how did you have your revision and
how you assessed your preparation from
time to time?
Sathvik- I used to highlight the key points in all chapters which
helped me revise rapidly before the exam. Mock tests provided
me a good idea of my preparation level.
Q Now-a-days social media like Facebook,
Twitter etc; is a big trend. Do you also
engage with these, does it affect the
studies? Please give some advice to our
readers.
Sathvik- I was active on Facebook throughout the two years,
but never let it interfere with my studies. Studies must be your
number one priority.
Q Please tell us the about the books and
other reference material that ensured your
success.
Sathvik- Master the NCERT Biology.

Q Tell us about your family and the role of Q Did your find Arihant books helping your
your family members in guiding you to get this success?
towards this spectacular performance in Sathvik- NCERT Exemplar Biology Physics and AIIMS, JIPMER,
MANIPAL, Chemistry previous year papers.
the exam.
Sathvik- My mother is a software engineer. Father is a lawyer. Q How Spectrum was helpful in your
The always supported me and always encouraged me when I
was feeling low.
studies?
Sathvik- Every new issue up date me.
Q Share something about the weak and Q Any message and success tips for the
strong points of your personality. next year aspirants.
Sathvik- Weak points I am very sensitive.
Sathvik- I would advise them to focus on NCERT books before
Strong points I am confident about whatever I do.
reading reference books. I wish them all the best.
Q Did you devote equal time to all the
subjects or more weightage for one or two
subjects as compared to other subjects?
Sathvik- Equal time to all subjects.

Q Were there any weak areas of yours in

any subject(s)? How did you cope up with
those?
Sathvik- Biology Human physiology. I repeatedly revised the
terminology.
Chemistry Organic. Solved many previous year questions.
Physics Modern physics. Focused reading from NCERT.

Q How your teachers/mentors helped in

achieving this goal?
Sathvik- Teacher clarified my doubts sand helped me rectify
mistakes made in mock tests.
AIIMS TOPPER
SCORE CARD
Board: Physics 98%, Chemistry 99%,
Biology 95%, English 88.6%
AIIMS: 153 Out of 200
MESSAGE TO FUTURE
ASPIRANTS
Always have in mind your goal.Stay
away from distractions. Success
comes not only with hard work but
also smart work.
AISHVARY
GUPTA
AIR 7 th
Q Achieving top position was a surprise
for you or you were expecting it.
Aishvary- I expected this rank. In the
monthly test , I performed good in ALLEN
, so this rank was expected by me and my
teachers.
Q Please share your feelings after
achieving such a mile stone.
Aishvary- When I heard of that I got 7th
rank in my dream college , I felt like I am
at the top of the world. I was jumping
with joy and feeling ecstasy. The hard
work and sacrifice of 2 years finally
succeeded into incomparable result.
Q In how many attempts did you get
this success?
Aishvary- This was my first attempt , with
12th. Like most of the people , I prepared
for medical entrance examination in 11th
and 12th and take this exam with 12th
boards. In the first attempt I cracked
AIIMS with good rank.
Q How did you manage to prepare for
board examinations and competitive
exams simultaneously?
Aishvary- My main focus was competitive
exam. While, preparing for competitive
exam , boards also gets prepared . In
boards you have to write more , which
needs practice so I solved previous years
paper of boards within time limits . This
also helped me to boost my confidence.
Q Please share the secret of your success
with our readers.
Aishvary- I don't think I have secret of success. Output comes
only when you give sufficient input. Work hard to reach your
goal. The way to reach the goal should be clear in mind. There
are many hurdles to stop you from reaching your goal, but you
must have enough determination to overcome them.
Q Tell us something about your source of
inspiration.
Aishvary- I got inspiration from previous year toppers. I always
wonder about their success and how they reach zenith of
success. ALLEN institute keeps on reminding you about them
and their success. It motivates you from within to reach their
position.
Q Did your study plan remain same
throughout the year, i.e. at the start of the
session, after completion of syllabus and
just 1-2 months before the exam or you
had different plans for different phases?
Aishvary- As I said before my study plan was dynamic , it
changed during different phases. At the start of session, we
don't have much load so plan was quite relaxed and then
syllabus increases, which increases our pressure and we have
to work more hard to remain in competition. Just before exam
the situation become so tensed that we have to burn midnight
oil .
Q How many hours of study, is sufficient
for such a success?
Aishvary- Hours varies from person to person. Actually, it
depends on calibre of person , how much time he takes to
catch up things. I studied 12-13 hours a day when classes were
not going and during classes 6-7 hours self study and 5-6 hours
in classes.
Q Tell us something about your study
techniques like how do you memorize the
facts, how did you have your revision and
how you assessed your preparation from
time to time?
Aishvary- Memorising can be done easily if you relate the
things to real life or connect one fact with other. Revision plan
must be set when you first read the topic , underline the facts
that you will forget and need to revise ,make short notes. Next
time your revision should take lessor time than previous then
only your revision plan is good.
ALLEN caries out test periodically to check your preparations
which helps you to assess youself.
Q Tell us about your family and the role of
your family members in guiding you
towards this spectacular performance in
the exam.
Aishvary- My family have a huge role in my success. They take
care of me more than I care myself. My mother keeps on telling
me during exam don't eat junk and heavy food ,It can make
you sick and spoil your 2 year hard work. They have always
motivated me whatever be my performance in test.
Q Did you devote equal time to all the
subjects or more weightage or one or two
subjects as compared to other subjects?
Aishvary- AIIMS has equal weightage of all subjects so I also
give equal priority to all subjects. The time they need varies
according to need of the subject.
Q Were there any weak areas of yours in
any subject(s)? How did you cope up with
those?
Aishvary- My speed in exam was the weakest point. I needed
more time than usual to complete the paper, but I worked hard
and practiced a lot of question paper to increase my speed.
Q How your teachers/mentors helped in
achieving this goal?
Aishvary- Teachers showed us the path to achieve our goal.
They ensured that we are not demotivated or going on the
wrong track. Obviously, any problem in subject is solved by
them also they solved our exam pressure problem and
psychological problem.
Q Which is your dream institution and
which stream do you wish to pursue?
Aishvary- AIIMS , the dream institution of every medical
student .
Q Besides studies, what do you do, i.e.
what are your hobbies and how you match
up with these hobbies during your studies?
What you do during the breaks from your
studies?
Aishvary- I spent less time to hobbies in these 2 years. In
leisure time I listen songs or watch movies to maintain the
rhythm of mind.
Q Now-a-days social media like Facebook,
Twitter, etc., is a big trend. Do you also
engage with these, does it affect the
studies? Please give some advice to our
readers.
Aishvary- I maintained distance from social media. A part of
our mind is engaged when we work on social media. This leads
to bad performance . I did not used Facebook,Twitter or What's
app in the last 2 years. I will advice medical or engineering
aspirants to stay away as much you can from these social
media.
Q Please tell us the about the books and
other reference material that ensured your
success.
Aishvary- ALLEN material and NCERT books are self sufficient
to reach success. Firstly, these books must be completed
thoroughly. Then you can go for other books , which you can
ask your teacher. These book differ according to need in
subject.
Q Did you find Arihant books helping you
to get this success?
For competition, Arihant books were helpful. I especially the
solved previous years Arihant papers.
AIIMS TOPPER

EKANSH
GOYAL th
AIR 9
Q Achieving top position was a surprise
for you or you were expecting it.
Ekansh- It is a pleasant surprise, I was
expecting to qualify but not with such a
high rank.
Q Please share your feelings after
achieving such a mile stone.
Ekansh- I am feeling very happy along
with my family members, relatives and
friends.
Q In how many attempts did you get
this success?
Ekansh- Ist attempt
Q How did you manage to prepare for
board examinations and competitive
exams simultaneously?
Ekansh- The syllabus is same for both the
SCORE CARD exams only the pattern and level is
Board: Physics 99%, Chemistry 99%, different. One must prepare through
Biology 96%, English 95% subjective and last year questions for
board exams.
Q Please share the secret of your
success with our readers.
Ekansh- Complete the syllabus of 11th &
12th, study regularly with 8 -10 hours of
MESSAGE TO FUTURE output, study NCERT completely and give
equal weightage to every subject.
ASPIRANTS
Hard work and dedication, focus on your Q Tell us something about your source
aim and concentrate on your study for of inspiration.
Ekansh- My parents, they have done a lot
two years.
for me. I can not repay their sacrifice, they
inspired me to get this position, my
brother also helped me a lot.
Q What was your study plan; please
explain in details so that our readers can
also follow it?
Ekansh- There was no hard and fast study plan, I use to
study according to the need.One must not be biased
among the subject, i.e. must not give more time to his area
of interest , he/she should study with balance, giving equal
weightage .
Q Did your Study Plan remain same
throughout the year, i.e. at the start of the
session, after completion of syllabus and
just 1-2 months before the exam or you
had different plans for different phases?
Ekansh- There was no such drastic change, after
completion of whole syllabus, I focused on solving the
questions of entire syllabus, it helped me in switching over
to one topic from another.
Q How many hours of study, is sufficient
for such a success?
Ekansh- One must study atleast 8 -10 hours and should
increase the study time in the exam time.
Q Tell us something about your study
techniques like how do you memorise the
facts, how did you have your revision and
how you assessed your preparation from
time to time?
Ekansh- There are mainly three types of topics .
1. Which needs to be learnt, I memorise those topics
2. Which needs to be analyzed, so I treat it accordingly
3. Which needs to be correlated with other topics .
Q Tell us about your family and the role of
your family members in guiding you
towards this spectacular performance in
the exam.
Ekansh- My Parents helped me a lot, they motivated me to
get this milestone. My mother lived with me for two years,
my father arranged everything I demanded and my brother
helped me in clearing the doubts .
Q Share something about the weak and
strong points of your personality.
Ekansh- Weakness – I cannot read the same topic again
and again, It seems to me boring .
Strength – I prepare each and every topic, even the
smallest one, which was needed for cracking AIIMS.
Q Did you devote equal time to all the
subjects or more weightage or one or two
subjects as compared to other subjects?
Ekansh- Equal time to every subject, one must give equal
weightage to every subject .
Q Were there any weak areas of yours in
any subject(s)? How did you cope up with
those?
Ekansh- There were few topics in Physics, Chemistry and
Biology and I overcome with regular study and practice.
Q How your teachers/mentors helped in
achieving this goal?
Ekansh- All my teachers and mentors helped me a lot in
achieving this goal. They were always ready to support me a
lot. They have given moral support and helped me in getting
focused on my goal .
Q Which is your dream institution and
which stream do you wish to pursue?
Ekansh- AIIMS.
Q Besides studies, what do you do, i.e.
what are your hobbies and how you match
up with these hobbies during your studies?
What you do during the breaks from your
studies?
Ekansh- Football, Playing Guitar. Meditation taught by
Brahmkumaris .
Q Now-a-days social media like Facebook,
Twitter etc. is a big trend. Do you also
engage with these, does it affect the
studies? Please give some advice to our
readers.
Ekansh- I kept myself away from social media for two
years, one should do so to get success in big competition.
Q Please tell us the about the books and
other reference material that ensured your
success.
Ekansh- 1) PHYSICS – H C VERMA, NCERT BOOKS.
2) MASTER THE NCERT AND CHEMISTRY OF ARIHANT.
Q Did you find Arihant books helping you
to get this success?
Ekansh- MASTER THE NCERT – PHYSICS.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY – R. K. GUPTA.
Medical Solved papers.
Q How Spectrum was helpful in your
studies?
Ekansh- BIOLOGY SPECTRUM helped me a lot as it has
new problems.
NUCLEIC
ACIDS
OUR HEREDITARY
COMMANDERS
Nucleic acids are the informational molecules of the cell. They constitute the genetic material of all living things as well as
of viruses. Within the structure of nucleic acids are coded the ‘instructions’ that govern all cellular activities. Almost every
cell of a multicellular organism contains the same complement of genetic material–its genome. Chromosomes, the nucleic
acid molecules that are the repository of an organism’s genetic information are the largest molecules in a cell. In this article
we will discuss about role of nucleic acids in transferring genetic information from one generation to the next generation
as well as in the formation of new species.

Composition of Nucleic Acid Some Common Nucleosides and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are long, thread-like macromolecules built up
Base + Sugar → Nucleoside + H 3 PO 4 → Nucleotide
of nucleotides. Hydrolysis of a nucleotide yields three
component substances, a pentose sugar, nitrogenous base
Adenine Adenosine Adenylic acid
and phosphoric acid. The structure of nucleic acid is as
follows: Thymine Thymidine Thymidylic acid
Nucleic acid

Nucleotides Uracil Uridine Uridylic acid

(Nucleoside)
Cytosine Cytidine Cytidylic acid
Nitrogenous Pentose Phosphoric acid
base sugar OH
(Purine or (Deoxyribose Guanine Guanosine Guanylic acid
pyrimidine) or ribose) P OH

OH
Base NH2 NH2 Nucleic Acid Types
N
N
N
N Two types of nucleic acids are found in living cells.
H
Nitrogenous
base + sugar + Phosphoric O G
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
N N acid N N
HOH2C O HO P O CH2 O G
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
O Most of the DNA is found in the nucleus, while there is
Pentose some RNA in the nucleus and most is in the cytoplasm,
sugar OH OH
(Nucleoside) Adenylic acid (Nucleotide)
particularly in the ribosomes.

08
 RNA V/S DNA A New Nucleic Acid Based
Agent for the Cure of
Some RNA O Most of Immune Disorders
is in the O2 the DNA
nucleus is found Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS),
C Nucleobases
and most
HN C N C in nucleus. Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN)
is in the
cytoplasm CH HN C—CH3 and Graft Versus Host Disease
(ribosomes). H2N—C C Contains a (GVHD) are distinct immune
N O C CH
N deoxyribose
H N sugar. reactions, elicited by drugs or
Possess Guanine H
ribose allogeneic antigens. They share a
Thymine
sugar. O pathomechanism with the
Double activation of cytotoxic
Base pair
NH2 helical
C
Usually
HN CH structure. T-lymphocytes (CTLs). These CTLs
consists C
of a CH
produce cytotoxic proteins,
N
single O C CH cytokines, chemokines or immune
strand. N
H O C CH Possess alarmins, such as granulysin (GNLY)
Possess N thymine.
uracil Uracil leading to the extensive tissue
H
instead of Cytosine damage and systemic inflammation
thymine. NH2
Genetic in patients with SJS/TEN or GVHD.
Genetic C Helix of material of A new nucleic acid based agent
N sugar-phosphates most of the
material N C organisms. (CD-8 aptamer-GNLY siRNA
of some CH
viruses. chimera) has been identified.
HC C
N
N It can significantly inhibit
H RNA DNA
Adenine CTL-mediated drug hypersensitivity
(Ribonuleic acid) (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
as well as the alloreactivity.

Types of RNA DNA : The Supreme Heredity Commander

Molecules of RNA make up 50 to 10 per cent of the total weight In most of the organisms DNA is the hereditary
of the cell and have more varied biological functions than DNA. material. Lets explore why?
Noncoding region (trailer region)
1. Messanger RNA (mRNA)
Constitutes 2-5% of total
Initiation Coding
Poly A
1 Necessary Informations are Stored as
Cap codon region
RNA content of the cell. DNA in Eukaryotes
It may be monocistronic 5′ 3′
or polycistronic.
Noncoding region
Cells store the information necessary to build
Termination
(leading region) codon Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and proteins as DNA, a
Part of an mRNA strand
simple linear polymer found in all organisms.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Synthesised in nucleoli Information is stored in the nucleus in the form of deoxyribonucleotide
Unpaired sequences (DNA). Some of this DNA is transcribed in the nucleus to
rRNA joins with proteins bases form RNA, another form of information storage.
to form the subunits of
ribosomes. In the cytosol, messenger RNA is translated into sequences of
amino acids (polypeptides), which form proteins, another form
Paired bases
of information. Some proteins are synthesised on the surface
of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Coiled Uncoiled
region region
Structure of rRNA (schematic)
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
CH3
Smallest RNA molecule.
Synthesised in the nucleus. H3C—CH
It becomes charged
when a specific amino CH2
acid binds with it. Amino acid
CH—NH2 Amino
C==O acid
A O
Hydrogen Some proteins in the cytosol transmit
bonds information from one location in the cell
between to another (this is called intracellular signaling).
bases
Some proteins expressed on the surface of cells act as
receptors for molecules in the extracelluar environment,
thereby capturing information about the cell’s surroundings.
Some forms of information storage in cells
tRNA

Anticodon Anticodon
2 Only the DNA of a Cell is Inherited
CAG (b) In multicellular organisms such as humans, most cells,
GUC
mRNA Codon i.e., somatic cells, only pass their DNA to the cells
(a) that replace them during that organism’s life time.
Structure of tRNA; (a) Schematic drawing of a leucine tRNA from E. coli. A specialised set of cells, i.e., germ cells are responsible
The three bases in the anticodon region are complementary to a codon
on the mRNA. (b) Tertiary structure of a tRNA molecule. for passing DNA from one generation to the next.

