Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Evaluation of optimal power options for base transceiver stations

of Mobile Telephone Networks Cameroon
E.M. Nfah a,b,⇑, J.M. Ngundam c
a
Laboratoire d’Automatique et d’Informatique Appliquée, I.U.T. Fotso Victor, P.O. Box 134, Bandjoun,
University of Dschang, Cameroon
b
Department of Electrical and Power Engineering, Higher Technical Teacher’s Training College, P.O. Box 39, Bambili,
University of Bamenda, Cameroon
c
Automation and Control Laboratory, School of Engineering, P.O. Box 8390, University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon

Received 28 September 2011; received in revised form 3 May 2012; accepted 28 June 2012
Available online 25 July 2012

Communicated by: Associate Editor S.C. Bhattacharya

Abstract

Photovoltaic hybrid systems (PVHS) with 2 days of energy autonomy are shown to be optimal options for the supply of the daily
energy demands of 33 base transceiver stations of MTN Cameroon. PVHS were computed for all sites using the technical data for a
150 Wp mono-crystalline module, the site specific hourly load data, the average monthly solar radiation and temperature. Hourly solar
radiation data for all sites were downloaded using the solar resource module of HOMER and geographical coordinates of the selected
sites. The 3-hourly temperature data available on a website maintained NASA was used to generate average monthly hourly tempera-
tures needed in the calculation of the output of solar modules. The energy costs and breakeven grid distances for possible power options
were computed using the Net Present Value Technique and financial data for selected power system components. The results with a PV
module cost of 7.5 €/Wp, a remote diesel price of 1.12 €/l, a general inflation rate of 5% and a fuel escalation of 10% showed that the
annual operational times of the diesel generator were in the range 3–356 h/year with renewable energy fractions in the range 0.89–1.00.
However, only 22 PVHS had two parallel battery strings as stipulated in the request for proposal launched by MTN Cameroon in 2008.
The PV array sizes evaluated for the 22 PVHS were found to be the range 2.4–10.8 kWp corresponding to daily energy demands in the
range 7.31–31.79 kW h/d. The energy costs and breakeven grid distances determined were in the ranges 0.81–1.32 €/kW h and 10.75–
32.00 km respectively.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar module energy output; Daily energy demand; Photovoltaic hybrid systems; Net Present Value Technique; Base transceiver stations

1. Introduction land. In February 2000, MTN acquired Camtel Mobile,

MTN is a South African company which was founded in
1994. As part of its strategy to become a major player in
Africa, MTN started its African expansion in 1998 with
joint venture investments in Rwanda, Uganda and Swazi-
⇑ Corresponding author at: Laboratoire d’Automatique et d’Informa-
tique Appliquée, I.U.T. Fotso Victor, P.O. Box 134, Bandjoun, University
of Dschang, Cameroon. Tel.: +237 9688 2160; fax: +237 3301 4601.
E-mail address: emnfah@yahoo.com (E.M. Nfah).
becoming the second licensed GSM cellular operator after
Orange Cameroon. MTN-C is 70% owned by MTN South
Africa and 30% by Broadband Telecommunications (local
partner). The Head Office of MTN-C is located in Douala,
which is the business centre of Cameroon. The company
also has four regional offices in the Littoral, Centre, North
and West of the country (Chinje, 2008).
The arrival of the two GSM cellular operators in Cam-
eroon’s ICT sector resulted in a considerable increase of
cellular phone subscribers from 4000 in 1998 to 2,615,000

0038-092X/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2012.06.029
2936 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

Nomenclature

a desired days of autonomy LCCf life-cycle cost of selected power option excluding
AC alternating current cost of grid supplied electricity(€)
Afc annual fuel consumption (€/l) LCCgen life-cycle cost of linked with diesel generator oper-
Apv annual energy output of PV module (kW h) ation (€)
BB battery bank LCCgrid life-cycle cost of grid supplied electricity (€)
BTS base transceiver station LCCpv life-cycle cost of PV system (€)
Camtel Cameroon Telecommunications m1 miscellaneous cost factor
Cbank battery bank capacity (kW h) m2 installation cost factor
Cbatt nominal capacity of a battery cell (A h) mc annual operation and maintenance cost factor of
Cc cost of selected PV system component (€) selected PV system component
Ccap grid extension cost (€/km) MD monthly energy demand (kW h)
Ccom operation and maintenance cost of a grid line (€/ Mpv monthly energy output of PV module (kW h)
km/yr) MTN Mobile Telephone Networks
Cg diesel generator cost (€/kW) MTN-C Mobile Telephone Networks Cameroon
Cgrid current average cost of grid supplied electricity (€/ n lifetime of selected PV system component (yrs)
kW h) N period of economic evaluation (yrs)
Ci installation cost of PV system (€) Nbp minimum number of parallel connected battery
Cinv bi-direction inverter cost (€) strings
Cm miscellaneous cost (€) Nbs number of series connected battery cells per bat-
Co initial capital investment in PV system (€) tery string
COE cost of energy (€/kW h) Ng number of DGs in selected power option
Cp cost of PV module (€/Wp) Npvp number of parallel connected PV modules
Cpv cost of PV array (€) Npvp1 minimum number of parallel connected PV mod-
Cstri cost of string inverter (€) ules for RF of 100%
D annual energy demand (kW h) Npvs number of series connected PV modules
d breakeven grid distance (km) OMbs present value of operation and maintenance cost
D(k) energy demand in the kth month (kW h) for battery storage (€)
d(k) number of days in the kth month OMinv present value of operation and maintenance cost
DC direct current for battery inverter (€)
DD daily energy demand (kW h/d) OMpv present value of operation and maintenance cost
DG diesel generator for PV array (€)
DOD maximum depth of discharge of the battery bank OMstri present value of operation and maintenance cost
E annual energy output of power option (kW h) for PV string inverter (€)
EE percentage of excess energy generated by optimal P initial cost of diesel generators in selected power
power option option (€)
Eg annual energy output of diesel generator (kW h) p1 generator overhauling cost factor
Epv annual energy output of PV array (kW h) p2 generator annual operation and maintenance cost
f diesel fuel cost (€/l) factor
F(q) fuel consumption rate of diesel generator at load Pg desired diesel generator rating
factor q (l/h) Pmp rated power of PV module (Wp)
Fc connection loss factor Ppv rating of PV array (Wp)
Fo power loss coefficient due to other factors Ps string inverter rating (W)
h computed annual operational time of diesel gen- PV photovoltaic
erator (h) q generator load factor
hh desired annual operational time of diesel genera- Q present value of generator overhauling costs (€)
tor (h) r generator overhauling period (h)
hhmax maximum desired generator hours in PVHS (h) R present value of annual operation and mainte-
HPVS hybrid PV system nance costs (€)
ICT information communications technology Rbs present value of battery replacement cost (€)
Ipv(t) optimum operating point current of PV module RF renewable energy fraction
at the tth hour (A) rfmin minimum desired renewable fraction
L hourly load (kW) RFP request for proposal
LCC life-cycle cost of selected power option (€) Rinv present value of battery inverter replacement cost (€)
 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949 2937

Rstri present value of PV string inverter replacement

W(k) energy output of PV module in the kth month (kW h)
cost (€)
w generator overhaul frequency during the eco-
S present worth of annual fuel cost (€)
nomic evaluation period
SB sunny boy grid-connected inverter
x inflation rate
SBC sunny boy control data logger
y discount rater
SDGS standalone DG system
z fuel escalation rate
SI sunny island battery inverter
gdch discharge efficiency of battery bank
SPVS standalone PV system
ginv efficiency of battery inverter
v number of battery replacements
gmppt efficiency of maximum power point tracker
Vnb nominal output voltage of battery cell (V)
gstri efficiency of string inverter
Vob operating voltage of battery bank (V)
Vpv(t) optimum operating point voltage of PV module
at the tth hour (V)

in 2006. This number was split amongst the major industry
players, i.e. MTN-C 52.2% of the market share, Orange
(41%) and Camtel (6.7%). These players address two main
markets: the consumer and the business markets. The high
market share of MTN-C can be explained by investments
in telecommunications infrastructure. In 2000, the company
inherited 12 BTS which provided 10% coverage of the pop-
ulation and 1% of the surface area of Cameroon. From 2000
to 2006, MTN-C built over 390 BTS, thereby providing
communication access to people living in even the most
remote parts of Cameroon. This has increased local and
international connectivity, with effective coverage of the
population reaching 87% in May 2007 (Chinje, 2008).
However, shortage of electricity forces the company to
use diesel generators which increase network operating
expenditure and produce considerable amounts of pollu-
tants that are harmful to the surrounding environment. As
a leading mobile operator in Cameroon, MTN-C is commit-
ted to environmental protection. The company intends to
reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and power consumption
in order to improve the quality of life for local inhabitants,
through the implementation of green power solutions
(Xiaobing, 2010). It is in this light that the company
launched in 2008, a RFP for the Supply, Installation and
Commissioning of Solar Hybrid Systems (MTN-C, 2008).
The ambition of the company was to implement solar hybrid
systems at 27 sites over a period of 3 years with 10 installa-
tions projected in 2008 (MTN-C, 2008). After many techni-
cal discussions and field tests, MTN-C chose the green solar-
powered solution proposed by ZTE Corporation to address
the issue of energising BTS while minimising environmental
pollution (Xiaobing, 2010).
The solar-powered solution proposed by ZTE Corpora-
tion not only reduces diesel consumption, but also limits air
and noise pollution that arises from generators running
24 h a day, 7 days a week. The solar energy solution pro-
posed by ZTE Corporation takes into full account local cli-
mate, makes good use of abundant sunshine, and adopts a
modular and reliable solar system design to significantly
reduce site costs and realise truly green BTS sites. All
solar-powered sites have run smoothly on the network
since they were completed and put into service. Operating
expenditure has also been effectively reduced for the com-
pany. This has consolidated confidence in the wide deploy-
ment of solar-powered BTS sites and effectively improving
the company’s competitiveness. Consequently, MTN-C has
again invited ZTE to bid for the second phase of its solar-
powered site construction project.
Although, MTN-C expected that solar hybrid options
would reduce network operating costs, the RFP launched
in 2008, did not include economic analysis of feasible
power options. The objective of this study is to evaluate
the power system configurations with the least energy costs.
Section 2 presents the terms of the RFP. Section 3 deals
with the sizing method used for PVHS, while Section 4
dwells on economic analysis. The data used in the evalua-
tion of optimal options is presented in Section 5. Results
and discussions are included in Section 6 followed by a
conclusion in Section 7.
2. MTN-C RFP for solar hybrid systems
The RFP of MTN-C for the submission of tenders for
the Supply, Installation and Commissioning of Solar
Hybrid Systems in 2008 included hourly loads for 33 sites
(MTN-C, 2008). The site loads are a mixture of DC and
AC loads in varying proportions. The RFP stipulates that
the sizing of solar hybrid systems should be based on
mono-crystalline modules with a rating of at least
150 Wp, a PV array with a system operating voltage of
48 VDC, a battery bank with an operating system voltage
of 48 VDC and solar charge controllers. Inverters were not
mentioned for the supply of power to AC loads such as air-
conditioners, fans and lights. Thus the efficiency of the
inverter was not used in the calculation of the hourly
DC-connected loads leading to incorrect daily energy
demands for the sizing of the PV array, battery bank and
charge controllers. The battery bank was expected to have
a maximum of two parallel battery strings and formed
using sealed type OpzV batteries with gelled electrolyte.
Although, a maximum depth of discharge of 50% and a
security coefficient of 10% were stated in the RFP, the
 2938
Table 1
24-hourly AC-load data for remote telecommunication stations of MTN-C.
S. Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Energy
No. (kW h/d)
Name of L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L
site (kW) (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW (kW
1 Debunsha 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.92 0.92 1.74 1.74 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.81 1.81 1.05 1.05 1.08 1.08 1.08 31.79
2 Idenau 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.41 1.38 1.28 1.28 2.10 2.10 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.17 2.17 1.41 1.41 1.44 1.44 1.44 40.51
3 Missole 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.49 1.46 1.36 1.36 2.18 2.18 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.12 2.25 2.25 1.49 1.49 1.52 1.52 1.52 42.40
PK34
4 Ebombe 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.80 1.76 1.66 1.66 2.48 2.48 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.56 2.56 1.80 1.80 1.83 1.83 1.83 49.71

E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

5 Ngwei 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.47 0.43 0.33 0.33 1.15 1.15 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.23 1.23 0.47 0.47 0.50 0.50 0.50 17.76
6 Ekok 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.92 0.92 1.74 1.74 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.81 1.81 1.05 1.05 1.08 1.08 1.08 31.79
7 Mintom 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.75 0.72 0.62 0.62 1.44 1.44 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.51 1.51 0.75 0.75 0.78 0.78 0.78 24.58
8 Biakoa 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.65 1.61 1.51 1.51 2.33 2.33 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.27 2.41 2.41 1.65 1.65 1.68 1.68 1.68 46.16
9 Atok 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
10 Ondondo 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.80 1.76 1.66 1.66 2.48 2.48 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.42 2.56 2.56 1.80 1.80 1.83 1.83 1.83 49.71
11 Botatango 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.23 2.20 2.16 2.06 2.06 2.88 2.88 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.82 2.96 2.96 2.20 2.20 2.23 2.23 2.23 59.31
12 Borrongoue 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
13 Ndelele 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
14 Brigaya 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.73 0.73 1.55 1.55 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.62 1.62 0.86 0.86 0.89 0.89 0.89 27.23
15 Gomala 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
16 Kentzou 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.92 0.92 1.74 1.74 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.81 1.81 1.05 1.05 1.08 1.08 1.08 31.79
17 Pangari 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.92 0.92 1.74 1.74 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.81 1.81 1.05 1.05 1.08 1.08 1.08 31.79
18 Dodiri 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
19 Kaladi 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
20 Mayo 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.92 0.92 1.74 1.74 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.81 1.81 1.05 1.05 1.08 1.08 1.08 31.79
Tolere
21 Febadi 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.92 0.92 1.74 1.74 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.68 1.81 1.81 1.05 1.05 1.08 1.08 1.08 31.79
22 Lere 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.01 0.97 0.87 0.87 1.69 1.69 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.77 1.77 1.01 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.04 30.77
23 Belel 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.41 1.38 1.28 1.28 2.10 2.10 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.04 2.17 2.17 1.41 1.41 1.44 1.44 1.44 40.51
24 Gouna 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.25 1.22 1.12 1.12 1.94 1.94 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 2.01 2.01 1.25 1.25 1.28 1.28 1.28 36.59
25 Wani 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
Banda
26 Djalingo 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.25 1.22 1.12 1.12 1.94 1.94 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 2.01 2.01 1.25 1.25 1.28 1.28 1.28 36.59
27 Pathere 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
28 Yet 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.32 0.22 0.22 0.28 0.28 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 7.31
29 Figuil 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.25 1.22 1.12 1.12 1.94 1.94 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 2.01 2.01 1.25 1.25 1.28 1.28 1.28 36.59
30 Bridzar 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.73 0.73 1.55 1.55 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.62 1.62 0.86 0.86 0.89 0.89 0.89 27.23
31 Zigague 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.72 0.72 1.54 1.54 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.61 1.61 0.85 0.85 0.88 0.88 0.88 26.99
32 Dabanga 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.57 0.57 1.39 1.39 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.46 1.46 0.70 0.70 0.73 0.73 0.73 23.44
33 Maltam 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.21 1.17 1.07 1.07 1.89 1.89 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.97 1.97 1.21 1.21 1.24 1.24 1.24 35.57
 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949 2939