09
 3 Mutations in DNA are Inherited Differences in the sequence of base pairs in
Some proteins DNA give each part of DNA a slightly different
G
When cells replicate their DNA, they frequently bind to specific shape and these shapes are recognised by DNA When proteins bind to their
make mistakes. Some of these mistakes result in nucleotide binding proteins. Many of these target sequences on DNA,
sequences in proteins bind to the major or minor they change their shape.
changes in the deoxyribonucleotide sequence. the DNA grooves in the double helix of DNA. This is how DNA is “read”
by proteins.
Other changes in the original DNA template
sequence can also occur like extra deoxyribo-
nucletides can be inserted, some can be left out, This binding changes
the behaviour of the Major Minor
even large pieces of DNA can be accidently proteins and information groove groove
3′
deleted, added and/or moved to another location is converted into an 5′
mRNA by transcription
in the DNA sequence. 5′ 3′
G
The net effect of these changes is that every cell In some cases, two
and every organism is at least slightly different Some RNA sequences
or more proteins
must be bound
from its ancesters, siblings and other relatives. (mRNA) are translated together in order
into amino acid to recognise and
sequences in proteins bind to DNA

DNA information is “read” by proteins

A human cell contains

~12×109 deoxynucleotides.
A sequence of 8 is shown
5 DNA Information is Packaged into Units: Gene
as an example. G
A gene is a portion of DNA that can be converted into RNA, plus
some additional sequences that are absolutely necessary for this
conversion to take place.
Mistakes such as this
DNA
...AAGTCCAG...
insertion of the wrong G
A gene is always a single linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides
deoxyribonucleotide
...TTCAGGTC... (G instead of T) occur on a single piece of DNA.
~6 times per round of
DNA replication.
G
It cannot be fragmented into different portions of DNA scattered
DNA
replication throughout different DNA molecules.
...AAGTCCAG... ...AAGGCCAG... Genes are typically not lined up
one after another in eukaryotic
...TTCAGGTC... ...TTCCGGTC... DNA, they are separated by large
stretches of noncoding DNA.
Gene
One of the The coding sequence lies inside the
daughter cells boundaries of a gene and is broken
inherits the
mutated DNA into coding segments (exons) and
sequence. noncoding segments (introns). The
coding sequence is flanked by
regulatory sequences in the gene Gene
If the mutation and these are not transcribed.
is in a gene, a
Transcription different RNA
may be
Gene
produced.
Coding sequence
mRNA
Exon Intron
DNA
If the mutation is
Translation
in the coding
sequence of a
gene, a different Regulatory Regulatory
Polypeptide polypeptide may sequence sequence
be produced.
The smallest functional unit of DNA : A gene
Mistakes in DNA replication may cause mutations

4 DNA must be Read to be Useful 6 DNA Replicates Inside the Cell

DNA is not useful in isolation. Only the portions of DNA must replicate if genetic information is to be available
DNA that are ‘read’ are meaningful. Cells ‘read’ for transmission to daughter cells and from generation to
the DNA in a specific way, as given in the flowchart. generation in reproduction.

Field Effect Sensors for Nucleic Acid Detection

Biosensors represent a well-established field attracting high investments in research and industry. A similar development can be ambitioned for nucleic acid
diagnostics since, DNA/RNA detection applications have growing demand in various fields, such as pathogen identification, drug screening and diagnosis of
genetic diseases. The Field Effect Transistor (FET) is one of the most exciting approaches in electrical DNA detection and characterisation, showing several
advantages : small dimensions, fast response, integration into arrays and possibility of low-cost mass production. Field effective devices are a promising
technology for label free DNA analysis suitable for molecular screening of pathogens and dignostics of genetic disorders.

10
 7 Genes are Transcribed into RNAs
1. The nucleotides for building the new
DNA strands are delivered as : The portion of gene that is replicated as RNA is called the coding
P P
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) PP sequence. In eukaryotes, the coding sequence is often broken up
P
Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP) P into segments, called exons, separated by noncoding sequences
Thymidine Triphosphate (TTP) Deoxyribose
Cytidine Triphosphate (CTP) + Phosphate called introns. The process of synthesising an RNA molecule is
At the replication site the two terminal phosphates are removed called transcription. It occurs in the following steps:
as the nucleotide is added to the DNA chain. 1. Part of the DNA double helix of one chromosome.

Parent DNA 2. RNA polymerase ‘recognises’ a ‘start’ signal and attaches to DNA
strands, about at this point. Complementary
to be replicated
noncoding strand

Direction of
‘Start signal transcription
on coding
strand of DNA
RNA polymerase
Hydrogen bonds linking the two strands are broken; the double
Template helix unwinds in the region for transcription (a gene)
Building
2. Enzyme (DNA polymerase) units 3. RNA polymerase molecule travels along the DNA strand, catalysing
unzips parent strands and the production of messenger RNA molecules.
adds nucleotides.

3. DNA molecules in eukaryotes New chain ‘Stop’ signal

are so long that their length
Complem-
cannot be replicated from entary Messenger RNA polymerase
only one initiation point; strands RNA condenses
instead, replication points nucleotides
open up at various sites together
along the chromosome. Messenger Pool of
RNA strand nucleotides
Parent DNA
molecule
Replication
begins
Replication sites Coding strand
join up of DNA
DNA Replication 4. After transcription is completed, the
Base pairing
DNA returns to the double-stranded form.
Transcription
8 Messenger RNAs are Translated to form Proteins
G
The combined product 1. Translation begins when the large and
of rRNAs, tRNAs and small ribosome subunits, each containing 2. Elongation occurs as the
rRNA, combine with tRNA and mRNA at ribosome moves from the
mRNAs working the first (start) codon on the mRNA. first codon to the next,
together is a newly attracting a second tRNA with
the correct anticodon
synthesised sequence and carrying a new
polypeptide. amino acid. The two amino
Large acids are joined together,
G
During this process, Amino subunit elongating the polypeptide.
5′ 3′
three nucleotide acid
codons in the coding Ribosome
sequence of mRNA are tRNA
matched with Small subunit
anticodons in
tRNA by ribosomes to Start codon
AUG Ribosomal RNA
determine the
sequence of amino
5′
acids in the mRNA 3′
resulting polypeptide. Stop codon 5′ 3′
UAG
G
The process of
converting the
ribonucleotide Release factor

sequence of mRNA into

an amino acid sequence
in a polypeptide is 5′ 3′
3. Termination occurs when a protein
4. The released polypeptide either folds into
called translation. a protein or becomes a subunit of a multi-
called release factor attaches to
the last (stop) codon, releasing
G
Its various steps are subunit protein, while the ribosome and the polypeptide.
mRNA are recycled for another round
shown in the figure of translation.
Different steps of translation in eukaryotes
given.

11
 9 Mutations in DNA give rise to Variations, which acted upon by Natural Selection
G
Mutations have the potential to alter the structure and Mutationsthatresultinalterationsintheaminoacidsequenceof
apolypeptidemaycausethepolypeptidetofoldupdifferently ,
function of RNAs and/or proteins. resultinginalteredshapeandfunctionofaprotein. Mutations
Aminoacids inthe
G
In some cases, point mutations have little or no effect on Mutationsin sequence
rRNAgenes ofagene
the structure and function of the RNA. However, in other mayresult tRNA encodinga
cases the effects of mutations can be profound, resulting in in improper
shapesforeither
tRNAmay
alterits
the formation of a dramatically different informational thelargeor anticodon
smallribosomal orsome
RNA or even no RNA at all. subunits,disrupting otherregion
orstopping necessary
G
Mutations in tRNA or rRNA, mitochondrial genes can also translation. forinsertion
have significant effects in cells. intoa
ribosome,
G
The persistent mutation rate resulting from errors in DNA 5′ 3′ disruptingor
evenstopping
replication is an important tool to help ensure the survival translation.
of a species. Codons
Mutationsinthecodingsequenceofagenethatmakes mRNAwillbereflected
G
Because of mutations, most cells in a multicellular inthe mRNA,possiblychangingthesequenceofacodonandtherebypossibly
organism or in a population of single-celled organisms are changingtheorderofaminoacidsinthepolypeptide.
Mutationscanalteraminoacidsequenceandproteinfunction
subtly different from the previous generation of cells that
divide from them. A slow, steady rate of mutation persists for several rounds of cell division until enough mutations
accumulate to generate a noticeably different cell type and possibly a new organism.

Classicalexampleo fpointmutation:
sickle-celldisease
Normalhaemoglobinisorganised
Mostmutationshavea intotetramersinredbloodcells.
verysmallimpactonthe Generation1 Thesecellsfiteasilythrough
Somemutations phenotypeofthecell 0/3mutant0% capillariesinthecirculatorysystem.
occurincritical × thatinheritsit. ×
partsoftheDNA,
resultinginthe Generation2
deathofthecell 1/5mutant20%
thatinheritsit. ×
×

Sickle-cellhaemoglobinisorganised
intolongpolymericchainsthatdistort
Generation3 themembraneoftheredbloodcell,
3/10mutant30% inducingasickle-shape.
Asmutationsaccumulateinapopulationof
cells,thegeneticvarianceofthepopulation Differentmutationstakeplaceateachstage
increasesandthispermitsselectionofsome ofcellreplication,givingrisetomultipleminor Sicklecellsdonot
phenotypesoverothersbynaturalselection. mutantphenotypesinapopulation. fiteasilythrough
Thisishowcellsandeven capillaries,andcan
wholeorganisms,evolveovertime. blockthepassage
Mutationsaccumlateslowlyinapopulationofcells ofhealthycells.
Thiscausesadropin
oxygenintheaffected
tissueandcauses
severepain.

Packaging of DNA inside the Cell : A Hierarchial Process Core of 8

histone molecules: H1 histone
G
DNA is heritable, it reflects the tremendous amount of information H2A, H3, and H4
that has been gathered over the course of billions of years of evolution
by natural selection. Even the simplest cells have hundreds of
thousands of nucleotides in their DNA.
G
DNA remains supercoiled with the help of lysine and arginine rich
basic proteins called histone (H1 , H 2A, H 2B, H 3 and H 4 ).

H2A,H 2B,H 3,H 4

Histone (form core of nucleosome)
proteins
H1 (linker DNA)

Nucleosome

12
 Modification of Nucleosome Structure Different Levels of DNA Organisation in
Eukaryotic Cells
G
A large amount of DNA comes into contact with the spool,
G
Eukaryotic cells adopt an additional means for
most of it is inaccessible to other DNA-binding proteins,
organising DNA that most prokaryotes do not use,
thereby negating the beneficial effects of these spools.
i.e. they cut their DNA up into several
G
Cells use three different mechanisms to address this problem. chromosomes.
These mechanisms are described in the given table.
G
Chromosomes are very large bundles of DNA with
1. Chromatin distinctive shapes that change over the course of a
remodeling cell’s life.
SWI/SNF
proteins use SWI/SNF G
During mitosis, these chromosomes condense to
ATP energy to
move the core form X-shaped structures. They decondense once
particle a short ATP ADP + Pi mitosis is complete.
distance along
the DNA. This DNA
makes base SWI/SNF packing level Structure
pair sequence
free that may 1 (a) DNA double helix
DNA binding proteins
have been The SWI/SNF proteins slide the core particle, thereby exposing the previously
buried in the 2 nm
wrapped DNA to DNA binding proteins. This requires metabolic energy,
core particle. DNA is cleaved to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
2. Histone The exact shape of the tail regions 2 (b) Nucleosomes
remodeling of the histones is not known, but (‘‘beads-on-a-string”)
they are long enough to project The tail regions likely project
Histone past the DNA double helix,
out of the core particle.
proteins and are flexible.
are chemically 10 nm
modified to
modify the
shape of the 3 (c) 30 to 40-nm
H4
nucleosome. H3 chromatin fibre
H2B H2A
H3
H2
30 nm
P
P Me
Ac

When methyl, acetyl or

phosphate groups are
attached to the tails, the 4 (d) Looped domains
tails change shape,
altering access to the Euchromatin

123
DNA wrapped around
the core particle. In most Me
cases, these modifications Me
heterochromatin
restrict access to the (eukaryotes only) 300 nm
underlying DNA. The actual Ac
P
shape of the modified
tails is known. Histone remodeling

3. DNA H CH3
methylation N NH2 O CH3
Methyl groups CH3
5A (e) Folded/twisted
N N (interphase) loop domains
are added N N N
directly to
the bases N N N H2 N N N
adenine H H
Methyl adenine Methyl cytosine Methyl guanosine 700 nm
in the DNA.

Chromosomal Instability and Cancer 5B (f) Highly condensed,

Chromosomal instability is a hallmark of most solid tumours. Chromosome (mitosis/ duplicated
meiosis chromosome
missegregation is an important mechanism of tumour adaptation. A direct only)
consequence of chromosomal instability is an aneuploidy. Many hematopoietic
malignancies were found to be clonally aneuploid. Thus, aneuploidy and 1400 nm

chromosomal instability are interrelated. Recent studies have shown that aneuploidy
and chromosomal instability have independent contributions to tumour evolution and
growth, even while co-existing throughout the tumour’s life-time. The five different levels of DNA organisation in eukaryotic cells

13
 DNA is ‘silenced’ in Heterochromatin
Two different mechanisms have been identified for silencing the DNA. These are as follow:
DNA silencing

By histone modification By Rap1, Sir 3 and Sir 4 proteins

3. The protein HP1 binds to
1. Histone 2. A histone methylase methylated histone H3, triggering H3/H4 N-terminal tails
deacetylase adds a methyl group a change in the shape of the AC AC AC AC
removes acetyl to amino acid #9 nucleosome. This induces
When you see blood group from (a lysine) on neighboring nucleosomes to Rap 1
histone H3. histone H3. be modified in the same fashion. bound
oozing from a cut in to DNA

your finger, you might H3 HP1

assume that it is red Ac Me Me Me Me Me Me

because of the iron in

it, rather as rust has a 1. Sir3/Sir4
bind to H3/H4
reddish hue. But the
presence of the iron is Active
a coincidence. The red chromatin
2. Sir3/Sir4
colour because the 4. Silenced chromatin polymerise
iron is bound in a ring of atoms in haemoglobin called
porphyrin and it's the shape of this structure that
produces the colour. 3. Sir3/Sir4
attach to matrix

RNA as Genetic Material of Viruses Geophis lorancai: New

Many viruses contain RNA as their genetic material. Viruses consists of Species of Earth Snake
nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called capsid. Found in Mexico
Protein coat:
called capsid, A team of scientists has described a new
made of protein strikingly-colored species in the snake
Nucleic acid: subunits called
DNA or RNA, single or capsomeres. genus Geophis from the mountains of the
double-stranded.
Sierra Zongolica in West-central Veracruz
In addition:
a virus may have an outer and the Sierra de Quimixtlán in central-East
envelope a lipid bilayer Puebla, Mexico. Geophis is a genus of colubrid snakes in the
derived from the cell Some capsids
membrane of the host cell. are icosahedral, subfamily Xenodontinae, commonly referred to as earth
as here; others
Glycoproteins
are helical or
snakes. With 49 recognized species, it is one of the most
on the envelope.
The structure of a virus
other shapes. diverse genera of snakes in the Western Hemisphere.

Rhinovirus
Enters host cell by endocytosic Epithelial cell Viruses escape
Life Cycle of an RNA Virus at a receptor protein site of nasal mucosa into tissue fluid;
may repeat
Retroviruses are particular RNA cycle of
3. Enzyme that causes parasitisation
viruses. When they infect a host cell, lysis (splitting) of host cell of a host cell
membrane (some viruses
they bring with their proteins an escape without lysis of host)
Loss of
enzyme called reverse capsid
RNA strand

transcriptase. The mechanism of Assembly

es
replication of rhinovirus (RNA virus) Ribosom
Protein 2. Enzyme that
is shown in the given figure. forms catalyses formation
Translation three
i.e. RNA of virus is of protein coats
Thus, nucleic acids work as ‘read’ at ribosome,
enzymes:

hereditary commanders that and protein formed

transfer genetic information from 1. RNA replicase, catalyses Nucleus

of host
one generation to the next replication of RNA strand
cell
generation.