charge controller must disconnect the battery at a depth of Table 3

discharge of 80% to avoid permanent damage to the batter- Parameters used in computation of solar module output.
ies. Three days of energy autonomy were required at all Parameter Value
BTS sites. Solar radiation values in the range 3– Maximum power of PV module Pmp (W) 150
4.8 kW h/m2/d were proposed for the sizing of solar hybrid Maximum voltage of PV module Vmp (V) 34
systems. The RFP requested that worksheets should be Maximum power current of PV module Imp (V) 4.45
Short-circuit current of PV module Isc (A) 4.75
submitted with the tenders to clarify how the solar hybrid Open-circuit voltage of PV module Voc (V) 42.8
systems were designed. Current temperature coefficient of PV module a (A/°C) 0.00065
It appears from the terms of the RFP that solar hybrid Voltage temperature coefficient of PV module b (V/°C) 0.16
systems were already projected as the suitable options for Nominal output voltage of PV module Vn (V) 24
all sites prior to the submission of tenders. In grid con- Efficiency of the module g 12%
Surface area of the module A (m2) 1.2601
nected areas, the energy demand of the telecommunication Connection loss factor Fc 0.98
stations is usually derived from an AC power line. In order Other losses factor Fo 1.0
to reduce the impact of power cuts, a diesel generator is String inverter efficiency gstri 0.90
often installed as an alternative AC power source with or Battery inverter efficiency ginv 0.90
without a battery bank linked to a grid connected bi-direc- Discharge efficiency of battery bank gdch 0.85
Efficiency of maximum power point tracker gmppt 0.99
tion inverter in a hybrid system. In remote areas without
electricity, photovoltaic, wind and diesel generator systems
may be used with battery banks linked to bi-direction loads to be connected on an AC-bus (Nipon, 2005) can
inverters. The state of the art AC-coupled parallel hybrid be used to supply the electrical needs of remote telecommu-
system technology which allows AC-generators and AC- nication stations of MTN-C. Considering, that there are

Table 2
Site specific information for remote telecommunication stations of MTN-C.
S. Name of GPS Peak power Daily energy Solar insolation on horizontal planeWind speed at Air temp. at No sun
No. site coordinates demand (kW) demand (kW h) (kW h/m2/d) 50 m (m/s) 10 m (°C) days
1 Debunsha N4°050 E8°590 1.81 31.79 4.16 2.75 24.6 5.3
2 Idenau N4°120 E8°590 2.17 40.51 4.27 2.75 24.6 5.3
3 Missole N3°570 E9°570 2.25 42.40 4.41 2.27 24.8 4.4
PK34
4 Ebombe N3°490 E10°210 2.56 49.71 4.48 1.91 23.8 3.6
5 Ngwei N3°500 E10°260 1.23 17.76 4.48 1.91 23.8 3.6
6 Ekok N5°480 E8°510 1.81 31.79 4.55 2.47 24.0 3.5
7 Mintom N2°410 E13°170 1.51 24.58 4.60 1.79 24.0 3.1
8 Biakoa N4°320 E11°280 2.41 46.16 4.63 2.23 23.2 2.9
9 Atok N3°590 E12°460 1.46 23.44 4.63 1.80 23.2 2.9
10 Ondondo N4°200 E11°350 2.56 49.71 4.66 2.23 23.2 2.9
11 Botatango N4°240 E11°140 2.96 59.31 4.67 2.23 23.2 2.9
12 BorrongoueN4°230 E14°350 1.46 23.44 4.88 2.49 24.0 3.3
13 Ndelele N4°020 E14°550 1.46 23.44 4.89 2.49 24.0 3.3
14 Brigaya N4°410 E13°490 1.62 27.23 4.93 2.44 23.5 3.1
15 Gomala N4°190 E14°500 1.46 23.44 4.93 2.49 24.0 3.3
16 Kentzou N4°100 E15°010 1.81 31.79 4.94 2.63 24.4 3.1
17 Pangari N6°200 E11°360 1.81 31.79 5.14 3.47 23.1 2.8
18 Dodiri N6°210 E13°440 1.46 23.44 5.22 4.05 23.3 2.8
19 Kaladi N6°300 E14°030 1.46 23.44 5.23 4.05 23.6 2.7
20 Mayo N6°360 E12°100 1.81 31.79 5.29 4.04 23.3 2.8
Tolere
21 Febadi N6°350 E13°060 1.81 31.79 5.30 4.05 23.3 2.8
22 Lere N7°340 E13°330 1.77 30.77 5.37 4.11 24.1 2.7
23 Belel N7°020 E14°260 2.17 40.51 5.39 4.15 24.5 2.5
24 Gouna N8°310 E13°330 2.01 36.59 5.53 4.26 25.8 2.8
25 Wani N8°110 E13°380 1.46 23.44 5.57 4.26 25.8 2.8
Banda
26 Djalingo N9°260 E13°360 2.01 36.59 5.59 4.47 26.6 2.9
27 Pathere N8°400 E14°190 1.46 23.44 5.60 4.31 26.1 3.0
28 Yet N8°400 E14°190 0.36 7.31 5.60 4.31 26.1 3.0
29 Figuil N9°420 E13°550 2.01 36.59 5.64 4.47 26.6 2.9
30 Bridzar N9°540 E14°040 1.62 27.23 5.67 4.55 27.3 2.9
31 Zigague N11°400 E14°380 1.61 26.99 5.87 4.94 28.0 3.0
32 Dabanga N11°550 E14°380 1.46 23.44 5.89 4.94 28.0 3.0
33 Maltam N12°100 E14°490 1.97 35.57 5.96 5.10 27.4 3.0
2940 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949
several power options that can be used at each site, the
evaluation of the optimal options is absolutely necessary.
The economic aspect of the designed power option was
not included in the RFP in 2008.
The hourly AC-load demands calculated from the
hourly DC- and AC-loads provided for all BTS sites
(MTN-C, 2008) are shown in Table 1. The hourly load val-
ues were determined using an efficiency of 90% for AC/DC
converters connected to DC-loads and supplied by a 230 V,
50 Hz supply. The geographical coordinates of the telecom-
munications stations as provided by MTN-C are shown in
Table 2. The maximum power demand and the daily energy
demands associated with the daily load profiles for different
sites presented in Table 1 are included in Table 2. Annual
values of solar insolation on a horizontal plane, wind speed
at 50 m, air temperature at 10 m and equivalent number of
no sun or black days are included in Table 3 for all sites.
These data, for sites with known GPS coordinates were
obtained on a meteorological website maintained by
NASA (LaRC, 2008).
In Table 2, the number of no sun days varies from 2.5 at
Belel to 5.3 at Debunsha and the annual solar insolation
varies from 4.16 kW h/m2/d at Debunsha to 5.96 kW h/
m2/d at Maltam. These annual solar insolation values fall
within the solar insolation range 3–6 kW h/m2/d that has
been used in the deployment of photovoltaic systems in
most remote applications around the world (Elhadidy,
2002). Twenty sites are noted to have no sun days in the
range 2.9–5.3 and this apparently justifies 3 days of auton-
omy stipulated in the RFP. The wind speed measurements
at 50 m show that wind speeds vary from 2.75 m/s at Deb-
unsha to 5.10 m/s at Maltam. These wind speeds are too
low for electricity production since small wind turbines
start operating at a wind speed approximately 3–5 m/s
(Kaldellis, 2002). This implies that the power options to
be investigated include SDGS, SPVS and PVHS. PVHS
involves a combination of a PV generator and a DG to sat-
isfy power demand. The DG reduces the PV component,
while the PV system decreases the operating time of the
DG, reducing the running costs of the DG (Muselli et
al., 1999). The addition of battery storage reduces the
Fig. 1. AC-coupled parallel hybrid power system (Nipon, 2005).
number of start/stop cycles of diesel generators thus mini-
mising fuel consumption considerably (Elhadidy, 2002;
Elhadidy and Shaahid, 1999).
3. Sizing of solar hybrid systems
PVHS can be sized using HOMER software which
allows for the specification of load profiles, generator fuel
consumption curves, component sizes and costs. In spite
of the ease with which simulations can be conducted for
various combinations of sensitivity variables, the photovol-
taic generator module does not include options for the
input of the technical data of photovoltaic modules and
the PV array operating voltage. Similarly, an option for
the specification of the battery bank operating voltage is
not provided in HOMER (HOMER, 2008).
The method adopted for the sizing of power options for
remote telecommunication stations of MTN-C is based on
the AC-bus configuration that has used for the evaluation
of PVHS options for remote villages in Mekong countries
and Cameroon (Nipon, 2005; Nfah, 2007). The AC-bus
configuration with monitoring and remote control capabil-
ities is shown in Fig. 1 (Nipon, 2005).
In Fig. 1, the PV array converts variable solar radiation
into a DC voltage that is often optimised with a maximum
power point tracking device. The optimised DC voltage is
converted to AC voltage by SB and supplied to AC loads
through an AC-bus. A SI connected to the AC-bus and
BB charges the BB in the case of excess power from PV
or DG generators. The SI also converts stored energy in
the battery to AC-power when the BB is sufficiently
charged and there is insufficient energy generation by PV
generators or it is too expensive to run the DG.
The average monthly energy production of each PV
module in the PV array can be computed using the rela-
tionship (Nfah, 2007; Nfah et al., 2007, 2010; Mbaka et
al., 2010).
Z 18
W ðkÞ ¼ F c F o dðkÞ I pv ðtÞ  V pv ðtÞdt ð1Þ
t¼6
 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949 2941

The maximum number of desired annual generator 4. Economic analysis

hours in PVHS can be determined with the relation:
The economic analysis for PVHS conducted here is
ð1  rfmin Þ X
12
based on the Net Present Value Technique, presented in
hhmax ¼ DðkÞ ð2Þ
q  P g k¼1 Mbaka et al. (2010). However, the expression for life cycle
cost of the PV system considered by Mbaka et al. (2010)
The PV array size required in PVHS options can be did not separately account for operation and maintenance
determined by solving the following inequality (Nfah et costs of the PV array, battery storage, PV string inverters/
al., 2010): charge controllers, and battery inverters. Furthermore the
X12  
 life-cycle cost expression did not include the present value
DðkÞ  N pvp N pvs gmppt gstri W ðkÞ  hh ð3Þ of replacement costs for PV string/charge controllers and
 q  Pg 
k¼1 battery inverters. Consequently, the modified life-cycle cost
expression is of the form:
The numerical solution of Eq. (3) is initialised with an
initial value N pvp1 computed with the relation (Nfah et LCC pv ¼ C o þ OM pv þ OM stri þ OM inv þ OM bs þ Rbs
al., 2007, 2010): þ Rinv þ Rstri þ C i ð12Þ
  
DðkÞ=gstri gmppt
N pvp1 ¼ max int ð4Þ The initial capital investment cost for AC-coupled
N pvs W ðkÞ PVHS is the sum of the investment cost for PV array, string
The final value of Npvp is then used to compute the PV inverters, storage batteries, DC/AC bi-direction inverter
array power and the annual operational time of the diesel and miscellaneous cost (electric cables, PV array support
generator using the relations (Nfah et al., 2007, 2010; and PV field fence).
Mbaka et al., 2010): C o ¼ C pv þ C stri þ C bs þ C inv þ C m ð13Þ
P pv ¼ N pvp N pvs P mp ð5Þ The miscellaneous and installation costs are evaluated
"  # with relations (Mbaka et al., 2010).
X12 
DðkÞ  N pvp N pvs gmppt gstri W ðkÞ
h ¼ int   ð6Þ
 q  Pg  C m ¼ m1 C pv ð14Þ
k¼1
C i ¼ m2 C o ð15Þ
The renewable energy fraction using expression (Mbaka
et al., 2010; Nfah et al., 2010): The present value of annual operation and maintenance
P costs of each PV system component (PV array, PV string
N pvp N pvs 12
k¼1 W ðkÞ inverter/charge controller, battery storage) is computed
RF ¼ P12 ð7Þ
N pvp N pvs k¼1 W ðkÞ þ q  P g  h with the relation (Mbaka et al., 2010):

The percentage annual excess energy generated in the OM c ¼ mc C o  RCF ðx; y; N Þ ð16Þ
selected power option is computed with the expression: with the recurring cost factor RCF(x, y, N) defined as:
ED X
N j1
EE ¼  100% ð8Þ ð1 þ xÞ
D RCF ðx; y; N Þ ¼ ð17Þ
j¼1 ð1 þ yÞj
The battery bank capacity for desired days of autonomy
is computed using expression the relation (Nfah et al., The present value of replacement costs of each PV sys-
2007, 2010; Nfah and Ngundam, 2008; Mbaka etal., 2010): tem component is determined with the relation (Mbaka
et al., 2010):
C bank ¼ N bp N bs C batt ð9Þ
Xv
ð1 þ xÞ nj1
The minimum number of parallel connected battery Rc ¼ C c nj ð18Þ
strings in the battery bank and the number of series con- j¼1 ð1 þ yÞ

nected battery cells per battery string are computed with with v computed with the expression (Mbaka et al., 2010):
the following relations (Nfah et al., 2007, 2010; Nfah and  
Ngundam, 2008; Mbaka et al., 2010): N n
v ¼ int ð19Þ
" P P12 # n
12
a k¼1 DðkÞ= k¼1 dðkÞ
N bp ¼ int ð10Þ In previous studies conducted by Mbaka et al. (2010) a sin-
N bs C batt DODgdch ginv
gle generator was considered in the SDGS option for a low
and energy demand of 7.08 kW h/d. In this evaluation two DGs
are considered in the SDGS option to reduce generator
V ob operational hours per day and one DG in the PVHS op-
N bs ¼ ð11Þ
V nb tion. Thus two generators are used in the calculation of
2942 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

Table 4
BTS load
Diesel generator cost and fuel consumption rates for selected load factors. PV module power
1

Typical load profile/PV module power output (p.u)

q 25% 50% 75%
Pg (kW) Cg (€/kW) F(q) (l/h)
2.5 375 0.6 0.9 1.3
0.8
5.0 265 1.0 1.4 1.9
7.5 175 1.4 1.9 2.5
10.0 158 1.7 2.3 3.1
12.5 149 2.1 2.9 3.6
0.6
15.0 142 2.4 2.6 4.2
17.5 136 2.6 3.8 4.8
20.0 129 2.9 4.4 5.5
22.5 124 3.2 4.9 6.2 0.4
25.0 122 3.5 5.5 6.7

0.2
Table 5
Data for sizing of power options and economic analysis.
Description Value
PV system lifetime 25 yrs 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Inflation rate 5%
Hour
Discount rate 6%
PV string inverter nominal input voltage 200VDC Fig. 2. Superimposed typical MTN-C BTS load profile and annual power
PV string inverter cost 0.85 €/Wp output of selected PV module.
PV string inverter lifetime 12 yrs
Bi-direction battery inverter cost 1.3 €/W
Bi-direction battery inverter lifetime 12 yrs Xw
ð1 þ zÞ rj1
Battery storage cost 340 €/kW h Q ¼ p1 P rj ð22Þ
OPzV battery lifetime 12 yrs j¼1 ð1 þ yÞ
Diesel generator overhauling period 4 yrs
PV miscellaneous cost 3% The number of times the generator is overhauled can be
PV installation cost 10% computed as:
PV array O & M cost 1%  
PV string inverter O & M cost 1% N
Bi-direction inverter O & M cost 2%
w ¼ int ð23Þ
r
Battery storage O & M cost 5%
Generator overhauling cost 20% The present value of annual operation and maintenance
Generator O & M cost 5% costs are evaluated with the relation:
Depth of discharge 70%
Energy autonomy 2 days R ¼ p2 P  RCF ðz; y; N Þ ð24Þ
Battery bank voltage 48VDC
Grid extension costs 5000 €/km The present value of annual fuel cost is computed with
Operation and maintenance cost of grid line 125 €/km/yr the relation:
Average cost of grid power 0.1 €/kW h
S ¼ fAfc  RCF ðz; y; N Þ ð25Þ
The annual fuel consumption of the diesel generator for
life-cycle cost of the SDGS option and one generator in the selected power option is evaluated with the expression:
PVHS option. 
The life cycle cost of the DG based power option is eval- q ¼ 0:25 if RF ¼ 0
Afc ¼ F ðqÞh ð26Þ
uated with the relation (Mbaka et al., 2010): q ¼ 0:75 if RF > 0