Replication of rhinovirus (cause of common cold)

14
 Smart Practice
1. Read the following statements and choose the (b) The repressor protein binds to RNA polymerase and
correct option. prevents translation
(c) The repressor protein attaches to the promoter
I. RNA polymerase associates transiently with
sequence and depresses the operator
‘Rho’ factor to initiate transcription. (d) The inducer molecule binds to repressor protein and
II. In bacteria, transcription and translation RNA polymerase binds to promoter sequence
takes place in the same compartment. 5. Consider the following statements in
III. RNA polymerase I is responsible for trans- eukaryotes:
cription of tRNA. I. RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNAs.
IV. When hnRNA undergoes capping process, II. RNA polymerase II transcribes snRNAs.
adenylate residues are added at 3′-end in a III. RNA polymerase III transcribes hnRNA.
template independent manner.
IV. RNA polymerase II transcribes hnRNA.
V. hnRNA is the precursor of mRNA.
(a) Only II (b) II, III and IV
Which of the statements given above are
(c) III and IV (d) I and V correct?
(a) I and II (b) I and III
2. Which option shows correctly labelled region (c) I, II and IV (d) I and IV
in the given diagram of DNA replication?
6. Match the Column with their respective amino
5′
A acids and choose the correct answer.
3′ Column I Column II
A. UUU 1. Serine
Lagging strand C B. GGG 2. Methionine
C. UCU 3. Phenylalanine
5′ D. CCC 4. Glycine
B
3′
E. AUG 5. Proline

(a) A and C (b) Only C Codes

(c) A and B (d) B and C A B C D E
(a) 3 4 1 5 2
3. Study the following Columns. (b) 3 1 4 5 2
Column I Column II (c) 3 4 5 1 2
(d) 2 4 1 5 3
A. Exon 1. Site for binding of RNA polymerase
B. Capping 2. Coding sequence 7. Compare the statements I and II.
C. Tailing 3. Lagging strand Statement I A monocistronic mRNA can
D. Promoter 4. Methyl guanosine triphosphate produce several types of polypeptide chains.
5. Adenylate residues Statement II The terminator codon is
present on the mRNA.
Codes
(a) Both the statements I and II are incorrect
A B C D
(b) Statement I is correct and II is incorrect
(a) 2 4 5 1 (c) Statement I is incorrect and II is correct
(b) 2 4 1 5 (d) Both the statements I and II are correct
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 4 2 3 1
8. An analysis of a DNA (double-stranded)
sample yielded 18% cytosine. What would be
4. Which of the following events would occur in the percentage of other bases in sample?
lac operon of E. coli when the growth medium (a) T–32%, A–32%, G–18%
has high concentration of lactose? (b) T–32%, A–18%, G–32%
(a) The structural genes fail to produce polycistronic (c) T–18%, A–32%, G–32%
mRNA (d) T–40%, A–22%, G–20%

15
 9. What is the amino acid sequence encoded by 16. Match the following Columns.
the base sequence : UCA UUU UCC GGG Column I Column II
AGU of a mRNA segment?
A. tRNA 1. Linking of amino acids
(a) Methionine–Phenylalanine–Serine–Glycine–Serine
B. mRNA 2. Transfer of genetic information
(b) Glycine–Serine–Phenylalanine–Serine–Glycine
C. rRNA 3. Nucleolar organising region
(c) Serine–Phenylalanine–Serine–Glycine–Serine
D. Peptidyl 4. Transfer of amino acid from
(d) Serine–Phenylalanine–Glycine–Serine–Glycine transferase cytoplasm to ribosome
10. Antiparallel strands of a DNA molecule mean Codes
that A B C D
(a) one strand turns anticlockwise
(a) 4 2 3 1
(b) the phosphate groups of two DNA strands at their ends,
(b) 1 4 3 2
share the same position
(c) the phosphate groups at the start of two DNA strands (c) 1 2 3 4
are in opposite position (d) 1 3 2 4
(d) one strand turns clockwise 17. What would happen if in a gene encoding a
11. In the DNA molecule, polypeptide of 50 amino acids 25th (UAC) is
(a) the total amount of purine nucleotides and pyrimidine mutated of UAA?
nucleotides is not always equal (a) A polypeptide of 49 amino acids will be formed
(b) there are two strands, which run parallel in the 5′→ 3′ (b) A polypeptide of 25 amino acids will be formed
direction (c) A polypeptide of 24 amino acids will be formed
(c) the proportion of adenine in relation to thymine varies (d) Two polypeptides of 24 and 25 amino acids will be
with the organism formed
(d) there are two strands, which run antiparallel–one in
5′→ 3′ direction and other in 3′→ 5′
18. E. coli about to replicate was placed in a
medium containing radioactive thymidine for
12. The strand of DNA acting as template for 5 minutes. Then, it was made to replicate in a
mRNA transcription is normal medium. Which of the following
I. coding strand observations will be correct?
II. non-coding strand (a) Both the strands of DNA will be radioactive
(b) One strand radioactive
III. sense strand
(c) Each half strand radioactive
IV. anti-sense strand (d) None is radioactive
The correct answer is 19. Choose the incorrect statement in the process
(a) I and II
of protein synthesis.
(b) I and IV
(c) II and IV (a) After uncoiling of DNA molecule, one strand acts as a
(d) I and III template for the formation of mRNA
(b) In the presence of DNA polymerase enzyme, the mRNA
13. In a DNA molecule, the adenine is 15%. What is formed based on the triplet codes
will be the percentage of guanine in this DNA? (c) The mRNA that leaves nucleus reaches cytoplasm and
(a) 15% (b) 35% gets attached with 30 S ribosomal subunit
(c) 70% (d) 30% (d) The amino acids are transferred from the intracellular
amino acid pool to the active ribosomes by the tRNA
14. There are 64 codons in the genetic
dictionary as 20. Which of the following is not relevant to the
(a) there are 3 non-sense codons and 61 sense codons structure of double helical DNA?
(b) there are 64 different types of tRNA (a) The helix makes one complete spiral turn every 34 Å
(c) there are 64 amino acids to be coded (b) The diameter of the helix is 20 Å
(d) genetic code has a triplet nature (c) The distance between adjacent nucleotide is 3.4 Å
15. During translation initiation in prokaryotes, a (d) Each strand of helix has a backbone made up of
alternating ribose sugar and phosphate
GTP molecule is needed in
(a) association of 30S, mRNA with formyl-met-tRNA 21. Operon concept was proposed by
(b) association of 50S subunit of ribosome with initiation (a) Jacob and Monod
complex (b) David Baltimore
(c) formation of formyl-met-tRNA (c) Alec Jeffrey
(d) binding of 30S subunits of ribosome with mRNA (d) None of the above

16
22. The sequence of structural gene in lac operon 27. The sequence of nitrogen bases in a particular
concept is region of the non-coding strand of a DNA
(a) lac a, lac y, lac z (b) lac a, lac z, lac y molecule was found to be CAT GTT TAT
(c) lac y, lac z, lac a (d) lac z, lac y, lac a CGC. What would be the sequence of nitrogen
23. In E. coli, an operator gene combines with bases in the mRNA that is synthesised by the
(a) inducer gene to switch on structural gene action corresponding region of the coding strand in
(b) inducer gene to switch off structural gene action that DNA?
(c) regulator protein (repressor) to switch off structural (a) GUA CAA AUA GCG
gene action (b) GTA CAA ATA GCC
(d) regulator protein to switch on gene action (c) CAU GUU UAU CGC
(d) CAA GAA TAU GCC
24. In the protein synthesis, tRNA carrying the
amino acid enters from which site of ribosome? 28. Some of the inhibitors of bacterial protein
(a) ‘A’ site (b) ‘P’ site synthesis and their effects are listed in
(c) Anticodon site (d) Recognition site Column I and Column II below. Match them
25. The diagram represents the ‘central dogma’ of and choose the correct option from answer key.
molecular biology. Choose the correct Column I Column II
combination of labelling.
A. Chloramphenicol 1. Inhibits binding of aminoacyl
Replication tRNA to ribosome
A
B. Erythromycin 2. Inhibits interaction between
D tRNA and mRNA
B Replication C. Neomycin 3. Inhibits initiation of
E translation
C D. Streptomycin 4. Inhibits peptidyl transferase
activity
(a) A–Protein B–RNA C–DNA
E Tetracycline 5. Inhibits translocation of
D–Translation E–Transcription mRNA along ribosomes
(b) A–RNA B–DNA C–Protein
D–Transcription E–Translation Codes
(c) A–Transcription R–Translation C–Translation
A B C D E
D–DNA E–RNA
(a) 1 2 3 5 4
(d) A–DNA B–RNA C–Protein
(b) 3 1 5 4 2
D–Transcription E–Translation
(c) 2 3 4 1 5
26. Match the following Columns. (d) 4 5 2 3 1
Column I Column II 29. Synthesis of RNA molecule is terminated by a
A. Chargaff 1 Wilkins and Franklin signal which is recognised by
B. Replicon 2. Uptake of lactose (a) α (alpha) factor
C. Permease 3. hnRNA (b) γ (gama) factor
D. Split gene 4. Length of DNA (c) ρ (rho) factor
(d) δ (delta) factor
E. X-ray diffraction studies 5. ( A + G) = (C + T )
30. DNA consists of two complementary nucleotide
Codes chains. If the sequence of nucleotides in one
A B C D E of the chains is AGCTTCGA then the
(a) 5 4 2 3 1 complementary sequence of the other chain
(b) 5 4 1 3 2 will be
(c) 5 4 2 1 3 (a) TCGAAGCT (b) TCGTATCG
(d) 5 1 2 3 4 (c) AATTCCGG (d) TCGAACTG

Answers
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (a)

17
 H MAN HEALTH & D SEASES

Directions (Q. Nos. 1-50) These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and Reason.
While answering these questions you are required to choose any one of the following five responses.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.
(d) Both Assertion and Reason are false.
(e) Assertion is false, but Reason is True.

1. Assertion Sickle cell anaemia is a congenital 6. Assertion The Major Histocompatibility

disease.
Reason In congenital diseases anatomical or
physiological abnormalities are present from birth.
2. Assertion Endotoxins are retained in the
bacterial cells and released when bacteria die and
disintegrate.
Reason The diseases brought about by endotoxins
include dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever and
bubonic plague.
3. Assertion The complement system is a group of
over 30 proteins. Many of which are enzyme
precursors and are produced by the pituitary gland.
Reason These proteins are present in the blood
plasma and on plasma membranes.
4. Assertion Asthma patients feel difficulty in
breathing.
Reason The tissue surrounding the bronchioles of
the lungs swell up and compresses the bronchioles.
5. Assertion Radiation therapy involves the
exposure of the cancerous parts of the body to
γ-rays.
Reason Isotopes of radon (Rn-220), cobalt (Co-60)
and iodine (I-131) are used for this purpose.
Complexes (MHCs) are responsible for lymphocyte
recognition and antigen presentation.
Reason It is encoded by several genes located on
human chromosome 7.
7. Assertion Leukemias are commonly called blood
cancers.
Reason Leukemias are characterised by abnormal
increase of white blood corpuscles.
8. Assertion Epitopes are components of antigen and
each antigen carries a single epitope.
Reason An antibody can bind to only a single
epitope at a time.
9. Assertion Dendritic cells are Antigen Presenting
Cells (APCs) characterised by long cytoplasmic
processes.
Reason Dendritic cells are found in lymph nodes,
spleen, thymus as well as in the skin and are
phagocytic in nature.
10. Assertion The genome of HIV consists of a single
stranded RNA filament segmented into two
identical filaments.
Reason The envelope of HIV possesses a lipid
bilayer derived from host cell membrane.

34
11. Assertion Drinking and driving is not permitted 21. Refer to the given figure of AIDS virus.
together. Glycoprotein spikes
Reason By intake of alcohol vision becomes Two single stranded
RNA filaments
blurred, unsteady and the field of vision is also Lipid membrane
reduced. Protein coats

12. Assertion Ganja is the dried male inflorescence of Reverse transcriptase

Cannabis sativa. enzyme (transcribes
DNA from RNA)
Reason It is generally smoked in cigarettes and
produces its effects almost instantaneously.
13. Assertion Allergy involves mainly IgE antibodies and Assertion HIV is a retrovirus and its infection
chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast results in the loss of body’s natural defence against
cells. pathogens.
Reason The allergic tendency is passed from Reason HIV infects helper T-cells which
parent to child. stimulate antibody production by B-cells.
14. Assertion Cytotoxic T-cells (Tc) are known as 22. Assertion Toxoids are used as vaccines against
killer cells. many diseases, e.g. tetanus toxoid, diphtheria
toxoid.
Reason Cytotoxic T-cells secrete hole forming
proteins, known as perforins. Reason Toxoids are activated toxins directed at
the toxins produced by a pathogen.
15. Assertion Female Anopheles mosquito is 23. Assertion Sarcomas are mainly derived from
considered as the definitive host of malarial parasite. epithelial cells.
Reason The asexual phase of the malarial parasite Reason About 80% of all tumours are sarcomas.
occurs in the mosquito.
24. Assertion Lysozyme is a physiological barrier
16. Assertion Entamoeba histolytica is dimorphic as it that kills bacteria by dissolving their cell walls.
occurs in two forms, harmful minuta form and Reason Lysozyme is present in tissue fluids,
harmless magna form. sweat, urine and saliva.
Reason Entamoeba histolytica is digenetic and 25. Refer to the given figure showing mechanism of
lives in the stomach of humans. interferon induction and action.
17. Assertion The stem cells of bone marrow from Virus Binding to
receptor
which cells of immune system derived are known as molecules
Double
pluripotent stem cells. stranded Interferon × Antiviral
× ×× ×
Reason The pluripotent stem cells can form either RNA × ×
×
× × × × ×
× ××
proteins
×
myeloid stem cells or lymphoid stem cells. × × × Diffusion of Another
× × interferon × ×× unrelated
× × × × × × ×× virus
18. Assertion In natural passive immunity the × ×
resistance is passively transferred from the mother
Assertion Interferons act as physiological
to the foetus through placenta.
messengers of immune cells.
Reason IgA antibodies can cross placental barrier Reason Interferons provide protection against
to reach the foetus.
viral infections.
19. Assertion Cancer is uncontrolled proliferation of 26. Assertion Effector B-cells have a longer lifespan
cells without any differentiation. and they secrete hundreds of antibodies daily.
Reason Cancerous cells penetrate and infiltrate Reason Effector cells are formed by differentiation
into the adjoining tissues and dislocate their of some activated B-cells.
functions. 27. Assertion Alcohol is a depressant to the brain.
20. Assertion Cigarette smoke contains a toxic gas, Reason In alcoholism, cerebellum is effected
carbon monoxide that interferes with the transport followed by cerebrum.
of CO 2 . 28. Assertion Haptens are considered as partial
antigens.
Reason Carbon monoxide produces its adverse Reason Haptens are incapable of antibody
effects by displacing the oxygen haemoglobin formation by themselves, but can induce their
dissociation curve to the right.
production by combining with carriers.

35
29. Refer to the given figure showing an antigen with 34. Assertion Filariasis is caused by Wuchereria
epitopes. bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi.
Antibody A Reason It is transmitted from one individual to the
Binding
others by female Culex mosquitoes.
Epitopes
sites (Antigenic
determinants
35. Assertion Lymph nodes and spleen are primary
of cell wall) lymphoid organs.
Antibody B Reason In primary lymphoid organs T-lymphocytes
and B-lymphocytes mature and acquire their antigen
ANTIGEN
specific receptors.
Antigens 36. Assertion MRI is very useful in the detection of
components
of cell wall cancers of the internal organs.
Reason In MRI strong magnetic fields and
Assertion Epitopes are components of antigen non-ionising radiations are used to detect
that get attached with the antibody. pathological and physiological changes in the living
Reason The combination is very much like the tissues.
lock and key analogy.
37. Assertion Barbiturates are synthetic drugs which
30. Assertion IgA is the most abundant class are general depressants.
constituting about 10-15% of antibodies of serum. Reason PNS is most sensitive to barbiturates.
Reason IgA has a polypeptide called as J-chain.
38. Refer to the given figure showing principal
31. Refer to the given figure of Datura. components of human lymphatic system.
A

Palatine tonsil
Right
Thoracic duct
lymphatic
duct B

Lymphatic
Assertion Part labelled as ‘A’ in the figure is vessel
misused for its hallucinogenic properties. Thoracic
Reason The hallucinogens, in general produce a duct
Small intestine
dream-like state.
Cisterna
32. Assertion The Insulin Dependent Diabetes chyli
Nodes
Large
Mellitus (IDDM) is caused by the failure of α-cells. intestine

Reason It is considered as a non-communicable Appendix

disease.
33. Refer to the given figure showing structure of an A Lymphatic
vessel
antibody.
Antigen binding site
3
H

Antigen
NH
3N

Variable region of binding site

3
NH

the heavy chain

NH
3

A
O–

CO

Light chain Variable region of

CO

the light chain

–

Hinge
Disulfide bond
Constant region Assertion Parts labelled as ‘A’ and ‘B’ are
B of light chain
Heavy chain Constant region primary lymphoid organs.
of heavy chain
Reason In ‘A’ and ‘B’ respectively maturation of
COO– COO–
B and T-lymphocytes occur.
Assertion The part mentioned as ‘B’ in the figure 39. Assertion IgM is the earliest immunoglobulin to
is called Fc region. be synthesised by the foetus.
Reason This fragment is crystallisable in cold Reason It can cross placental barrier.
storage.