LCC gen ¼ P þ Q þ R þ S ð20Þ The life-cycle cost of the PVHS and life-cycle cost of
energy are computed with the relations (Mbaka et al.,
The initial diesel generator costs in the selected power 2010).
option are calculated with the relation: LCC ¼ LCC pv þ LCC gen ð27Þ
 LCC
N g ¼ 1 if RF > 0 COE ¼ ð28Þ
P ¼ Cg P g N g ð21Þ P12
N g ¼ 2 if RF ¼ 0 N k¼1 DðkÞ

The net present cost of the PVHS excluding the cost for
The present value of generator overhauling costs can be grid supplied energy over the economic evaluation period is
computed as: determined as:
Table 6
Monthly and annual energy output of 150 Wp mono-crystalline module.
S. Name of site January February March April May June July August September October November December Ann
No.
Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Mpv Apv
(kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h)
1 Debunsha 15.2 15.8 15.4 14.4 13.5 11.7 10.6 13.0 12.3 13.2 14.5 16.0 165.6
2 Idenau 15.9 16.4 15.9 14.2 13.7 12.4 11.3 13.3 13.0 13.7 14.7 16.4 170.8
3 Missole 16.1 16.9 16.4 15.1 14.1 13.4 12.3 13.6 14.2 13.5 15.3 16.2 177.1
PK34
4 Ebombe 16.5 17.3 17.1 15.5 14.4 13.3 12.7 13.1 14.3 14.4 15.6 16.6 180.7

E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

5 Ngwei 16.5 17.3 17.1 15.5 14.4 13.3 12.7 13.1 14.3 14.4 15.6 16.6 180.7
6 Ekok 17.5 18.0 17.6 15.7 14.8 12.7 11.8 13.0 13.9 14.5 16.5 17.6 183.6
7 Mintom 16.8 17.4 17.1 16.5 15.3 14.1 13.3 14.1 15.2 15.2 14.8 15.9 185.9
8 Biakoa 16.6 17.8 17.9 16.4 15.1 14.3 13.3 13.7 14.5 15.1 16.3 16.9 188.0
9 Atok 17.2 17.5 17.6 16.8 15.3 13.7 13.1 14.2 15.2 15.3 15.9 16.5 188.2
10 Ondondo 17.1 18.2 17.7 16.4 15.0 14.2 13.6 13.8 14.3 15.4 16.5 17.2 189.4
11 Botatango 16.5 17.7 17.7 16.6 15.2 14.7 13.6 14.1 15.2 15.3 16.4 17.0 189.9
12 Borrongoue 18.3 18.3 18.2 17.3 15.7 15.2 13.7 14.6 15.4 16.3 17.0 17.8 197.9
13 Ndelele 18.4 18.3 18.2 17.0 16.0 15.5 14.1 14.4 15.4 16.2 17.4 17.4 198.4
14 Brigaya 18.7 18.6 18.3 17.7 16.1 15.6 13.8 14.4 15.5 16.7 17.7 18.0 201.1
15 Gomala 18.7 18.4 18.3 17.4 15.9 15.9 14.0 14.6 15.3 16.4 17.4 17.9 200.2
16 Kentzou 18.6 18.4 18.6 17.2 15.9 15.6 14.0 14.5 16.0 16.3 17.3 17.7 200.0
17 Pangari 19.7 20.5 19.9 18.9 16.2 15.7 13.2 14.5 16.4 17.1 19.7 19.7 211.3
18 Dodiri 19.9 20.5 20.3 18.7 17.1 16.3 14.2 15.5 15.8 17.3 19.3 19.4 214.3
19 Kaladi 19.9 20.5 20.4 18.7 17.2 16.1 14.1 15.4 16.1 17.2 19.5 19.5 214.3
20 Mayo Tolere 20.1 20.3 20.2 19.5 16.9 16.7 14.5 15.7 16.6 17.7 20.1 19.6 217.8
21 Febadi 20.2 20.3 20.7 19.3 17.3 16.9 14.2 15.2 16.2 18.1 19.8 19.8 218.0
22 Lere 20.1 20.7 20.8 19.6 17.6 17.0 14.2 15.1 16.4 18.6 20.2 19.9 220.3
23 Belel 20.3 21.0 20.6 19.6 17.8 16.5 15.2 15.6 16.0 18.0 20.1 19.7 220.4
24 Gouna 19.3 19.9 21.0 20.6 18.7 18.1 15.4 15.9 17.2 19.4 20.6 19.3 225.2
25 Wani Banda 19.6 20.2 21.1 21.0 18.9 18.0 15.4 16.1 17.2 19.3 20.7 19.6 227.0
26 Djalingo 18.8 19.6 21.0 21.0 19.2 18.5 16.3 15.8 17.2 19.8 20.7 19.2 227.1
27 Pathere 19.6 20.2 20.9 21.3 19.4 18.4 15.6 15.9 16.8 19.4 20.5 19.6 227.7
28 Yet 19.6 20.2 20.9 21.3 19.4 18.4 15.6 15.9 16.8 19.4 20.5 19.6 227.7
29 Figuil 19.0 19.9 21.0 21.3 19.6 18.7 16.2 16.0 17.4 20.1 20.8 19.3 229.3
30 Bridzar 19.1 20.0 21.0 21.1 19.7 18.7 16.5 16.1 17.6 20.1 20.6 19.3 229.8
31 Zigague 20.0 21.1 21.9 22.1 21.1 20.1 16.9 16.7 18.4 20.7 20.3 19.0 238.4
32 Dabanga 20.0 21.2 22.0 22.0 21.2 20.2 17.0 17.0 18.6 20.7 20.3 19.0 239.3
33 Maltam 20.2 21.4 22.2 22.3 21.7 20.8 17.7 17.5 19.0 21.0 20.2 19.0 243.0

2943
 2944
Table 7
Monthly and annual energy demand for all sites.
S. No. Name of site January February March April May June July August September October November December Ann
MD MD MD MD MD MD MD MD MD MD MD MD D
(kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h) (kW h)
1 Debunsha 985.4 890.1 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 11602.7
2 Idenau 1255.8 1134.2 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 14785.5
3 Missole 1314.5 1187.2 1314.5 1272.1 1314.5 1272.1 1314.5 1314.5 1272.1 1314.5 1272.1 1314.5 15476.6
PK34
4 Ebombe 1541.0 1391.8 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 18143.5
5 Ngwei 550.6 497.3 550.6 532.9 550.6 532.9 550.6 550.6 532.9 550.6 532.9 550.6 6483.0

E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

6 Ekok 985.4 890.1 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 11602.7
7 Mintom 761.8 688.1 761.8 737.3 761.8 737.3 761.8 761.8 737.3 761.8 737.3 761.8 8969.9
8 Biakoa 1431.0 1292.5 1431.0 1384.9 1431.0 1384.9 1431.0 1431.0 1384.9 1431.0 1384.9 1431.0 16849.0
9 Atok 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
10 Ondondo 1541.0 1391.8 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 1491.3 1541.0 18143.5
11 Botatango 1838.6 1660.6 1838.6 1779.3 1838.6 1779.3 1838.6 1838.6 1779.3 1838.6 1779.3 1838.6 21647.5
12 Borrongoue 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
13 Ndelele 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
14 Brigaya 844.1 762.4 844.1 816.9 844.1 816.9 844.1 844.1 816.9 844.1 816.9 844.1 9938.3
15 Gomala 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
16 Kentzou 985.4 890.1 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 11602.7
17 Pangari 985.4 890.1 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 11602.7
18 Dodiri 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
19 Kaladi 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
20 Mayo Tolere 985.4 890.1 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 11602.7
21 Febadi 985.4 890.1 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 985.4 953.7 985.4 953.7 985.4 11602.7
22 Lere 954.0 861.7 954.0 923.3 954.0 923.3 954.0 954.0 923.3 954.0 923.3 954.0 11232.9
23 Belel 1255.8 1134.2 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 1215.3 1255.8 14785.5
24 Gouna 1134.2 1024.5 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 13354.7
25 Wani Banda 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
26 Djalingo 1134.2 1024.5 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 13354.7
27 Pathere 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
28 Yet 226.6 204.6 226.6 219.3 226.6 219.3 226.6 226.6 219.3 226.6 219.3 226.6 2667.5
29 Figuil 1134.2 1024.5 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 1097.7 1134.2 13354.7
30 Bridzar 844.1 762.4 844.1 816.9 844.1 816.9 844.1 844.1 816.9 844.1 816.9 844.1 9938.3
31 Zigague 836.6 755.7 836.6 809.7 836.6 809.7 836.6 836.6 809.7 836.6 809.7 836.6 9850.7
32 Dabanga 726.7 656.4 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 726.7 703.3 726.7 703.3 726.7 8556.2
33 Maltam 1102.8 996.1 1102.8 1067.3 1102.8 1067.3 1102.8 1102.8 1067.3 1102.8 1067.3 1102.8 12984.9
Table 8
Optimal power options computed with the solar energy output of mono-crystalline PV modules.
S. Name of DD Cp (€/ f (€/ z hh Pmp Ppv Ps Cbank Pg h D Eg Epv E RF COE (€/ d EE
No. site (kW h/d) Wp) l) (p.u) (h) (W) (W) (W) (kW h) (kW) (h) (kW h/ (kW h/ (kW h/ (kW h/ (p.u) kW h) (km) (%)
yr) yr) yr) yr)
1 Debunsha 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 160 150 10,800 9900 96 5 310 11602.7 1162.8 10623.1 11785.9 0.901 0.927 32.0 1.58
2 Idenau 40.51 7.5 1.12 0.10 100 150 14,400 13,200 144 5 227 14785.5 851.4 14609.8 15461.2 0.945 0.957 42.2 4.57
3 Missole 42.40 7.5 1.12 0.10 100 150 14,400 13,200 144 5 234 15476.6 877.6 15145.4 16023.0 0.945 0.916 42.1 3.53
PK34
4 Ebombe 49.71 7.5 1.12 0.10 120 150 16,800 15,400 192 5 255 18143.5 956.5 18032.8 18989.3 0.950 0.956 51.8 4.66
5 Ngwei 17.76 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 6000 5500 48 5 94 6483.0 352.7 6440.4 6793.1 0.948 0.899 17.3 4.78

E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

6 Ekok 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 200 150 9600 8800 96 5 356 11602.7 1335.2 10469.0 11804.2 0.887 0.891 30.7 1.74
7 Mintom 24.58 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 8400 7700 96 5 53 8969.9 198.9 9274.8 9473.7 0.979 0.981 26.3 5.62
8 Biakoa 46.16 7.5 1.12 0.10 160 150 14,400 13,200 192 5 310 16849.0 1162.6 16078.1 17240.7 0.933 0.973 49.0 2.32
9 Atok 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 7200 6600 96 5 177 8556.2 664.0 8049.0 8713.0 0.924 1.009 25.9 1.83
10 Ondondo 49.71 7.5 1.12 0.10 160 150 15,600 14,300 192 5 311 18143.5 1166.4 17547.4 18713.8 0.938 0.935 50.5 3.14
11 Botatango 59.31 7.5 1.12 0.10 100 150 19,200 17,600 240 5 236 21647.5 885.2 21654.2 22539.4 0.961 0.942 60.8 4.12
12 Borrongoue 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 116 8556.2 435.1 8465.7 8900.8 0.951 0.986 25.3 4.03
13 Ndelele 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 109 8556.2 408.8 8485.2 8894.0 0.954 0.984 25.2 3.95
14 Brigaya 27.23 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 8400 7700 96 5 115 9938.3 431.4 10036.1 10467.5 0.959 0.905 26.7 5.32
15 Gomala 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 104 8556.2 390.2 8564.1 8954.3 0.956 0.982 25.1 4.65
16 Kentzou 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 60 150 9600 8800 96 5 159 11602.7 596.4 11403.1 11999.5 0.950 0.836 28.6 3.42
17 Pangari 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 60 150 9600 8800 96 5 149 11602.7 558.9 12048.5 12607.4 0.956 0.834 28.5 8.66
18 Dodiri 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 59 8556.2 221.4 9165.8 9387.2 0.976 0.965 24.7 9.71
19 Kaladi 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 63 8556.2 236.4 9167.7 9404.1 0.975 0.966 24.7 9.91
20 Mayo 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 9600 8800 96 5 78 11602.7 292.7 12418.5 12711.2 0.977 0.814 27.7 9.55
Tolere
21 Febadi 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 100 150 8400 7700 96 5 260 11602.7 975.1 10877.0 11852.1 0.918 0.816 27.8 2.15
22 Lere 30.78 7.5 1.12 0.10 80 150 8400 7700 96 5 197 11232.9 739.0 10990.8 11729.8 0.937 0.825 27.2 4.42
23 Belel 40.51 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 12,000 11,000 144 5 117 14785.5 438.9 15711.2 16150.1 0.973 0.857 37.4 9.23
24 Gouna 36.59 7.5 1.12 0.10 80 150 9600 8800 144 5 229 13354.7 859.0 12844.4 13703.4 0.937 0.892 35.3 2.61
25 Wani 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 6000 5500 96 5 172 8556.2 645.2 8092.2 8737.4 0.926 0.942 24.0 2.12
Banda
26 Djalingo 36.59 7.5 1.12 0.10 60 150 9600 8800 144 5 202 13354.7 757.8 12949.5 13707.3 0.945 0.885 35.0 2.64
27 Pathere 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 6000 5500 96 5 167 8556.2 626.4 8114.3 8740.7 0.928 0.940 24.0 2.16
28 Yet 7.31 7.5 1.12 0.10 0 150 2400 2200 48 2.5 3 2667.5 5.7 3246.1 3251.8 0.998 1.316 10.7 21.90
29 Figuil 36.59 7.5 1.12 0.10 60 150 9600 8800 144 5 181 13354.7 678.9 13077.4 13756.3 0.951 0.880 34.8 3.01
30 Bridzar 27.23 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 115 9938.3 431.5 9830.5 10262.0 0.958 0.849 24.9 3.26
31 Zigague 26.99 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 78 9850.7 292.7 10195.2 10487.9 0.972 0.844 24.5 6.47
32 Dabanga 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 6000 5500 96 5 95 8556.2 356.4 8528.5 8884.9 0.960 0.913 23.2 3.84
33 Maltam 35.58 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 9600 8800 144 5 61 12984.9 228.8 13856.8 14085.6 0.984 0.875 33.6 8.48