36
40. Assertion TH1 cells produce cytokines and are
associated with allergic reactions.
Reason T cells mostly activate cells related to
H2
cellular immunity such as macrophages, CD-8,
T-cells, etc.
41. Assertion Arteriosclerosis causes hypertension
or high blood pressure.
Reason In arteriosclerosis a lumpy thickness
develops on the inner walls of the arteries that
prevents the dilation of vessels.
42. Assertion Malignant Tertian malaria is caused
by Plasmodium ovale.
Reason In this type of malaria recurrence of
fever is after every 48 hours.
43. Assertion Tissue specific macrophages are
formed by the differentiation of monocytes.
Reason Macrophages of liver are known as
Kupffer cells.
44. Assertion Caffeine provides a sense of
wellbeing, alertness, beats boredom, thinking
becomes clear and improves performance.
Reason Caffeine is a CNS stimulant.
45. Assertion Hay fever is a form of allergy caused by
the pollen of grasses, trees, etc.
Reason It is characterised by the inflammation of
the membrane lining the bronchioles.
46. Assertion Vaginal secretions are physical barriers
that provide protection against infectious microbes.
Reason Vaginal secretions are slightly acidic which
discourage bacterial growth.
47. Assertion Enteric fever is caused by Salmonella
typhi.
Reason The pathogens of enteric fever are present
in the stool or in the urine.
48. Assertion Primed cells are formed by T-lymphocytes.
Reason They recognise original invading antigens
even years after the first encounter.
49. Assertion MALT are aggregations of lymphoid
tissues which are seen in relation to the mucosa of
the major tracts like alimentary canal.
Reason They do not serve as filters of lymph.
50. Assertion Opioids are termed as analgesic.
Reason Opioids bind to specific opioid receptors
present in central nervous system and
gastrointestinal tract.
37
 Answers with Explanation
1. (a) Congenital diseases are present
from birth. They may be caused due to a
single gene mutation, chromosomal
aberrations or environmental factors.
Sickle cell anaemia is caused due to
mutation in a single gene. Therefore,
both assertion and reason are true and
reason correctly explains the assertion.
2. (b) Many microorganisms produce
powerful poisons called toxins which cause
diseases. They are of two types–exotoxins
and endotoxins. Exotoxins are released as
soon as they are secreted, while
endotoxins are released after the death of
the organism. Endotoxins are responsible
for dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever and
bubonic plague. Here, assertion and
reason both are true, but reason is not the
correct explanation of assertion.
Therefore, option (b) is correct.
3. (e) The complement system is a
defensive system. It was named
complement by Ehrlich to denote its
activity of complementing the action of
antibody on antigen. It is a group of over
30 proteins, many of which are enzyme
precursors and are produced by the liver.
These proteins are present in the blood
plasma and on plasma membranes.
Therefore, assertion is false, but reason is
true.
4. (a) In asthma the tissue surrounding
the bronchioles of the lungs swells up and
compresses the bronchioles. Hence, there
is difficulty in breathing. Therefore,
option (a) is correct.
5. (e) In radiation therapy the cancerous
part of the body is exposed to X-rays
which destroy rapidly growing cells
without harming the surrounding tissue.
Rn-220, Co-60 and I-131 are radioisotopes,
which are generally used in radiotherapy.
Therefore, option (e) is correct.
6. (c) Major Histocompatibility
Complexes (MHCs) is also referred to as
the HLA (Human Leucocyte Antigen)
system in humans. The MHC is a set of
molecules displayed on cell surfaces. It is
responsible for lymphocyte recognition
and antigen presentation. It is encoded
by several genes located on human
chromosome 6.
7. (a) In leukemia (Leukaemia),
production of White Blood Corpuscles
(WBCs) increases in the bone marrow. It
causes abnormal increase of WBCs
count. Therefore, leukemias are
commonly called blood cancers.
38
8. (d) Assertion and reason both are
false. An antigen carries more than one
epitope. Each Y-shaped antibody
molecule has at least two binding sites
that can attach to a specific epitope on an
antigen. An antigen can bind to identical
epitopes on two different cells at the
same time, which can cause
neighbouring cells to aggregate.
9. (c) Dendritic cells possess long
cytoplasmic processes. Their primary
role is to function as highly effective
antigen trapping and antigen presenting
cells. These cells are found in lymph
nodes, spleen, thymus and skin. They are
non-phagocytic in nature.
10. (b) Assertion and reason both are
correct, but reason is not the correct
explanation of assertion. HIV causes
AIDS. It is a retrovirus that attacks
helper T-cells. Its genome consists of a
single-stranded RNA filament
segmented into two identical filaments.
Its envelope possesses a lipid bilayer
derived from host cell membrane and
projecting knob like glycoprotein spikes.
11. (a) Drinking of excessive alcohol
impairs one’s physical, physiological and
psychological functions. Alcohol affects
co-ordination of limbs, head and eyes as
well as vision. By alcohol intake vision
becomes blurred and unsteady. Often the
field of vision is reduced. It is known as
tunnel vision. Therefore, drinking and
driving is not permitted together.
12. (e) Ganja is the dried unfertilised
female inflorescence of Cannabis sativa.
It is usually smoked in cigarettes. Its
effects are produced almost
instantaneously.
13. (b) Allergy is the hypersensitivity of
a person to some foreign substances
coming in contact with or entering the
body. It involves mainly IgE antibodies
and chemicals like histamine and
serotonin. IgE antibodies are produced in
response to an antigen, coat mast cells
and basophils. The allergic tendency is
genetically passed from parent to the
child and is characterised by the presence
of large quantities of IgE antibodies in
the blood.
14. (a) Cytotoxic T-cells are capable of
killing microorganisms and even some of
the body’s own cells directly hence, they
are called killer cells. After binding
with the foreign cells, they secrete
perforins that punch large round holes in
their membrane. The foreign cells
become greatly swollen due to the quick
flow of fluid into it. It usually dissolves
shortly thereafter.
15. (c) Malaria is caused by the malarial
parasite, i.e. Plasmodium. It has two
hosts. Female Anopheles mosquito is
considered as the definitive or primary
host of malarial parasite as the sexual
phase of it occurs here. Human beings are
intermediate or secondary host as the
asexual phase of malarial parasite occurs
in man.
16. (d) Entamoeba histolytica causes
amoebic dysentery. It is dimorphic, i.e.
occurs in two forms, larger harmful
magna form and smaller harmless
minuta form. It is monogenetic, i.e.
requires a single host (humans). This
pathogen lives in the large intestine of
humans.
17. (a) The cells of the immune system
are derived from the pluripotent stem
cells in the bone marrow. Pluripotent
means a cell can differentiate into many
different types of tissue cells. The
pluripotent stem cells can form either
myeloid stem cells or lymphoid stem cells.
Thus, assertion and reason both are
correct and reason correctly explains the
assertion.
18. (c) Immunity is the ability of the
body to protect against all types of foreign
bodies like bacteria, virus, toxic
substances, etc., which enter the body.
Passive immunity is produced by a donor
other than the infected person or an
animal. It is short lived. Natural passive
immunity is the resistance passively
transferred from the mother to the foetus
through placenta. IgG antibodies can
cross placental barrier to reach the
foetus.
19. (b) Cancer is an abnormal and
uncontrolled division of cancer cells.
These cells do not remain confined to one
part of the body. They penetrate and
infiltrate into the adjoining tissues and
dislocate their functions. Both assertion
and reason are correct, but reason does
not explain assertion. Therefore, option
(b) is correct.
20. (d) Both assertion and reason are
false, carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas
that interferes with oxygen transport and
utilisation. It affects by reducing the
amount of available oxyhaemoglobin and
myoglobin and by displacing the oxygen etc. IgA has a polypeptide called as 40. (d) Both assertion and reason are
haemoglobin dissociation curve to the J (joining)-chain. false. TH1 cells mostly activate cells
left. related to cellular immunity, viz; CD-8,
31. (e) ‘A’ is the flower of Datura. Seeds of
21. (a) Assertion and reason both are macrophages. TH 2 cells produce cytokines
Datura are misused for their hallucino-
correct and reason is the correct and are associated with allergic reactions
genic properties. These drugs change
explanation of assertion. HIV is a or with response to certain parasite
one’s behaviour, thoughts, feelings and
retrovirus that attacks helper T-cells. infections.
perceptions without any actual sensory
These helper T-cells stimulate antibody stimulus. They produce a dream like state. 41. (c) Arteriosclerosis is related to the
production by B-cells. Thus, a loss of hardening and loss of elasticity of the
natural defence against pathogens is
32. (e) The non-communicable diseases
arteries. It causes hypertension.
remain confined to the persons who
observed.
suffer from them. These are not 42. (e) Malignant Tertian malaria is
22. (c) Toxoids are inactivated toxins transmitted from the infected persons to caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Its
and used as vaccines against many other persons. Diabetes mellitus is incubation period is about 12 days.
diseases, e.g. tetanus toxoid, diphtheria non-communicable disease. This is the Recurrence of fever is after every
toxoid. These toxoids are directed at the most common endocrine disorder of the 48 hours, i.e. every third day.
toxins produced by a pathogen. pancreas. The insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus is caused by a failure of the 43. (b) Monocytes circulate in the
23. (d) Both assertion and reason are bloodstream for about 8 hours. In this
β-cells to produce adequate amounts of
false. Sarcomas are located in duration they enlarge and then migrate
insulin due to an autoimmune response.
connective and muscular tissues into the tissues. In these tissues they
derived from mesoderm. About 80% of 33. (a) The part ‘B’ is known as Fc region, differentiate into specific macrophages.
all tumours are carcinomas. i.e. fragment crystallisable. It is named so, Macrophages of liver cells are known as
because it crystallises in cold storage. Kupffer cells.
24. (c) Lysozyme is present in tissue
fluids and in almost all secretions 34. (b) In India, filariasis is usually 44. (a) Stimulants are drugs that
except cerebrospinal fluid, sweat and caused by Wuchereria bancrofti and stimulate the nervous system. It makes a
urine. It attacks bacteria and dissolves Wuchereria malayi. It is transmitted from person more wakeful, alert and active.
their cell wall. It is found in saliva and one individual to the others by female Caffeine is a CNS (Central Neural System)
tears also. Culex mosquitoes. The worms live in the stimulant.
lymphatic system.
25. (e) Interferons are cytokines which 45. (c) Hay fever is caused due to the
act as chemical messengers of immune 35. (e) Lymph nodes and spleen are pollen of grasses, plants, etc. It is
cells. They provide protection against secondary lymphoid organs. In primary characterised by the inflammation of the
viral infections. lymphoid organs T-lymphocytes and membrane lining the nose. The symptoms
B-lymphocytes mature and acquire their are sneezing , running or blocked nose and
26. (e) Effector B-cells or plasma antigen specific receptors. In secondary watering eyes due to histamine release.
B-cells are produced by the
lymphoid organs they undergo
differentiation of some activated 46. (e) Vaginal secretions form the first
proliferation and differentiation.
B-cells. These plasma cells live for only line of defence. They are physiological
a few days, but secrete enormous 36. (a) Detection and diagnosis of cancer barriers. It is slightly acidic and
amounts of antibody during this period. depend upon histological features of discourages microbial growth. It flushes
malignant structure. MRI is used in the microbes out of vagina.
27. (c) Alcohol is a depressant to the detection of cancer as pathological and
brain. It affects cerebrum. As a result 47. (b) Typhoid or enteric fever is caused
physiological changes in the living tissues by Salmonella typhi. This pathogen is
person loses judgement, self control and
can be determined with its help. found in the stool and urine. Therefore,
willpower. It is followed by the adverse
affect on cerebellum due to which 37. (c) Barbiturates are derivatives of this is carried by water and contaminated
co-ordination of muscles is lost. barbituric acid. They are synthetic drugs food.
28. (a) Haptens are unable to induce which are general depressants for all 48. (b) Primed cells or memory T-cells are
antibody production by themselves. excitable cells, but CNS (Central Neural formed by T-lymphocytes as a result of
However, when they combine with some System) is most sensitive to these drugs. exposure to antigen and remain in the
larger molecules (usually proteins) These are taken to reduce anxiety and lymphatic tissue. They can recognise
which serve as carriers, they can induce induce sleep. original invading antigens even years
formation of antibodies. 38. (a) ‘A’ is bone marrow and ‘B’ is after the first encounter.
29. (b) Antigens carry epitopes. Each thymus, where maturation of respectively 49. (b) MALT (Mucosal Associated
Y-shaped antibody can get attached to a B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes occurs. Lymphoid Tissues) are aggregations of
specific epitope on an antigen. This Therefore, they are known as primary lymphoid tissues, which are seen in
combination is very much like the lock lymphoid organs. relation to the mucosa of the major tracts.
and key analogy. Thus, assertion and 39. (c) IgM is about 5-10% of all They constitute about 50% of the
reason both are correct, but reason is antibodies in the blood. It is the largest Ig lymphoid tissue in human body. They do
not the correct explanation of assertion. which is secreted first by the plasma cells. not serve as filters of lymph.
30. (e) IgA is the second most abundant It is also the earliest immunoglobulin to 50. (b) Opioids are termed as analgesic,
class of antibodies. It is mainly found in be synthesised by the foetus. It cannot i.e. pain killer. It relieves pain by acting on
sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, colostrum, cross placental barrier. the CNS (Central Neural System).

39
u PHYLUM–ANNELIDA
THE SEGMENTED ANIMALS
v PHYLUM–ARTHROPODA
THE ANIMALS WITH JOINTED FEET OR CONCEP
your Revi
(Gk. Annulus–ring; lidos–form) APPENDAGES
A HABITAT (Gk. Arthron–joint; podos–foot)
• Annelids occur in freshwater, sea water or A HABITAT
moist soil. Some are free-living, some are • They occur on land in the soil in freshwater
burrowing and a few are parasitic. in the bodies of animals and plants as
B GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS parasites.

INVERTEBRA
Compound eye
• Annelids are characterised by metameric Rostrum Carapace Abdominal
Feelers terga
segmentation. The body is externally
divided by ring-like grooves called annuli
and internally by transverse septa. The Telson Phylum–Annelida
Antenna Pleopods
segments are called metameres. Uropod Three classes Shell
opening
• The first segment is called peristomium from Walking legs
Palaemon Polychaeta Oligochaeta Hirudinea
which an outgrowth prostomium arises. • Marine, fossorial • Terrestrial, freshwater • Mostly
Median eye or tubicolous. • Distinct head with freshwater,
• Unjointed chitinous setae are often present Carapace
Lateral eye • Distinct head eyes (palps and few marine.
(except leeches). Some annelids like Nereis bearing tentacles, tentacles are absent). • No cephalisation. Shell
palps and eyes. • Locomotion by • Locomotion by
have unjointed, locomotory structures the • Bristle-like setae peristalies, parapodia anterior and
Prosoma and parapodia is absent. posterior suckers.
parapodia.
Eye Tentacle for locomotion. • Permanent clitellum • Clitellum appears
• The body wall Palp • Clitellum is absent. is present. during breeding
Cirri • Unisexual, e.g. • Bisexual, e.g. season.
consists of thin, Immovable Aphrodite and Pheretima and • Bisexual, e.g.
Mesosoma Chaetopterus. Tubifex. Hirudinaria and
moist, non-cellular Prostomium spines of
Captacula
mesosoma Metasoma Acanthobdella.
cuticle, single Peristomium Foot
Phylum–Arthropoda Dentalium
layered epidermis Telson
Three sub-phyla
and circular and Body segments
Parapodia Limulus Chelicerata Trilobitomorpha Mandibulata
longitudinal
• Body is divided into • Extinct group • Body is divided into
muscles. B GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS cephalothorax (prosoma) cephalothorax and
and abdomen (opisthosoma), abdomen.
• They have a true Intersegmental • They have jointed legs. The body is segmented cephalothorax is covered by a carapace. • One or two pair of
grooves externally and consists of head, thorax and
schizocoelic coelom Antennae are absent. antennae are present.
• Mandible absent. • One pair of mandible
filled with coelomic abdomen. The body is covered with a thick, present.
Three classes
fluid. The coelomic tough and non-living chitinous cuticle which
forms the exoskeleton. Mesostomata Arachnida Pycnogonida
fluid serves as a • Aquatic (marine) • Mostly terrestrial,
• The true coelom is greatly reduced. The body • Marine
hydroskeleton. • Abdomen ends into some parasitic. • Abdomen is
Digestive tract is cavity is a haemocoel. Digestive tract is a spike-like telson, • Abdomen lacks reduced.
e.g. Limulus and locomotory appendages.
Anal cirri complete. The alimentary canal consists of
complete. Eurypterus. e.g., Araneae, Palamnaeus.
Four classes
• Usually show stomodaeum (foregut), mesenteron
Anus •
cutaneous Anal
(midgut) and proctodaeum (hindgut). Crustacea Chilopoda Diplopoda Insecta
• Mostly aquatic, • Terrestrial • Terrestrial • Found in all habitats.
segment •
respiration. Some Blood vascular system is of open type. There are few are terrestrial • Body is divisible • Body is divisible • Body is divisible
present irregular spaces, known as lacunae or or parasitic. into two parts, i.e. into three parts–head, into three parts, i.e., •
possess gills and • Body is divisible head and trunk. thorax and abdomen. head, thorax and
show branchial sinuses, filled with blood. into two parts– • Exoskeleton is • Calcified abdomen. •
cephalothorax uncalcified. • Two pair of • Uncalcified
respiration, e.g. • Respiratory organs are gills or book gills in and abdomen. • One pair of Malpighian • Two to many
Nereis • Exoskeleton is Malpighian tubules are
Terebella. pairs of Malpighian
aquatic forms and tracheae or book lungs in calcified. tubule is present. present. tubules are present.
• Blood vascular terrestrial forms. Excretory organs are either • Excretion by e.g. Scolopendra e.g. Julus and e.g. Mantis and
green glands, and Lithobius. Glomeris. Lepisma.
system is of closed type. Blood is red due to green glands or Malpighian tubules. Some e.g. Cyclops
the presence of haemoglobin or erythro- have coxal glands. and Sacculina. Pores
cruorin found dissolved in blood plasma. • Nervous system consists of a nerve ring and a
Grooves
• They lack red blood corpuscles, instead of it Ampulla Madreporite
solid double ventral nerve cord with ganglia.
amoeboid blood corpuscles are present. Madreporic
• Sensory organs like antennae and eyes are Tentacles
Leeches lack true vascular system. They possess canal
haemocoelomic system and red coelomic fluid present. Some arthropods have compound eyes Calcareous
Introvert
in which mosaic vision is developed. Some rings
is called haemocoelomic fluid. Ring canal
• Excretory system consists of a coiled tubular possess statocysts.
Tiedmann’s
structure, called nephridia. The chief • Cilia are completely lacking. body
Locomotory
excretory waste is ammonia. • Striped muscles are usually found. Unstriped ventral podia
• The nervous system consists of a nerve ring muscles are also present.
and a solid, double, mid-ventral nerve cord • Endocrine glands secrete hormones. Some
Ampulla
with ganglia. Tactile receptors (for touch), secrete pheromones (sex attractants). They are Podium Tube root
gustatoreceptors (for taste) and photore- dioecius and show sexual dimorphism. Anus Sucker
ceptors (for light) are usually found. Some • Fertilisation is usually internal. They are usually Holothuria
possess statocysts (balancing organs) also. oviparous. Development is direct or indirect. Lateral canal
• Development is mostly direct. Indirect • Parental care is often seen in many arthropods.
A Radial canal
development (e.g. Nereis) includes a • Parthenogenesis is also seen in some A. Water vascular system of star fish; B. Ped
trocophore larva. arthropods, e.g. honeybee. C. Pedicellaria with
PT MAP w PHYLUM–MOLLUSCA
THE SOFT BODIED ANIMALS
(L. Molluscs–soft)
• The nervous system comprised paired cerebral,
pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia joined by the
nerve connectives and commisures.

ision Tool
• Eyes are present over stalks called
A HABITAT
ommatophores. Statocysts may also be present.
• They are mostly marine. Some occur in Osphradium is used for testing chemical and
freshwater and some in damp soil. physical nature of water.
B GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Sexes are separate, but some are hermaphrodite.
• The body is unsegmented with a distinct

ATE WORLD-2
head, muscular foot and visceral hump. • They are oviparous. Development may be direct
(Neopilina is a segmented mollusc). or indirect (veliger, trochophore or glochidium
• They show bilateral symmetry. Some (e.g. larva). Asexual reproduction is absent.

• Scaphopoda
•
Pila), become asymmetrical due to torsion. x PHYLUM–ECHINODERMATA
Tusk-like shell open at both side. A shell of calcium carbonate is secreted by THE SPINY SKINNED ANIMALS
• Head is absent.
• Radula is present. mantle. Shell may be external, internal
(Gk. Echinos–spines; derma–skin)
• Foot is conical shaped for digging. (slug, cuttle fish, squid) or absent (Octopus).
• Monoplacophora
e.g. Dentalium.
Pelecypoda (Bivalvia)
A HABITAT
• A thin, fleshy fold of dorsal body wall,
Limpet shaped shell • Two-valved shell. • All existing echinoderms are marine. They
• formed of single valve. • Head is absent. mantle (pallium) more or less covers the
Head bear tentacles, • Radula is absent. body. usually live at sea bottom. Some are pelagic and
but eyes are absent. • Foot is wedge shaped some are sessile.
• Radula is present. and muscular for • Body wall consists of single layered
Foot is broad and flat
Phylum–Mollusca creeping or burrowing. B GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Absent in sedantary forms.
ciliated epidermis. Muscles are unstriped
and has 8 pairs of pedal
and occur in bundles. • Body is unsegmented, lacks head. The body could
retractor muscles. e.g., Pecten.
e.g. Neopilina.
• Coelom is greatly reduced and forms be star-shaped, spherical or cylindrical.
a
haemocoel. • Many echinoderms bear spines (for protection)
Amphineura Gastropoda Cephalopoda (Siphonopoda)
• Shell is formed of 8 plates. • Spirally coiled shell, • Externally spiral shell. Apex of shell and pincer-like pedicellariae (to keep body surface
• Head is reduced and lacks but absent in • Well-developed, internal or Sutures
Penultimate
clear of debris).
tentancles and eyes. pulmonates. absent.
• Radula is usually present. • Head bear both eyes • Head bear a pair of large whorl • Its larvae are bilateral symmetrical while adults
• Foot is large, flat and and tentancles. complex eyes.
muscular. • Radula is present. • Radula is present. Lines of show pentamerous radial symmetry.
• Foot is partially modified growth
• Absent in some forms. • Foot is large and • Epidermis is single layered and ciliated. Many have
e.g. Chiton. flat for creeping into 8-10 suckers and
and attachment partially into siphon or funnel. Body endoskeleton of calcareous plates in the dermis
e.g. Pila. e.g. Octopus. whorl which are mesodermal in origin.
Umbilicus • Presence of ambulacral system (water vascular
Outer system) is their characteristic feature. They possess
Inner lip lip
Phylum–Echinodermata a perforated plate, madreporite which allows
Five classes Operculum water into the system.
Pila
• Tube feet help in locomotion, capture of food and
Asteroidea Ophiuroidea Echinoidea Holothuroidea Crinoidea Arms
• Star-shaped • Star-shaped • Spherical, oval • Elongated and • Contains mostly respiration. Water vascular system is of coelomic
body with body with or heart-shaped cylindrical body. extinct forms. origin.
pentagonal disc. rounded disc. body. • Arms are absent. e.g. Antedon.
• 5-50 arms • 5-7 arms • Arms are • Auricularia larva.
Suckers • Digestive tract is complete. Brittle stars have
are present. are present. absent. e.g. Holothuria. Web incomplete digestive tract.
• Bipinnaria larva • Pluteus • Echinopluteus
e.g. Asterias. larva. larva. • Instead of blood vascular system, haemal and
e.g. Ophiothrix. e.g. Echinus. perihaemal systems (of coelomic origin) are found.
• Circulatory system is of open type. Blood is
Eye
Funnel
without a respiratory pigment and heart is absent.
Hectacotylysised •
arm
Gaseous exchange occurs by dermal bracnhae or
Spine Visceral papulae in star fish, peristomal gills in sea
hump Head
urchins, genital bursae in brittle stars and cloacal
Dermal branchae Octopus
respiratory trees in holothurians. Tube feet are
• Digestive tract is complete. also used.
Marginal • Blood vascular system is of open type. It • Specialised excretory organs are absent. Nitrogenous
spines includes heart, arteries and veins. wastes are diffused out via gills. Ammonia is chief
Pedicellariae Blood is of blue colour due to the presence excretory waste.
Central disc Madreporite of a copper containing respiratory • Nervous system consists of nerve ring and radial
B pigment, haemocyanin (Cuttle fish have nerve cords.
closed vascular system). • Usually sexes are separate, no sexual dimorphism.
Anus
Jaws Arms • Respiration occurs through gills Fertilisation is usually external.
(ctenidia), mantle and pulmonary sac • Some reproduce asexually by self-division.
(in semi- terrestrial forms). • Autotomy and regeneration are well-marked
Basilar plate Terminal Tentacle
Aboral surface of Asterias (Star fish) • Excretion occurs through one or two pairs phenomena.
Stalk of sac-like kidneys. Gills are also excretory • Development is indirect. A ciliated, bilaterally
C in function. Ammonia is chief excretory symmetrical larva changes into a radially
dillarie spine and dermal branchae and waste. symmetrical adult.
parallel jaws
AL M NTARY
CANALA UNIQUE MACROMOLECULE
SPLITTING TOOL
Dr. Anamika Tripathi

Every organism requires energy for his various metabolic processes, which is obtained from food. Food is taken into the
alimentary canal, where it is digested and assimilated. The alimentary canal begins at the mouth, passes through the thorax,
abdomen, pelvis and ends at the anus. It has a general structure, which is modified at different levels in different organisms to
provide maximum benefit for the processes occurring at each level. This article is an effort to provide a collective information
about the diversity of this canal in synchronised manner.
The complex digestive processes in organisms are Some specialised cells in the cavity secrete digestive enzymes
necessary to simplify the food eaten until they are in a that begin the process of extracellular digestion. Other
form suitable for absorption. Macromolecules of food phagocytic cells that line the cavity engulf food material and
therefore goes through a series of changes, which continue intracellular digestion inside food vacuoles. Some
releases their constituent nutrients, i.e., amino acids, flatworms have similar digestive patterns.
mineral salts, fat and vitamins. Chemical substances or Here we will discuss about
enzymes, which affect these changes are secreted into G
the digestive system of a ciliated protozoan (intracellular
the digestive or alimentary canal by special glands. Some digestive system),
glands are found in the walls of this canal and some G
digestive system of an insect (extracellular digestive
outside the canal, but with ducts leading into it. system with a complete digestive tract),
G
digestive system of the bivalve mollusc (intracellular and
extracellular digestion).
Diversity in Digestive Structures
of Invertebrates Protozoa
Protozoans may be autotrophic, saprozoic or heterotrophic.
G

In primitive multicellular organisms, such as cnidarians,
the gut is a blind (closed) sac called gastrovascular
cavity. They have an incomplete digestive tract
with a single opening.
Ciliated Protozoa utilise heterotrophic nutrition.
G
Cilia direct food toward the cytostome (mouth). The food
enters the cytopharynx.
G
In cytopharynx a food vacuole forms and detaches from it.

42
 The detached vacuole undergoes acidic and alkaline digestion and the waste
Arthropods (Insects)
G

vacuole moves to the cytophage (anus) for excretion.

Food Here we will discuss about
Buccal cavity
Cytostome
grasshopper as a representative
insect, who has a complete
1 Food vacuole forming at cytopharynx
digestive tract and shows
extracellular digestion. During
2 Excess water leaves food vacuole
the entire feeding process the
pH acid
3 Lysosomes delivering enzymes to food vacuole nervous system and the presence of
pH alkaline
food exert considerable control over
pH alkaline enzyme production at various points
4 Food particles undergoing digestion in vacuole
in the digestive tract.
Mastication of food by Saliva Salivary
5 Residual vacuole glands
mandibles and maxillae Amylase
Cytophage (carbohydrate
digestion)
6 Waste from vacuole Mouth
Intracellular digestion in
a ciliated protozoan
Oesophagus
Diversity in Digestive Systems of Some Invertebrates Carbohydrases, lipases,
proteases by midgut
Food Coelenterates Cnidarian (Hydra) has a Crop
Mouth Wastes gastrovascular cavity. It has Return to
Tentacles a single opening, (mouth), which serves as the Stomach Large food particles
with nematocysts entry and exist point for food and waste.
Extracellular digestion occurs in the
Gastrovascular Small food particles
gastrovascular cavity, while intracellular
cavity
digestion occurs inside the food vacuoles.
Gland cell Gastric caeca
Pseudopodia
Food vacuoles are formed when phagocytic (extracellular digestion)
Food particle cells engulf food particles.
Food vacuole
Intestine
Cnidarian (Hydra) (absorption)
Eye Platyhelmithes The gastrovascular cavity
Anterior branch in platyhelmithes (Planaria) branches Rectum
of intestine extensively. It is also an incomplete digestive (H2O and ion reabsorption)
Intestinal tract with only one opening. When a
diverticula planarian feeds, it sticks its muscular Anus
Muscular pharynx out of its mouth and sucks in food. (solid faecal pellets)
pharynx
Pharyngeal
sheath
Opening of
pharynx
Mouth

Lateral posterior
branches of intestine
Planaria
Oesophagus
Lips about mouth
Pharynx
Nematode A nematode (Ascaris) has a
Cut body wall complete digestive tract but less
differentiated with a mouth, pharynx and Mandible
Lateral cord
anus.
Intestine Maxilla
Position
of labrum Palp
Labium
Rectum
Ascaris
The adult grasshopper, showing the mouthparts
Blood vessels Annelida The alimentary canal of Annelids
Intestine Oesophagus Gizzard Midgut Hindgut
Gizzard (Pheretima) is complete and well
Cesophagus Crop
Hearts Septum
differentiated. It runs from the anterior most
Pharnyx
Muscle payer segment of the body till the posterior most
Coelom
Brain Sperm duct Nephridium segment of the body right from mouth to
Ovary anus. The canal is differentiated into six
Seminal vesicle
Seminal receptacle parts namely buccal chamber, pharynx, Salivary Crop Gastric Excretory Rectum
Nerve cord
Ganglion oesophagus, gizzard, stomach and intestine. glands caeca tubule
Setae
Mouth Earthwarm (Pheretima) The food processing organs of the grasshoppe

43
 Complete Digestive Tract : Diversity in Digestive Structure
An Evolutionary Breakthrough of Vertebrates
The development of the anus and complete digestive tract in the
The complete vertebrate digestive tract is highly specialised
aschelminths was an evolutionary breakthrough. A complete digestive
tract permits the oneway flow of ingested food without mixing it with in both structure and function for the digestion of a wide
previously ingested food or waste. Complete digestive tracts also have variety of foods. The major digestive structures discussed
the advantage of progressive digestive processing in specialised below illustrate the diversity of form and function among
regions along the system. Food can be digested efficiently in a series different vertebrates.
of distinctly different steps.
Tongue
Bivalve Molluscs A tongue or tongue-like structure develops in the floor of the
G
Many bivalve molluscs are suspension feeders and ingest oral cavity in many vertebrates.
small food particles. The digestive tract has a short
Diversity in the Tongue of Vertebrates
oesophagus opening into a stomach, midgut, hindgut
and rectum. Organisms Tongue Figure
G
The stomach contains a crystalline style, gastric
shield and diverticulated region.
G
The midgut, hindgut and rectum function in Lamprey has a protrusible
extracellular digestion and absorption. Lamprey tongue with horny teeth
that rasps its prey’s flesh.
G
Digestion is a coordination of three cycles, i.e., feeding,
extracellular digestion and intracellular digestion. Tongue
G
The mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food
during feeding provides the small particles for
intracellular digestion. Fishes may have a
primary tongue that bears
G
Intracellular digestion releases the nutrients into the Fish teeth that help in holding
blood and produces fragmentation spherules that the prey. This type of
both excrete wastes and lower the pH for optimal tongue is not muscular.
extracellular digestion. Tongue
G
These three cycles are linked to tidal immersion and
emersion of the molluscs. Frog, They can rapidly project
salamanders part of their tongue from
Tongue
and some the mouth to capture an
lizards insect.