2945
2946 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949
X
12
LCC f ¼ LCC  C grid  RCF ðx; y; N Þ DðkÞ ð29Þ
k¼1
The net present cost per km for grid extension, opera-
tion and maintenance over the economic period can be
evaluated as:
LCC grid ¼ C cap þ C com  RCF ðx; y; N Þ ð30Þ
The breakeven grid extension distance, the distance
from the grid which makes the net present cost of extending
the grid equal to the net present cost of the PVHS, SPVS or
SDGS can be calculated as:
LCC f
d¼ ð31Þ
LCC grid
5. Data for evaluation of optimal PVHS
The daily energy demands of MTN-C BTS sites in the
range 7.31–59.31 kW h/d are comparable to those that
have been considered in the evaluation of off-grid power
options for remote villages in Mekong countries (Nipon,
2005), Cameroon (Mbaka et al., 2010), Brazil (Valente
and Almeida, 1998), India (Katti and Khedkar, 2007; Rana
et al., 1998) and Senegal (Zaida, 2006). It is thus expected
that recently proposed PVHS sizing method based on
desired annual operational times of a diesel generator
(Nfah et al., 2010) and economic analysis proposed by
Mbaka et al. (2010), will produce acceptable results for
BTS sites of MTN-C.
In order to evaluate PVHS with the sizing method used
in previous studies (Nfah, 2007; Nfah et al., 2007, 2010;
Mbaka et al., 2010), the monthly output of the selected
photovoltaic module needs to be calculated. The parame-
ters used in this study are shown in Table 3. The selected
PV module is of the mono-crystalline type, has a rated
power of 150Wp which satisfies the minimum power rating
stated in RFP of MTN-C (2008).
In order to compute the energy output of solar modules,
hourly solar radiation data (8760 data points) for all sites
was obtained using the solar resource module of HOMER
(HOMER, 2008) and the geographical coordinates of the
various sites. This data is converted into 24-hourly data
for 365 days and finally to 24-h average monthly radiation
data. Similarly, the 3-h monthly temperature data for the
various sites obtained on a website maintained NASA
(LaRC, 2008) was used to determine the 24-hourly temper-
ature data. These data are computed using numerical inter-
polation implemented with a MATLAB program. The 24-h
monthly solar radiation and temperature data created for
the sites are not provided due to limited space.
In previous studies, one diesel generator was selected in
SDGS and PVHS options for low energy demands in the
range 0.2–7.08 kW h/d determined for grid-customers with
power subscriptions in the range 2.2–4.4 kW (Nfah, 2007;
Nfah et al., 2007; Mbaka et al., 2010). In this study, a diesel
generator rating of 2.5 kW is selected for daily energy
demands less than 10 kW h/d, while a diesel generator rat-
ing of 5 kW is retained for energy demands in range 10–
59.31 kW h/d, in PVHS while two generators are consid-
ered in SDGS.
In economic analysis, a PV module cost of 7.5 €/Wp, a
remote diesel cost of 1.12 €/l, 40% higher the urban price
of diesel and a general inflation rate of 5% which have been
used in Mbaka et al. (2010) are retained. A fuel escalation
rate of 10%, slightly higher than 9% used in (Kaldellis and
Kavadias, 2007), is selected to account for variations in fuel
cost during the project lifetime of 25 years. The cost of bat-
tery storage is deduced from the cost of 2 V Hoppecke 12
OPzS 1500Ah battery capital and replacement cost used
in (Nfah et al., 2008; Nfah and Ngundam, 2009) as 340 €
by kW h. A maximum depth of discharge of 70% is selected
as in previous studies (Nfah et al., 2008; Nfah and Ngun-
dam, 2009; Mbaka et al., 2010) instead of 80%, providing
a security margin of 14.3% which is higher than 10% stated
in the RFP. In accordance with the results obtained by
Muselli et al. (1999), 2 days of autonomy were retained
as in previous studies. Bi-direction inverter costs are esti-
mated from the cost of HPC 6000-48 inverter-charger with
a continuous power output of 5 kW used in Mbaka et al.
(2010) at 1.3 €/W. In this study, the Sunny Boy 1100E
PV string inverter with nominal input voltage of 200
VDC, maximum input power of 1500 Wp and nominal
power output of 1.1 kW is selected for AC-coupling of
PV arrays. The cost of PV string inverter is assumed to
be 0.85 €/W, 18% higher than the cost that has been used
in the evaluation of PVHS for remote villages in Mekong
countries (Nipon, 2005). The costs of diesel generators con-
sidered in this analysis are estimated using the 5 kW diesel
generator cost of 1325 € (Mbaka et al., 2010) and the gen-
erator cost curve presented in Kolhe et al. (2002). The
derived generator costs are shown in Table 4. The fuel con-
sumptions for load factors of 25%, 50% and 75% deduced
for the fuel consumption curve presented in Kolhe et al.
(2002) are included in Table 4.
For the determination of breakeven grid distances at
which SGDS, SPVS and PVHS options are more econom-
ical than grid extension, the costs of grid extension, opera-
tion, and maintenance are assumed to be 5000 €/km and
125 €/km/yr since these values have been used in previous
studies (Nfah et al., 2008; Nfah and Ngundam, 2009;
Mbaka et al., 2010). The current average cost of 0.1 €/
kW h for grid electricity in Cameroon is also assumed.
The data for the computation of the cost of energy and
breakeven grid distances for feasible power options for
MTN-C BTS sites is summarised in Table 5.
6. Results
The typical load profile for MTN-C telecommunication
stations and typical annual power output of selected PV
module are shown in Fig. 2. The typical load profile is
determined from Table 1 as the average of the ratios of
hourly AC-loads to peak power demand per site and the
Table 9
Optimal power options computed with the solar energy output of mono-crystalline PV modules for 2 days autonomy and two parallel battery stings.
S. Name of DD Cp (€/ f (€/ z hh Pmp Ppv Ps Cbank Pg h D Eg Epv E RF COE (€/ d EE
No. site (kW h/d) Wp) l) (p.u) (h) (W) (W) (W) (kW h) (kW) (h) (kW h/ (kW h/ (kW h/yr) (kW h/ (p.u) kW h) (km) (%)
yr) yr) yr)
1 Debunsha 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 160 150 10,800 9900 96 5 310 11602.7 1162.8 10623.1 11785.9 0.901 0.927 32.0 1.58

E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949

5 Ngwei 17.76 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 6000 5500 48 5 94 6483.0 352.7 6440.4 6793.1 0.948 0.899 17.3 4.78
6 Ekok 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 200 150 9600 8800 96 5 356 11602.7 1335.2 10469.0 11804.2 0.887 0.891 30.7 1.74
7 Mintom 24.58 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 8400 7700 96 5 53 8969.9 198.9 9274.8 9473.7 0.979 0.981 26.3 5.62
9 Atok 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 7200 6600 96 5 177 8556.2 664.0 8049.0 8713.0 0.924 1.009 25.9 1.83
12 Borrongoue 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 116 8556.2 435.1 8465.7 8900.8 0.951 0.986 25.3 4.03
13 Ndelele 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 109 8556.2 408.8 8485.2 8894.0 0.954 0.984 25.2 3.95
14 Brigaya 27.23 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 8400 7700 96 5 115 9938.3 431.4 10036.1 10467.5 0.959 0.905 26.7 5.32
15 Gomala 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 104 8556.2 390.2 8564.1 8954.3 0.956 0.982 25.1 4.65
16 Kentzou 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 60 150 9600 8800 96 5 159 11602.7 596.4 11403.1 11999.5 0.950 0.836 28.6 3.42
17 Pangari 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 60 150 9600 8800 96 5 149 11602.7 558.9 12048.5 12607.4 0.956 0.834 28.5 8.66
18 Dodiri 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 59 8556.2 221.4 9165.8 9387.2 0.976 0.965 24.7 9.71
19 Kaladi 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 63 8556.2 236.4 9167.7 9404.1 0.975 0.966 24.7 9.91
20 Mayo 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 9600 8800 96 5 78 11602.7 292.7 12418.5 12711.2 0.977 0.814 27.7 9.55
Tolere
21 Febadi 31.79 7.5 1.12 0.10 100 150 8400 7700 96 5 260 11602.7 975.1 10877.0 11852.1 0.918 0.816 27.8 2.15
22 Lere 30.78 7.5 1.12 0.10 80 150 8400 7700 96 5 197 11232.9 739.0 10990.8 11729.8 0.937 0.825 27.2 4.42
25 Wani 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 6000 5500 96 5 172 8556.2 645.2 8092.2 8737.4 0.926 0.942 24.0 2.12
Banda
27 Pathere 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 40 150 6000 5500 96 5 167 8556.2 626.4 8114.3 8740.7 0.928 0.940 24.0 2.16
28 Yet 7.31 7.5 1.12 0.10 0 150 2400 2200 48 2.5 3 2667.5 5.7 3246.1 3251.8 0.998 1.316 10.7 21.90
30 Bridzar 27.23 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 115 9938.3 431.5 9830.5 10262.0 0.958 0.849 24.9 3.26
31 Zigague 26.99 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 7200 6600 96 5 78 9850.7 292.7 10195.2 10487.9 0.972 0.844 24.5 6.47
32 Dabanga 23.44 7.5 1.12 0.10 20 150 6000 5500 96 5 95 8556.2 356.4 8528.5 8884.9 0.960 0.913 23.2 3.84