(a) Food
(b)
It has a long, spiny tongue
Fragmentation Large food Tongue
Digestive
Right pouch spherules particles
Woodpecker for gathering insects and
diverticula
Major grubs.
Left typhlosole
pouch
Midgut

Style sac Cat and Spiny papillae on their

(e) Crystalline style
(c) other tongues help them rasp
Oesophagus carnivores flesh from a bone.
Gastric shield
Spiny papillae on tongue

(d)

Digestion in bivalve molluscs Teeth

G
No wonder you can feel your heartbeat so
easily. Pumping blood through your body G
quickly and efficiently takes quite a bit of G
pressure resulting in the strong contractions of the heart and the
thick walls of the ventricles which push blood to the body. The G
human heart creates enough pressure to squirt blood 30 feet.
Most of the vertebrates have teeth except birds, turtles
and baleen whales.
Birds lack teeth probably to reduce body weight for flight.
Teeth are specialised, depending on whether an animal
feeds on plants or animals and on how it obtains its food.
The teeth of snakes slope backward to aid in the
retention of prey while swallowing.

44
 The canine teeth of wolves are specialised for ripping food.
G
G
Herbivores, viz., deer have predominantly grinding
teeth. The front teeth of a beaver are used for chiseling
trees and branches. The elephant has two of its upper, front
teeth specialised as weapons and for moving objects.
G
Omnivores, such as humans, pigs, bears, racoons have
teeth that can perform a number of tasks like tearing,
ripping, chiseling and grinding.
Slimmer’s Disease
Some body fats are essential for health, but a few individuals develop an
aversion to food and take steps to reduce their weight. The conditions
known as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. In anorexia, deliberate
dieting and sometimes deliberate vomiting, lead to serious weight loss and
even the loss of menstrual cycles. Patients have an obsessive fear of gaining
weight or becoming fat. They see themselves as much fatter than they
actually are. In bulimia, periods of excessive eating, i.e., binge eating are
followed by self-induced vomiting and use of laxatives to achieve weight
control. In this disease, patients do not necessarily lose excessive weight
and their menstrual cycles remain normal.
Salivary Glands
G
Most fishes lack salivary glands. Lampreys are an exception
because they have a pair of glands that secrete an
anticoagulant needed to keep their prey’s blood flowing
as they feed.
G
Some snakes have modified salivary glands that produce
venom, which is injected through fangs to immobilise prey.
G
In amphibians and reptiles, salivary glands are lacking as
the secretion of oral digestive enzymes is not an important
function in them.
G
Birds also do not possess salivary glands, while all
mammals have them.
Oesophagi
G
The oesophagus is short in fishes and amphibians.
However, it is much longer in amniotes due to their longer
necks.
G
Grain and seed eating birds have a crop that develops from
caudal portion of oesophagus. It is a storage structure that
allows birds to quickly ingest large quantities of locally
abundant food. This structure allows birds to reduce the
frequency of feeding and still maintain a high metabolic
rate.
Pigeon’s Milk
Pigeon’s milk is produced by the degeneration of the epithelial cells lining
the crop, under the control of prolactin hormone. This hormone is secreted by
the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. This hormone stimulates and controls
the formation of pigeon’s milk. It (pigeon’s milk) contains water (65-81%),
protein-casein (13.3-18.8%), fat (6.9-12.7%) and lactose (1.5%). It is more
nourishing than the cow’s milk. Pigeon’s milk contains 35% of fat in
comparison to 3-5% in cow’s milk. The young ones fed on it double their
weight in two days. The pigeon’s milk is regurgitated to the youngs.
Stomachs
The stomach is considered as an ancestral vertebrate
structure. It evolved as vertebrates began to feed on
larger organisms that were caught at less frequent
intervals and required storage.
Specialised Structures of Stomach :
Gizzard
G
Some fishes, some reptiles such as crocodilians and all
birds have a gizzard for grinding up food.
G
The bird’s gizzard develops from the posterior part of
the stomach called the ventriculus. Pebbles that
have been swallowed are often retained in the gizzard
of grain-eating birds and facilitate the grinding
process.
Oesophagus
Liver Crop
Proventriculus
Ventriculus
(gizzard)
Pancreas
Intestine
Cloaca
Digestive system of a pigeon
BIOLOGY
Four New Species of Ants Discovered – Two
Named after ‘Game of Thrones’ Dragons
A group of Japanese entomologists has described and named
four new species of the ant genus Pheidole from the tropical
rainforests of Papua New Guinea and the Fijian islands.
Pheidole is a highly diverse genus of ants, with over 1,000
species recognized so far. The genus has the common name of
‘big headed ants,’ as Pheidolesoldier ants usually have huge
heads and jaws to break up large food items.
Amongst the Pheidole ants, the scientists discovered two new,
highly adorned, dragon-like species – P. viserion and
P. drogon — with distinctive large spines protruding from
their dorsal plates.
The scientific name of Pheidole drogon refers to Drogon, the
black-colored dragon of Daenerys Targaryen, a fictional
character from the George R. R. Martin’s novel ‘A Song of Ice
and Fire’ and TV series ‘Game of Thrones.’
45
Livers and Gall Bladders
G
The liver manufactures bile, which is
stored by gall bladder. Bile is a fluid
containing bile salts and bile pigments.
Bile salts play an important role in the
digestion of fats, although they are not
digestive enzymes.
G
The gall bladder is relatively large in
carnivores and vertebrates, in which fat is
an important part of the diet.
G
It is much reduced or absent in blood
suckers, such as the lamprey and in the
animals that feed primarily on plant food,
e.g., some teleosts, many birds and rats.
Pancreas
Ruminating Stomach :
An Adaptation to Digest Cellulose
Ruminants such as cows and sheep have a Small intestine Oesophagus
four-chambered ‘stomach’, with three-
chambers derived from the lower part of the
oesophagus (rumen → reticulum → omasum)
and one chamber (the abomasum) that is
the true stomach. Four-chambered
stomach
The Digestion of Cellulose by Ruminants takes
place in six stages:
1 In the mouth, grass cropped by the incisors/
horny pad is ground up by the premolars and
molars, swallowed with copious saliva and
passed to the rumen. Abomasum Omasum Oesophagus
1
2 The rumen functions as a fermentation vat.
Cud is mixed with anaerobic cellulolytic
bacteria, which breakdown cellulose to glucose,
which in turn is fermented to organic acids.
These fatty acids are absorbed into the blood
through the rumen wall and are the major
4

Every vertebrate has a pancreas, however in
lamprey and lung fishes it is embedded in the
wall of intestine and is not a visible organ.
Intestines
The configuration and divisions of the small
and large intestines vary greatly among
vertebrates. Intestines are closely related to
the animal’s type of food, body size and levels
of activity.
source of energy for ruminants. The fermentation 2
produces carbon dioxide and methane, which
are belched out. The rumen bacteria also form 3
proteins from inorganic nitrogen (ammonium salts) 5
and B-complex vitamins are also synthesised.
6
The rumen also contains Protozoa (ciliates)
that feed on the bacteria. Duodenum Reticulum Rumen
3 The fermented grass passes to the reticulum and
5 In the abomasum, normal gastric secretions
is formed into balls (cud), which are regurgitated
to the mouth for further chewing. The cud is then begin to digest the proteins of grass and
swallowed and passed to the omasum. also of the bacteria and ciliates, including
the proteins synthesised in the rumen (see 2).
4 In the omasum much water is reabsorbed from
the cud (a cow secretes 100-190 dm3 of 6 Chyme passes to the duodenum and then to
digestive juices each day). The firmed-up the small intestine, where digestion is completed
remainder of the cud passes to the abomasum. and the products of digestion are absorbed.

Diversity in the Intestine of Different Vertebrates

Organisms Intestine Figure
1. Cyclostomes, They have short, nearly straight intestines
chondrichthian that extend from the stomach to the anus. Pharynx Stomach Pyloric valve Anus

fishes and primitive

bony fishes Lung duct Bile duct Spiral valve Intestine

2. Bony fishes The intestine increases in length and begins to Duct to swim Gall bladder
Stomach
bladder
coil.

Anus
Pharynx Pyloric ceca Intestine

3. Amphibians The intestines are moderately long. Pharynx

and reptiles Liver Oesophagus
Stomach
Gall bladder
Small intestine

Duodenum
Pylorus
Bladder
Cloaca

4. Birds and mammals The intestines are longer and have more Oesophagus
surface area than other tetrapods. Birds have Crop
two caeca and mammals have a single caecum Stomach
Liver
at the beginning of large intestine.
Gizzard
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Rectum
Cloaca

46
Caeca : The Intestinal Cellulose Digesting Tool
G
In ruminants, microorganisms attack the food
before gastric digestion. Whilst in the typical
non-ruminant herbivores, microbial action on
cellulose occurs after digestion. Rabbits, horses
and rats digest cellulose by maintaining a
population of microorganisms in their unusually
large caecum. It is a blind pouch that extends from
the colon.
G
Therefore, a few non-ruminant herbivores, such as
mice and rabbits, eat some of their own faeces to
process the remaining material in them, such as
vitamins.
Ascending
colon
General Plan of the Human Canal
The structure of the alimentary canal follows a consistent
pattern from the level of the oesophagus onwards. Some
modifications are found in their structures, which are associated
with special functions.
The walls of the alimentary canal are formed by four layers of
tissue:
(i) Adventitia or outer covering (ii) Muscle layer
(iii) Submucus layer (iv) Mucosa-lining
The retroperitoneal space (retroperitoneum) is the anatomical
space in the abdominal cavity behind the peritoneum. Organs
are retroperitoneal if they have peritoneum on their anterior
side. Diaphragm
Liver

Ileum
Aorta

Lesser omentum
Foramen of Winslow
Pancreas
Cecum Stomach (Retroperitoneal structure)
Duodenum
Appendix Lesser sac (Retroperitoneal structure)
Mesentery
Transverse colon
Extensive caeca of a non-ruminant,
herbivore such as a rabbit Greater omentum
Small
intestine
Pelvic colon
Uterus (Retroperitoneal structure)
The Human Digestive System (Retroperitoenal structure)
Bladder
Rectum
(Retroperitoneal structure
The digestive systems of human and most of the (Retroperitoenal structure)
mammals have the mechanical and chemical ability
to process many kinds of foods.
The peritoneum and its association with the abdominal organs of
the digestive system and the pelvic organs viewed from the side.

The Gut Wall and its Glands

Mesentery
The muscularis externa of gut wall is the
Suspends gut in the abdomen cavity
,
layer of circular and longitudinal smooth Serous coat
carries blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics. Glands of the gut are of three types:
muscle fibres arranged with OLIC (Outer and muscles
Longitudinal Inner Circular) arrangement. A
network or plexus of neurons and nerve 1. Glands outside the gut 1
fibres is present in between the two layers. Salivary gland (secretes saliva
This plexus having nerve cells and into buccal cavity).
parasympathetic fibres is called aurebach’s Liver (secretes bile to gall
or myenteric plexus. The submucosa layer bladder).
also contains another plexus of nerve cells Pancreas (secretes
and sympathetic nerve fibres called pancreatic juice into
missiner’s plexus or submucosal plexus. duodenum).
Submucosa
2
Outer
2. Glands in the submucosa
covering
Submucosa (serosa) Brunner's gland (secretes
Connective tissue, contains of fibrous mucus into duodenum).
blood and lymph vessels. connective
tissue.
Mucosa
Mucosa 3. Glands in the mucosa 3
Glandular epithelium Gastric gland (secretes gastric
secretes mucus, which juice into stomach)
lubricates and Lumen of gut External muscle
Inner circular muscle and outer Crypt of Lieberkuhn at base of
protects mucosa villus (source of epithelial cells)
Connective tissue longitudinal muscle; coordinated
with blood and lymph vessels contraction of muscle causes waves
Thin layer of smooth muscles of movement (peristalsis) which
(muscularis is mucosa) propel food along the gut.

47
Organs of the Digestive System Mouth
Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and accessory organs. The mouth or oral cavity is bounded by
muscles and bones;
Parts of Alimentary Canal anteriorly by the lips,
posteriorly it is continuous with the
G
Mouth G
Pharynx G
Oesophagus oropharynx,
G
Stomach G
Small intestine G
Large intestine laterally by the muscles of the cheeks,
G
Rectum G
Anal canal superiorly by the bony hard palate and
(Although, the various parts are given separate names, structurally they muscular soft palate,
are remarkably similar.) inferiorly by the muscular tongue and
the soft tissues of the floor of the mouth.
Accessory Organs
G
3 pairs of salivary glands G
Pancreas
G
Liver and gall bladder G
The biliary tract
Palatine tonsil
(Secretions of accessory organs pass through ducts to enter the tract.) Epiglottis
Vallate papillae

Summary of Motility, Secretion, Filiform papillae

Digestion and Absorption in Different Fungiform papilae

Regions of the Digestive System Diagram of the papillae of the

tongue and related structures
G
The teeth are embedded in the alveoli or
KEY
Oran Cavity and Oesophagus
sockets of the alveolar ridges of the
M. Motility
S. Secretion M. swallowing, chewing mandible and the maxilla. Each
D. Digestion S. saliva (salivary glands,) lipase
A. Absorption D. carbohydrates, fats (minimal) individual has two sets of teeth, the
A. none temporary or deciduous teeth and the
Salivary gland Stomach permanent teeth.
M. peristaltic mixing and propulsion
Upper S. HCl (parietal cells); pepsinogen
G
The incisor and canine are the cutting
oesophageal
sphincter
and gastric lipase (chief cells); teeth and are used for biting off pieces of
mucus and HCO3– (surface
mucous cells); gastrin (G cells); food, whereas premolar and molar
histamine (ECL cells)
Oesophagus D. proteins, fats with broad, flat surfaces are used for
A. lipid-soluble substances such grinding or chewing food.
as alcohol and aspirin
Lower
oesophageal Incisors
sphincter Small Intestine
Liver M. mixing and propulsion primarily Canine
by segmentation
Gall bladder S. enzymes; HCO3– and enzymes Premolars
(pancreas); bile (liver); mucus
(goblet cells); hormones. CCK, Hard palate
secretin, GIP and other hormones
D. carbohydrates, fats, polypeptides, Molars
Pylorus nucleic acids
A. peptides by active transport; amino
Pancreas acids, glucose and fructose by
secondary active transport; fats by
simple diffustion; water by osmosis
ions, minerals and vitamins by The roof of the mouth and
active transport the permanent teeth
Ileocecal Large Intestine
valve M. segmental mixing; mass
movement for propulsion
S. mucus (goblet cells)
Rectum D. none (except by bacteria)
A. ions, water, minerals, vitamins
and small organic molecules
Anal sphincters produced by bacteria
Molar Premolar Canine Incisor
Thus, it can be concluded that alimentary canal is a unique macromolecule The shapes of the permanent teeth
splitting tool which shows diversity among organisms of different groups.

48
 There are three pairs of salivary glands, which pour their
Stomach
G

secretions into the mouth. They are

G
two parotid, two submandibular and
G The stomach is continuous with the oesophagus at the
G
two sublingual. cardiac orifice and the duodenum at the pyloric
sphincter.
Fundus
B Cardiac orifice
Parotid gland and its duct
Ductules Oesophagus

Muscles of

ercurvature
the cheek Body

e
Tongue

atur
Duodenum

curv
Opening of

ss
submandibular duct Rugae

Le
Sublingual gland

ter
ea
Gr
Sternocleidomastoid muscle
A
Pyloric
A. The position of the salivary glands, sphincter
B. Enlargment of part of a gland Pyloric antrum
Longitudinal section of the stomach

Pharynx
It is divisible into three parts:
Small Intestine
(i) Nasopharynx, The small intestine is continuous with the stomach at the
(ii) Oropharynx and pyloric sphincter and leads into the large intestine at the
(iii) Laryngopharynx. ileocaecal valve.
Only oropharynx and laryngopharynx are associated with Inferior
vena L. adrenal gland
Portal vein
the alimentary tract. cava
Common
R. adrenal gland hepatic
Spleen
Oesophagus Common
artery
Splenic artery
bile duct Tail of pancreas
The oesophagus is the first part of the alimentary tract. It
R. kidney
is about 25 cm long and about 2 cm in diameter. It lies in Body of
pancreas
the median plane in the thorax in front of the vertebral Head of
pancreas L. kidney
column behind the trachea and the heart.
Duodenum
Oesophagus Inferior
mesenteric artery
Trachea Ascending Aorta
colon Descending colon
Inf. vena
cava
R. ureter Sup. mesenteric L. ureter
artery and vein
The duodenum and its associated structures
R. bronchus Aorta

L. bronchus

Inferior
vena
cava Diaphragm
Greenland sharks (Somniosus microcephalus) The
T8
Greenland shark, an iconic species of the Arctic
Seas, can found from surface waters in shallow
T10 estuaries and bays to depths of at least 4,000 feet
End of (1,200 m) in continental shelf and slope waters. The
oesophagus
and beginning species is one of the larger sharks and by far the
T12 of stomach largest of Atlantic-Arctic and Antarctic fishes. The
life period of this shark is at least as long as
Aorta
400 years.
Oesophagus and some associated structures

49
 The gall bladder is a sac like structure located on the
Large Intestine, Rectum and Anal
G

inferior surface of the liver. Its principle function is

Canal the storage and concentration of bile secreted by
liver.
G
The large intestine is about 1.5 m long, beginning at the
Gall
caecum in the right iliac fossa and terminating at the bladder Quadrate lobe
R. lobe Falciform ligament
rectum and anal canal deep in the pelvis. Bile duct
Hepatic
G
The rectum is slightly dilated part of the colon, which is Colic impression
artery
Duodenal impression
about 13 cm long. It leads from the sigmoid colon and
terminates in the anal canal. R. renal impression

G
The anal canal is a short canal about 3.8 cm long in adult and
leads from the rectum to the exterior. R. adrenal gland Caudate L. lobe
impression Portal lobe Gastric
Inferior vena cava vein impression
The liver turned up to show the posterior surface

Duodenum
Spleenic
Biliary Tract
Hepatic flexure of colon
flexure of colon Transverse
G
The right and left hepatic veins join to form the
Pancreas colon common hepatic duct just outside the portal fissure.
Jejunum
Ascending colon Descending G
The cystic duct joins it and together they form the
Terminal end of ileum colon
Caecum ileum common bile duct.
Vermiform Sigmoid colon Bile from liver
appendix R. hepatic duct L. hepatic duct
Rectum

Cystic duct
Hepatic duct
Gall bladder Cut open
Parts of the small intestine and large intestine(colon) cut open
Common
bile duct
Pancreas Pancreatic duct
G
It is a pale-grey gland weighing about 60 gms. It is about
12-15 cm long and is situated in the epigastric and left
hypochondriac regions of the abdominal cavity.
Duodenum
G
It is both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
Common Hepatopancreatic Head of
hepatic artery ampulla pancreas
Portal vein Hepatopancreatic
Hepatic duct Coeliac artery sphincter

Body and tail

Cystic duct of pancreas
Common Aorta
bile duct Direction of the flow of bile from the liver to the duodenum
Gall
bladder
Lactose Intolerance
Lactose or milk sugar is a disaccharide composed of glucose and
galactose. Ingested lactose must be digested before it can be
Interior of absorbed. It is accomplished by the action of lactose enzyme. This
duodenum
enzyme is found only in juvenile mammals, except in some
humans of European descent.
Hepatopancreatic Pancreatic duct These people inherit a dominant gene that allows them to
ampulla produce lactose after childhood. In non-western cultures most
The pancreas in relation to the duodenum and biliary adults lack the gene and synthesise less intestinal lactose.
tract. Part of the anterior wall of the duodenum removed
Decreased lactose activity is associated with a condition known
as lactose intolerance. If a person with lactose intolerance drinks
Liver and Gall Bladder milk or eats dairy products, diarrhea may result.
G
The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing between
1-2.3 kg. It has four lobes. The two are larger right lobes and Thus, it can be concluded that alimentary canal is a
smaller wedge-shaped left lobes. The other two, the caudate unique macromolecule splitting tool, which shows
and quadrate lobes, are areas on the posterior surface. diversity among organisms of different groups.

50
 Smart Practice
1. In the following process of digestion, the enzymes at 5. In human body, the role of bile salts in digestion is to
X
location ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are respectively, Proteins ⎯ ⎯ → (a) act as coenzymes during the digestion of carbohydrates
Y (b) emulsify fats and facilitate their absorption
Protease and Peptones ⎯⎯ → Dipeptides.
(c) aid in the breakup of proteins into amino acids and their
(a) chymotrypsin and pepsin (b) pepsin and trypsin absorption
(c) ptyalin and pepsin (d) trypsin and dipeptidase (d) stimulate the pancreas to release its enzymes

2. Match Column I with Column II and Column III. 6. Which one is the correct option for labels A, B and C
in the given diagram?
Column I Column II Column III
(Substrate) (Enzyme) (Product) A

1. Lactose (a) Lipase (i) Galactose

2. Monoglycerides (b) Trypsin (ii) Maltose
3. Starch (c) Lactase (iii) Fatty acid C
4. Peptones (d) Amylase (iv) Dipeptides

Choose the correct option.

B
(a) 1–a–i, 2–c–ii, 3–b–iii, 4–d–iv
(b) 1–d–i, 2–a–ii, 3–b–iii, 4–c–iv (a) A–Liver, B–Mucosa, C–Peritoneum
(c) 1–c–i, 2–a–iii, 3–d–ii, 4–b–iv (b) A–Liver, B–Circular muscle layer, C–Serosa
(c) A–Pancreas, B–Mucosa, C–Peritoneum
(d) 1–c–i, 2–a–ii, 3–d–iii, 4–b–iv
(d) A–Pancreas, B–Submucosa, C–Serosa
3. Absorption of vitamin-B12 in human requires ‘P’
glycoprotein secreted from ‘Q’. The correct choices 7. Match the following columns.
for P and Q are Column I Column II
(a) P–extrinsic factor and Q–stomach A. Goblet cells 1. Antibacterial agent
(b) P–intrinsic factor and Q–stomach B. Lysozyme 2. Mucus
(c) P–intrinsic factor and Q–small intestine
C. Saliva 3. HCl
(d) P–exopolysaccharide and Q–small intestine
D. Oxyntic cells 4. Sublingual gland
4. Column I contains names of the sphincter muscles of
Codes
the alimentary canal and Column II contains their
A B C D
locations. Match them properly and choose the (a) 3 1 4 2
correct answer. (b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 2 3 1 4
Column I Column II
(d) 2 1 4 3
A. Sphincter of ani 1. Opening of
internus hepatopancreatic duct into
8. Which one of the following statements is true
duodenum. regarding digestion and absorption of food in
B. Cardiac sphincter 2. Between duodenum and humans?
posterior stomach. (a) Oxyntic cells in our stomach secrete the proenzyme
C. Sphincter of Oddi 3. Guarding the terminal part pepsinogen
of alimentary canal. (b) Fructose and amino acids are absorbed through
intestinal mucosa with the help of carrier ions like Na +
D. Ileocaecal sphincter 4. Between oesophagus and (c) Chylomicrons are small lipoprotein particles that are
anterior stomach. transported from intestine into blood capillaries
E. Pyloric sphincter 5. Between small intestine and (d) About 60% of starch is hydrolysed by salivary amylase in
bowel. our mouth

Codes 9. The gastric juice contains

A B C D E (a) trypsin, pepsin, lipase
(a) 3 2 4 1 5 (b) pepsin, lipase, rennin
(b) 3 4 1 5 2 (c) pepsin, amylase, trypsin
(c) 2 5 1 4 3 (d) trypsin, pepsin, rennin
(d) 4 3 1 2 5

51
10. Lipids, which can be found in oil based salad (b) growth of Khapra beetle is directly proportional to
cholesterol concentration
dressings and ice-cream, during digestion are splitted (c) cholesterol concentration of 2 μg/g diet is the optimum
into level
(a) fatty acids and glycerol (b) glycerol and amino acids (d) growth of Khapra beetle is inhibited when cholesterol
(c) glucose and fatty acids (d) glucose and amino acids concentration exceeds 2 μg/g diet

11. Match the following Columns. 15. Match the following Columns.
Column I Column II Column I Column II
A. Salivary amylase 1. Proteins A. Hepatic lobule 1. Submucosal glands
B. Bile salts 2. Milk proteins B. Brunner’s glands 2. Base of villi
C. Rennin 3. Starch C. Crypts of Leiberkuhn 3. Glisson’s capsule
D. Pepsin 4. Lipids D. Sphincter of Oddi 4. Gall bladder
E. Steapsin 5. Emulsification of fats
E. Cystic duct 5. Hepato-pancreatic duct
Codes 6. Serous glands
A B C D E
(a) 5 4 1 2 3 Codes
(b) 2 3 4 5 1 A B C D E
(c) 2 4 3 1 5 (a) 3 6 2 5 4
(d) 3 5 2 1 4 (b) 5 2 3 6 1
(c) 3 1 2 5 4
12. What will happen if the secretion of parietal cells of (d) 4 6 5 2 1
gastric glands is blocked with an inhibitor?
16. Find out the correctly matched pair.
(a) Gastric juice will be deficient in chymosin
(a) Pepsinogen — Zymogenic cells
(b) Gastric juice will be deficient in pepsinogen
(c) In the absence of HCl secretion, inactive pepsinogen is (b) HCl — Goblet cells
not converted into the active enzyme pepsin (c) Mucus — Oxyntic cells
(d) Enterokinase will not be released from the duodenal (d) Pancreatic juice — Salivary glands
mucosa and so, trypsinogen is not converted to trypsin
17. Consider the following statements.
13. Which one of the following pair of the kinds of cells I. The anti-pellagra vitamin is nicotinamide present
and their secretion are correctly matched? in milk, yeast, meat and leafy vegetables.
(a) Oxyntic cells — A secretion with pH between II. Crypts of Leiberkuhn are present in the liver.
2.0 and 3.0
III. Steapsin is the pancreatic amylase.
(b) Alpha cells of islets — Secretion that decreases
of Langerhans blood sugar level
Codes
(a) I and II correct (b) IV and III correct
(c) Kupffer’s cells — A digestive enzyme that
(c) I and III incorrect (d) II and III incorrect
hydrolyses nucleic acids
(d) Sebaceous glands — A secretion that evaporates 18. Which of the following processes will be affected by
for cooling the absence of enterokinase?
14. In an experiment, freshly hatched larvae of an insect (a) Lipid → Fatty acid + Glycerol
(Khapra beetle) were reared on a basal diet (complete (b) Dipeptides → Amino acid
(c) Proteases → Dipeptide
diet without cholesterol) with increasing amounts of
(d) Amylase → Maltose
cholesterol. Results obtained are shown in the given
graph. 19. Which of the following is a correct dental formula for
the child falling under age group 5-6 years?
(Khapra beetle) in mg

(a) I 2/2, C 1/1, Pm 2/2, M 0/0

Wt. of insect

2
(b) I 2/2, C 1/1, Pm 2/2, M 3/3
(c) I 1/1, C 2/2, Pm 2/2, M 3/3
1 (d) I 2/2, C 2/2, Pm 1/1, M 3/3
20. The epithelial cells lining the stomach of vertebrates
O
1 2 3 4 5 6 is protected from damage by HCl because
Cholesterol/g basal diet
(a) hydrochloric acid is too dilute
The graph indicates (b) the epithelial cells are resistant to the action of HCl
(c) HCl is neutralised by alkaline gastric juice
(a) cholesterol is an essential dietary requirement of Khapra
(d) the epithelial cells are covered with a mucous secretion
beetle

52
21. Which one is correctly matched? 26. Which of the following is correct chronological order
(a) Vitamin-E — Thiamine for enzyme activity of some enzymes taking part in
(b) Vitamin-D — Riboflavin protein digestion?
(c) Vitamin-A — Calciferol (a) Pepsin → Trypsin → Peptidase
(d) Vitamin-B 12 — Cyanocobalamin (b) Pepsin → Peptidase → Trypsin
(c) Trypsin → Pepsin → Peptidase
22. Note the following. (d) Peptidase → Trypsin → Pepsin
I. Dentition is heterodont.
27. Which one of the following secretions is correctly
II. Canines are poorly developed. matched with its source, target and nature of action?
III. Incisors are chisel-like and poorly developed.
Secretion Source Target
Action
IV. Herbivorous and diastema is present.
(a) Gastrin Stomach Oxyntic
Production of
V. The dental formula is I 2/1, C 0/0, Pm 3/2, M 3/3. lining cells
HCl
Which of the above are true for Oryctolagus? (b) Inhibin Sertoli cells Hypotha-
Inhibition of
(a) I, II and IV (b) I, IV and V secretion of
lamus
(c) I, II, IV and V (d) III, IV and V gonadotropic
releasing
23. Match the following Columns. hormone
Column I Column II (c) Enteroki- Duodenum Gall Release of bile
nase bladder juice
A. Naphthoquinone 1. Amino acid metabolism
(d) Atrial Sinoatrial Juxta- Inhibition of
B. Niacin 2. Osteomalacia
Natriuretic Node M-cells glomerular release of
C. Ascorbic acid 3. Matrix of cartilage Factor of atria apparatus rennin
D. Calciferol 4. NAD
E. Thiamine 5. Prothrombin 28. In the wall of alimentary canal, what is the actual
sequence from outer to inner?
Codes
A B C D E (a) Serosa, longitudinal muscle, mucosa, submucosa
(a) 5 3 2 4 1 (b) Mucosa, serosa, longitudinal muscle
(b) 4 5 3 2 1 (c) Serosa, longitudinal muscle, circular muscle,
(c) 5 4 3 2 1 submucosa, mucosa
(d) 3 5 4 2 1 (d) Serosa, longitudinal muscle, submucosa, mucosa

24. Which of the following are required in minimum 29. Acetylcholinesterase enzyme splits acetylcholine into
amount by human? (a) acetone and choline
(a) Iron, iodine, carbon, manganese, copper, oxygen (b) acetic acid and choline
(b) Iron, iodine, manganese, copper, zinc, fluorine (c) aspartic acid and acetylcholine
(c) Iron, iodine, manganese, zinc, hydrogen (d) amino acid and choline
(d) Nitrogen, oxygen, zinc, fluorine
30. Read the following statements.
25. The following is a scheme showing the fate of
I. In human, small intestine is the longest portion
carbohydrates during digestion in the human
of the alimentary canal.
alimentary canal. Identify the enzymes acting at
II. Absorption of digested food requires a very large
stages indicated as A, B, C and D. Choose the correct surface area.
option from those given.
Identify the correct choice on the two statements.
Starch
(a) Statements I is correct and II is incorrect
(b) Both statements I and II are correct
A
(c) Both the statements are incorrect
Lactose Maltose Sucrose (d) Statement II is correct and I is incorrect

B C D Answers
Galactose Glucose Fructose 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)
(a) A–Amylase, B–Maltase, C–Lactase, D–Invertase 11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c)
(b) A–Amylase, B–Maltase, C–Invertase, D–Lactase
16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (d)
(c) A–Amylase, B–Invertase, C–Maltase, D–Lactase
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (d)
(d) A–Amylase, B–Lactase, C–Maltase, D–Invertase
26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (b)

53
 GENETIC CLASSROOM

INTERACTION OF GENES-I
In this section, we will try to infer and apply Laws of genetics through problems. Here, we will be discussing inter allelic or intragenic gene interactions.

Complementary Genes Connectivity with the Laws

These are two pairs of non-allelic dominant genes, which
interact to produce only one phenotypic trait, but neither of
them (if present alone) produces the trait in the absence of
other. Therefore, for the development of dominant character,
the presence of both the genes is necessary.
Supplementary Genes
These are two independent dominant gene pairs, which
interact in such a way that one dominant gene produces its
effect irrespective of the presence or absence of other. The
second gene when added, changes the expression of first, but
only in the presence of latter.
Inhibiting Genes or Epistasis
It is the interaction between non-allelic genes, in which one
gene masks, inhibits or suppresses the expression of other.
It is of two types:
Dominant Epistasis
Out of the two pairs of genes, the dominant one masks the
expression of other gene pair.
Gene C produces an enzyme that catalyses the formation of
colourless chromogen for the formation of anthocyanin pigment.
The gene P on the other hand controls the formation of another
enzyme that catalyses transformation of chromogen into
anthocyanin. Thus, both the genes are complementary. If only one
of them is present the result is colourless or white flowers.
Therefore, due to the presence of complementary genes, in
F1 - generation plants with purple coloured flowers were obtained.
I When a deaf-mute man (aaBB) marries with a deaf-mute woman
(Aabb), in F1 -generation, all normal offspring are obtained. In
F2-generation normal and deaf-mute offspring are produced in 9 : 7
ratio. How would you justify the presence of all normal offspring in
F1 -generation and reappearance of deaf-mute offspring with
normal offspring in F2-generation?
Sol. If we consider a cross between a deaf-mute man (aaBB) and a
deaf-mute woman (Aabb).
Deaf-mute man × Deaf-mute woman
(aaBB) (Aabb)
Normal offspring F1-generation
(AaBb)
Gametes

Recessive Epistasis % AB Ab aB ab
Out of the two pairs of genes, the recessive gene masks the &
activity of dominant gene of the other gene locus. The dihybrid AB
AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
(Normal) (Normal) (Normal) (Normal)
ratio 9 : 3 : 4 is also considered as recessive epistasis ratio.
AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
Gametes

Ab
Problems (Normal) (Deaf-mute) (Normal) (Deaf-mute)

I If two white flowered strains (CCpp, ccPP) of Lathyrus are aB

AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
(Normal) (Normal) (Deaf-mute) (Deaf-mute)
crossed, in F1 -generation purple flowered plants (CcPp) are
obtained. When these purple flowered plants are allowed to AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb F2-generation
ab (Normal) (Deaf-mute) (Deaf-mute) (Deaf-mute) Normal : 9
self-cross, both white and purple flowered plants are Deaf-mute : 7
obtained. Give reason, why purple coloured flowers were
obtained in F2-generation? Also, predict the phenotypic Connectivity with the Laws
ratios of F2 progeny with the help of Punnett square.
Deaf-mutism in man is controlled by complementary genes. In man
Sol. If we consider a cross between plant species with the power of hearing and speech is an account of interaction of
White flower × White flower
(CCpp) (ccPP) dominant genes A and B. Whenever, in man anyone of the gene
amongst the two is recessive allelomorph homozygous then this
Purple flowers F1-generation disease or abnormality develops in man.
(CcPp)

The genotype of F2 -generation can be explained as follows:

I When a lablab plant with a khaki coloured (KKll) seed coat is
crossed with a lablab plant of buff coloured (kkLL) seed coat, in
Parents – CcPp × CcPp F1 -generation, chocolate coloured plants are obtained. On
self-crossing, in F2-generation, all the three colour seed coat, i.e.
Gametes CP Cp cP cp
khaki, buff and chocolate are obtained. Why plants of
CP CCPP CCPp CcPP CcPp F1 -generation do not produce seed coat that resemble either of the
(Purple) (Purple) (Purple) (Purple)
parent? Predict the phenotypic ratio of F2-generation.
Cp CCPp CCpp CcPp Ccpp Sol. From the facts given in the problem, we can conclude following
(Purple) (White) (Purple) (White) results.
Khaki × Buff
cP CcPP CcPp ccPP ccPp (KKll) (kkLL)
(Purple) (Purple) (White) (White)
Chocolate F1-generation
F2 -generation (KkLl)
cp CcPp Ccpp ccPp ccpp Purple flower : 9
(Purple) (White) (White) (White) The F1 progeny plants when crossed among themselves, produce
White flower : 7 offspring (F2 -generation) represented by the following cross.