2947
2948 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949
typical annual power output of the selected PV module is
calculated as the average of the ratios of the hourly power
output of the solar module per site to the rated output of
the solar module. The power output of the solar module
is computed using the annual average hourly solar radia-
tion, annual average temperature per site and module
parameters presented in Table 3. It is noted from Fig. 2
that the BTS load profile has a daytime peak from 10:00
to 19:00. It is also observed in Fig. 2 that the power output
of the selected is higher than 40% of the rated output
between 9:00 and 14:00. Thus the power generated by the
PV array during this period satisfies the peak power
demand while excess power is stored in the battery for
use when the power output of the PV module drops below
40%. Insufficient stored energy results in the start-up of the
DG.
However; 24-hourly monthly solar radiation and tem-
perature values were used to compute the monthly energy
output of solar modules. The results obtained for all loca-
tions using the technical data of a 150 Wp mono-crystalline
solar module are shown in Table 6. Monthly energy
demands derived from the average daily energy consump-
tions of the BTS sites are shown in Table 7. The energy
demands are computed by multiplying the daily energy
consumption by the number of days per month in a typical
year with 365 days.
The optimal power options evaluated using monthly
energy demands and monthly energy outputs of the
selected PV at all BTS sites are presented in Table 8.
It is noted in Table 8, that optimal PVHS are found for
all sites irrespective of the number of no sun days. The
annual operational times of the diesel generator are in
range 3–356 h/year with renewable energy fractions in the
range 0.89–1.00. The cost of energy and breakeven dis-
tances evaluated are found to be in the ranges 0.81–
1.32 €/kW h and 10.75–60.76 km respectively. The PV
array sizes evaluated for PVHS in Table 8 are in the range
2.4–19.2 kWp corresponding to daily energy demands in
the range 7.31–59.31 kW h/d. The excess energy generated
is in the range 1.58–21.90%.
The PVHS that have at most two parallel battery
strings, for 2 days of autonomy and a maximum depth of
discharge of 70% are shown in Table 9. It is observed in
Table 9, that the selected PV array sizes are in the range
2.4–10.8 kWp and that the generator operates for 3–
356 h/year resulting in renewable fractions in the range
0.89–1.00. The energy costs and breakeven grid distances
are seen to be in the ranges 0.81–1.32 €/kW h and 10.75–
32.00 km respectively for energy demands in the range
7.31–31.79 kW h/d. The excess energy generated is in the
range 1.58–21.90%. The sites for which these PVHS are
evaluated have no sun days in the range 2.7–5.3. Conse-
quently, 3 days of autonomy stated in the RFP are not nec-
essary since a small number of annual generator
operational times were computed for optimal PVHS.
The annual operational times of the diesel generator in
optimal PVHS based on 150 Wp mono-crystalline solar
modules are lower the target of 500–1000 h specified in
the RFP launched by MTN-C in 2008. The findings of this
study show that PVHS can be implemented at 22 sites, if
the mono-crystalline PV module cost is 7.5 €/Wp, the
remote price of diesel is 1.12 €/l, the general inflation rate
is 5%, the discount is 6% and the fuel escalation rate is 10%.
7. Conclusion
PVHS have been evaluated for 33 sites, using the techni-
cal data of a 150 Wp mono-crystalline module, 2 days of
autonomy against three days stated in the RFP of MTN-
C. Hourly solar radiation data was obtained using the solar
resource module of HOMER while 3-hourly monthly air
temperature data was obtained from a meteorological web-
site maintained by NASA. The data was obtained using the
GPS coordinates that were provided by MTN-C. The opti-
mal PVHS obtained showed that solar hybrid systems could
be used at all sites if the number of parallel connected battery
strings is unlimited. The annual operational times of selected
diesel generators were found to be in the range 3–356 h/year
with renewable energy fractions in the range 0.89–1.00.
The sizes of the PV arrays obtained with the mono-crys-
talline module were found to be in the range 2.4–19.2 kWp
corresponding to daily energy demands in the range 7.31–
59.31 kW h/d. However, only 22 sites required at most two
parallel battery strings in a battery bank with 48VDC oper-
ating system voltage as stipulated in the RFP of MTN-C.
Considering that a large amount of data and several equa-
tions are manipulated during the evaluation of optimal
power options, MTN-C is advised to remove the sizing of
solar hybrid systems from future RFPs.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to MTN-C for the providing
site specific load data and geographical coordinates that
enabled the authors to test a MATLAB code that has been
developed for PVHS sizing and economic analysis.
References
Chinje, N.B., 2008. The Economic Impact of MTN’s Involvement in
Cameroon. Master’s Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town,
South Africa, 97p.
Elhadidy, M.A., 2002. Performance evaluation of hybrid (wind/solar/
diesel) Power Systems. Renewable Energy 18, 401–413.
Elhadidy, M.A., Shaahid, S.M., 1999. Optimal sizing of battery storage
for hybrid (wind + diesel) power systems. Renewable Energy 18, 77–
86.
HOMER, 2008. NREL. <http://www.nrel.gov/homer/>.
Kaldellis, J.K., 2002. Optimum autonomous wind-power system sizing for
remote consumers, using long-term wind speed data. Applied Energy
30, 267–280.
Kaldellis, J.K., Kavadias, K.A., 2007. Cost–benefit analysis of remote
hybrid wind–diesel power stations: case study Aegean Sea islands.
Energy Policy 35 (3), 1525–1538.
Katti, P.K., Khedkar, M.K., 2007. Alternative energy facilities based on
site matching and generation unit sizing for remote area power supply.
Renewable Energy 32 (8), 1346–1362.
 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Solar Energy 86 (2012) 2935–2949
Kolhe, M., Kolhe, S., Joshi, J.C., 2002. Economics of stand-alone solar
and photovoltaic system in comparison with diesel powered system for
India. Energy Economics 24, 155–165.
Langley Research Centre (LaRC), 2008. Surface Meteorology and Solar
Energy. Release 5.1, NASA. <http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/
>.
Mbaka, N.E., Mucho, N.J., Godpromesse, K., 2010. Economic evaluation
of small-scale photovoltaic hybrid systems for mini-grid applications in
Far North Cameroon. Renewable Energy 35 (10), 2391–2398.
MTN-C, 2008. Tender for the Supply, Installation and Commissioning of
Solar Hybrid Systems. RFP No: CA/NWG/RFP034/08, Douala,
Cameroon.
Muselli, M., Norton, G., Louche, A., 1999. Design of hybrid-photovoltaic
power generator, with optimisation of energy management. Solar
Energy 65 (3), 143–157.
Nfah, E.M., 2007. Design of a Low Voltage Mini-Grid Based on
Renewable Energy Plants: Load Management and Generation Sched-
uling. PhD Thesis, University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon.
Nfah, E.M., Ngundam, J.M., 2008. Modelling of wind/diesel/battery
hybrid power systems for far North Cameroon. Energy Conversion
Management 49 (6), 1295–1301.
Nfah, E.M., Ngundam, J.M., 2009. Feasibility of pico-hydro and
photovoltaic hybrid power systems for remote villages in Cameroon.
Renewable Energy 34 (6), 1445–1450.
2949
Nfah, E.M., Ngundam, J.M., Tchinda, R., 2007. Modelling of PV hybrid
power systems for far North Cameroon. Renewable Energy 32 (5),
834–844.
Nfah, E.M., Ngundam, J.M., Vandenbergh, M., Schmid, J., 2008.
Simulation of off-grid generation options for remote villages in
Cameroon. Renewable Energy 33 (5), 1064–1072.
Nfah, E.M., Jeanmart, H., Heteu, T.P.M., 2010. Sizing of photovoltaic
hybrid power for remote villages. In: Proc. 3rd IASTED African Conf.
Power and Energy Systems (AfricaPES 2010), September 6–8, Gabo-
rone, Botswana, 684–063, 61–67.
Nipon, K., 2005. Photovoltaic Hybrid Systems for Rural Electrification in
the Mekong Countries. PhD Thesis, University of Kassel, Germany.
Rana, S., Chandra, R., Singh, S.P., Sodha, M.S., 1998. Optimal mix of
renewable energy resources to meet the electrical energy demand in
villages of Madhya Pradesh. Energy Conversion and Management 39
(3–4), 203–216.
Valente, L.C.G., Almeida, S.C.A.D., 1998. Economic analysis of diesel/
photovoltaic hybrid system for decentralised power generation in
Northern Brazil. Energy 23 (4), 317–323.
Xiaobing, L., 2010. MTN-C goes green with solar-powered BTS. ZTE
Technologies 12 (5), 22–23.
Zaida, C., 2006. Modèle d’électrification rurale pour localités de moins de
500 habitants au Sénégal. <http://www.peracod.sn>.