54
Gametes KL Kl kL kl Sol. From the facts given in the problem, we can conclude following
KL KKLL KKLl KkLL KkLl results.
(Chocolate) (Chocolate) (Chocolate) (Chocolate) Brown dog × White dog
(bbii) (BBII)
Kl KKLl KKll KkLl Kkll
All white F1-generation
(Chocolate) (Khaki) (Chocolate) (Khaki) F2 -generation (BbIi)
kL KkLL KkLl kkLL kkLl Chocolate : 9 Gametes
(Chocolate) (Chocolate) (Buff) (Buff) Khaki : 3
kl KkLl Kkll kkLl kkll
Buff : 4 % BI bI Bi bi
(Chocolate) (Khaki) (Buff) (Buff) &
BBII BbII BBIi BbIi
BI (White) (White) (White) (White)
Connectivity with the Laws BbII bbII BbIi bbIi
bI

Gametes
Lablab has two genes, K and L. In the recessive state, the second (White) (White) (White) (White)
or supplementary gene (ll) has an effect on seed coat colour. BBIi BbIi BBii Bbii
Dominant K independently produces khaki colour while its Bi (White) (White) (Black) (Black)
F2-generation
recessive allele gives rise to buff colour irrespective of the BbIi bbIi Bbii bbii White : 12
supplementary gene being dominant or recessive. In the bi (White) (White) (Black) (Brown) Black : 3
Brown : 1
dominant state the supplementary gene (L −) changes the effect
of dominant allele of pigment forming gene (K) into chocolate
colour. F2 phenotypic ratio is 9 : 3 : 4. It is also considered as Connectivity with the Laws
recessive epistasis. It can be explained on the basis of dominant epistasis. In dogs
white coat colour appears to be dominant. It develops due to a
I When an agouti (CCAA) mice is crossed with an albino (ccaa) gene I which prevents the formation of pigment responsible for
mice, in F1 -generation all agouti mice are obtained. On colour of coat. The hypostatic gene B produces black coat while
inbreeding, in F2-generation agouti, black and albino mice are its counter part b produces brown colour only when gene I is
produced. How would you justify the presence of black mice in homozygous recessive. Thus, all those cases where I is present
F2-generation? With the help of Punnett square predict the are white in colour. Similarly, all those cases with at least one
phenotypic ratio of F2-generation. B, but absence of I are black while the case in which both B and I
Sol. If we consider a cross between mice of two different coat colour. are absent produces brown individual.
Agouti × Albino I A white leghorn (IICC) variety of chicken is crossed with white
(CCAA) (ccaa)
polymouth (iicc) variety. What would be the phenotype of F1 and
Agouti F1-generation
(CcAa)
F2-generation? Explain with the help of Punnett square. On the
Gametes basis of which law of genetics it can be explained?
Sol. Let us consider a cross between white leghorn (IICC) and white
% CA cA Ca ca polymouth (iicc) variety of chicken.
& White leghorn × White polymouth
CCAA CcAA CCAa CcAa (IICC) (iicc)
CA (Agouti) (Agouti) (Agouti) (Agouti) All white F1-generation
(IiCc)
CcAA ccAA CcAa ccAa
Gametes

cA (Agouti) (Albino) (Agouti) (Albino) Gametes

Ca
CCAa
(Agouti)
CcAa
(Agouti)
CCaa
(Black)
Ccaa
(Black)
% IC iC Ic ic
F2-generation &
CcAa ccAa Ccaa ccaa Agouti : 9 IICC IiCC IICc IiCc
ca (Agouti) (Albino) (Black) (Albino) Black : 3 IC (White) (White) (White) (White)
Albino : 4
IiCC iiCC IiCc iiCc
iC
Gametes

(White) (Coloured) (White) (Coloured)

Connectivity with the Laws
IICc IiCc IIcc Iicc
The coat colour in mice is governed by two dominant genes Ic (White) (White) (White) (White)
A and C. The presence of gene C produces black colour which
IiCc iiCc Iicc iicc F2-generation
along with gene A changes its expression to agouti colour. Thus, ic White : 13
(White) (Coloured) (White) (White)
all combinations with atleast one C and one A give agouti colour. Coloured : 3
The black mice possesses factor for black colour (C), but not the
gene A for agouti colour. Thus, all combinations with at least Connectivity with the Laws
one C, but with A produce black individuals. If gene for black It can be explained on the basis of law of dominant epistasis.
colour is absent agouti is unable to express itself hence, albinos C gene is responsible for the coat colour of chickens. I prevents
are seen. Therefore, in all combinations, where C is absent in the the development of pigment even when pigment is present.
presence or absence of A, the individuals are albinos. Thus, Colourless forms are produced when
presence of black mice is F2-generation can be explained on the Both colour (C) and inhibiting form (I) are present in their
I

basis of supplementary genes or recessive epistasis. dominant form.

Both colour and inhibiting factors are absent as their
I

I When a brown dog (bbii) was crossed with a white dog (BBII), in dominant allele, i.e. when genetic constitution is ccii.
F1 -generation all white dogs were obtained. Which type of dogs Only dominant gene for colour is absent. The inhibiting factor
I

will be obtained in F2-generation? Explain. may or may not be present, i.e. either ccII or ccIi or ccii.

55
 RAINBOW
LEARN THRU PROBLEMS
This section is targetted to provide learning through problems along with the tips to memories them.
u Which is a better suffix for Krebs’ work, a cycle
or a pathway?
• Since, the citric acid produced in the initial condensation
reaction of acetyl Co-A with oxaloacetic acid runs through
the ‘‘mill’’ and eventually yields another molecule of
oxaloacetic acid, the sequence may be seen as returning to
its starting point in typical cyclical fashion. A new acetyl
Co-A will then join the oxaloacetic acid to initiate another
turn of the merry-go-round. An apt characterisation of the
Krebs’ cycle would be a metabolic system in which the
products of glycolysis are first modified and then ground
down to low-energy products with the help of ancillary
pathways closely connected to the main cycle.
Memorising Tip
To remember the KTC = Krebs’ or TCA or Citric Acid Cycle remember,
‘Citric Acid Is Krebs’ Starting Substrate For Mitochondrial Oxidation’.
These stand for the substrate in order
Citric Acid
Iso-Aconitase
Iso-Citrate
Alpha-Ketoglutarate Sunflowers use their circadian clock, acting
Succinyl Co-A on growth hormones, to follow the Sun
during the day as they grow. In simpler
Succinate words Growing sunflowers begin the day
Fumarate with their heads facing east, swing west
Malate through the day, and turn back to the east
Oxaloacetate at night.
v How does the prophase of meiosis I differ from
the prophase of mitosis?
• The prophase of the first meiotic division is of much longer
duration than the prophase of mitosis. It is subdivided into
the following functional stages:
1. Leptotene Chromosomes have begun to coil and
condense. Replication has, of course, occurred during the
S-period of interphase, but individual chromatids cannot
yet be seen. The nuclear membrane begins to breakdown
and centrioles, when present move toward the poles.
Nucleoli disappear as discrete structures.
2. Zygotene Homologous chromosomes begin the process
of synapsis by making contact at several points along
their length. Spindle fibres begin to appear.
3. Pachytene Synapsis is complete with each gene locus
of one homologue closely apposed to the corresponding
gene locus of the other homologue. Since, two
chromosomes are joined, the resultant configuration is
called a bivalent (two parts).
4. Diplotene The two chromatids of each of the paired
chromosomes are now distinctly visible and the entire
structure is known as a tetrad because of its
four-stranded appearance.
56
5. Diakinesis At this stage the synapsed chromosomes
seem to be pulling apart and are held together only at
specialised places called chiasmata. The thickened
chromosomes of diakinesis migrate toward the
equatorial plane.
The major distinctions of the prophase of meiosis I are
its great length, synapsing (joining) of homologous
chromosomes, exchange of complementary regions
between homologous chromosomes (crossing over) and
attachment of spindle fibres along one side only of whole
chromosomes so that each chromosome moves to the
pole opposite that to which its homologue migrates.
Memorising Tip
For the different stages of prophase of the first meiotic division
remember ‘Lazy Zebras Ponder Dire Disasters’.
These stand for the stages in order, i.e. Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene, Diakinesis.
w The stomata are tiny lengthwise openings in
the leaf, about 0.0001 mm wide at their
maximum opening. They are concentrated on
the abaxial surface of most leaves and range in
frequency from 100-100,00 per cm2. They are
enclosed by a pair of guard cells, which
resemble two bow-legged sausages. Just above
the stoma and within the leaf is a large air
space. Unlike the other cells of the abaxial leaf
epidermis, the guard cells contain chloroplast.
What mechanism does this suggest for opening
and closing the stomata?
• The guard cells function through osmotic changes in their
cytoplasm. During the daylight hours, when conditions are
optimal for active photosynthesis, the guard cells pile up
sugar molecules. These sugar molecules increase the
osmotic pressure, which leads to an uptake of water and an
increase in the turgor (internal pressure) of the cell. When
the cells start to swell, they pull apart so that the stomatal
opening (pore) increases in size. This permits CO2 and water
vapour to pass into the leaf and oxygen, a byproduct of
photosynthesis, to pass out. Thus, the leaf opens its interior
to the atmosphere only when gas exchange is necessary for
photosynthesis.
When conditions for photosynthesis are poor, the guard
cells do not produce sugars and osmotic pressure is reduced.
With the loss of turgor pressure, the guard cells become
limp, the walls partially collapse and the opening is occluded
by the now flaccid cell walls. This prevents water loss at a
time when photosynthesis is not occurring at appreciable
levels.
To be Continued at Page 63
 PERSONALITY

discovered reverse transcriptase (Rtase or RT) the enzyme that

PUZZLE TO PUZZLE YOU

FIND ME IN THE FIGURE

1. We prevent the bicuspid and tricuspid valves
from collapsing back into the atria …… .
2. We are half-moon-shaped pockets …… .
3. We are special muscles of the ventricular wall
and remain attached to a fibrous cord …… .
4. We have three flaps …… .
5. I carry blood from the body’s upper region
…… .

BIOLOGY IN ACTION
T-cells can be Directed to Treat Ovarian Cancers
A new receptor protein has been discovered that is expressed on the surface of different types of
ovarian tumour cells. It includes clear cell and mucinous ovarian tumours also, two of the most
aggressive subtypes of the disease.
This Follicle Stimulating Hormone Receptor (FSHR) is expressed in gynecological malignancies of
different histological types, but not in non-ovarian healthy tissues. T-cells could be directed to treat
these tumours with almost no adverse effects.
 CROSSWORD
DOWN
1. Inner seed coat.
29 19 18 22 38 1 36 35 14
S V E O R T T F E
4. Organs which have same fundamental structure, but are
9 different in functions.
K
2 23 6. Attachment of blastocyst to the uterine wall.
N C L G N P 7. A nitrogenous base of RNA.
T H X N 9. A large brown alga used as a source of iodine.
12 37
O H X A L P 11. Formed in the foetal ovary by gamete mother cells.
11 3 4 6 12. Small bones of mammalian ear.
R O D I N H I N R O
26 13. The second heart sound that is shorter and of higher pitch.
N O L P 14. The nucleotide region in a gene that codes for the gene product.
5 7
I M O U M 18. A span of time smaller than a period.
21
O L V 19. The swallon portion of an archaegonium in which the egg cell
10
L T I L E A
develops.
27 21. Connecting link between living and non-living.
E O V R
16 22. Member of family–Orchidaceae.
F
24
A A T 23. Tissue that transports food from leaves to other parts of plants.
34 28
P A R M A V L L S 26. A simple, dry, dehiscent fruit.
32 27. Membranous structures of various types.
P L S T
20 8 30 28. A small, filamentous process found in the intestinal mucosa.
T R H D H L M N
29. A group of parasitic fungi of order–Ustilaginales of
31 13
class–Basidiomycetes.
N O T D N I 30. Another name of vitamin-B3.
25 39
P H B D C 34. Proteins that form huge pores in the membranes of
15 40
C O M P K Y
mitochondria, plastid and bacteria.
33 17 35. A muscle that cause a limb to bend.
P L U E G B N
36. A modification of stem, leaf or petiole with a thread-like shape
used by climbing plants for support.
38. A hormone produced by the ovary and the placenta.

ACROSS Why are you so short

when your parents are
2. Complete, but single set of chromosomes. so tall?

3. A protein hormone, which suppresses FSH synthesis.

5. Latex from unripe fruits of poppy plant.
8. A scar left on seed coat by the former attachment to T=Tall allele
t=Short allele
the ovary wall. Look at
T t the square
10. Spongy porous area on the outer part of plant that T TT Tt
allows interchange of gases. t Tt tt
15. The body cavity lined by mesoderm.
16. All the organisms in a given locality.
T t
17. The protein component of haemoglobin. T TT Tt
20. An element of xylem.
t Tt tt
24. A chamber of heart. me
25. The cylinder of parenchyma tissue found in the
centre of stems. Heredlty

31. It grows into a functional haploid ovum.

32. An umbrella-like cap of mushroom.
33. Embryonic shoot tip.
37. A white, translucent, fleshy structure between
seed and pericarp of litchi.
39. An undeveloped or embryonic shoot normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of stem.
40. An artificial analytical device having a list of statements used for identifying organisms.
 CA SH
IN
` 1000
!W IN
RY JUST SOLVE & SEND
HUR
KNOWLEDGE COEFFICIENT
QUIZZER (NO. 22)
1. Synthesised opiates such as morphine and codeine 4. In Japan, the Japanese demonstrate an extremely low
provide their analgesic effects by attacking to special incidence of heart attacks and even hypertension. Descendents
receptors in the brain. Scientists for a long-time of Japanese who move to the United States soon show a
wondered how there could be natural receptors for such tendency toward an increased incidence of heart attack and an
synthesised opiates when the opiates are not part of increase in blood pressure, even though there is little
mammalian evolutionary history. How does the existence intermarriage with the larger population in early generations. This
of endorphins and enkephalins help to explain this tendency develops over a time span of as little as two generations.
mystery? What conclusions about health can be drawn from these facts?
2. Write the name of the sac which remains well 5. What are the effects of gravity on circulation?
developed during the bird’s embryological development. Fill in the blanks
However, it begins to shrink soon after hatching. Its
6. Amphibians temporarily store water in their ……… and
tissues produce secretions that are responsibe for the
……… for osmoregulation.
maturation of WBCs.
7. Female silk moths secrete ……… as a sex attractant.
3.
8. Marine birds possess ……… in the orbits of eyes for
osmoregulation.
State whether True or False
Polysiphonia Gelidium 9. Nucleotide bases may have arisen from the condensation of
HCN.
Refer to the figures given above. Why this class of algae
10. Xylem cells perform their water-carrying function best after
grows at deeper levels of the ocean than other kinds of
they die.
algae?

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Quizzer (No. 21) (August Issue) Biology Spectrum
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