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LTE:
Der Mobilfunk der Zukunft
Abstract In the last years the tendency to have higher data rates in cellular mo-
bile phone networks, has been growing very rapidly. LTE (Long Term Evolution)
is the current standard, which provides very high data rates having Orthogonal
Frequency Multiplexing (OFDM) as a key feature. In this work rst is the ques-
tion why OFDM is neccessary for LTE downlink is answered and then topics like
OFDM receiver and transmitter structures and OFDM parameter dimensioning
are introduced. In the second part the physical layer in the downlink is analyzed.
Signal structure in the time domain, resource management, signal generation chain
and Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) technique are topics of the second
part.
1 Introduction
Digital cellular communications beginning with GSM called as 2nd generation were serving
only speech communication at the very early versions. Adding GPRS and EDGE as data
packet services gaining higher spectral eciency were the rst steps to make cellular networks
capable of transporting data packets. If we look at the development of the later generations like
UMTS (3G) or extensions like EGDE, EGPRS, EGPRS2 (extension of EDGE with 16QAM
instead of 8PSK and Turbo encoder), HSDPA and HSUPA, we will observe that the main
trend is to achieve higher data rates. LTE (Long Term Evolution) is the current element in the
development chain of digital cellular communication systems with following key design targets:
• Signicantly higher peak data rates than older standards (e.g. 100 Mbps in 20 MHz
bandwidth Downlink and 50 Mbps in 20 MHz bandwidth Uplink)
2 Shahram Zarei
• Scalable bandwidth for more spectrum exibility: 1.25, 1.6, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20 MHz
• MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output)
2 OFDM
One of the central goals of LTE is the signicantly higher peak data rate compared to the
older standards like GSM/EDGE or UMTS. For example in the downlink, employing MIMO
(Multiple-Input Multiple-Output), data rates of up to 100 Mbps are reachable.
In a single carrier system, where the information is modulated on a single carrier, the data sym-
bols will have very short duration compared to the delay caused by the multipath propagation,
which causes ISI (intersymbol interference).
This eect can be seen in Fig. 1.
OFDM stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing and is a special form of multi-
carrier modulation, where the subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.
The OFDM signal in the time domain has the form:
N2 N −1
1 X 1
ak [n]ej2πnt + √ ak [n]ej2πnt , in the kth interval : kT < t < (k+1)T
X
SOFDM (t) = √
T n=0 T
(1)
n=N −N1
Note, that T is the duration of the modulation symbol and inverse of subcarrier spacing.
We can formulate orthogonality as following:
(2)
Z (k+1)T
e−j2π(fn −fν )t dt = 0, for n 6= ν
kT
4 Shahram Zarei
In the following discussion it is assumed, that the symbols are i.i.d. (independent and identically
distributed).
We assume, that the modulation pulse is a rectangular pulse, then we have:
(3)
q
1/T , for 0 ≤ t ≤ T
grect (t) =
0, otherwise
In Fig. 6 the PSD (power spectral density) of an OFDM signal can be seen.
The early versions of multicarrier modulators in the 60ies were using oscillator banks. Inverse
discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) is today the standard method for generating OFDM signals.
If the number of subcarriers is a power of two, then a fast Fourier transform (FFT) can be
used, which is a computationally ecient (fast) variant of the DFT.
6 Shahram Zarei
In the Fig. 7 the general structure of an OFDM transmitter based on the IDFT can be seen.
At the very rst step data symbols coming from earlier modules, e.g. channel encoder, are
parallelized using a seria-to-parallel converter. This is done because of the fact that IDFT
works blockwise. After serial-to-parallel converter, comes the mapping module, which maps
the incoming symbols on complex-valued samples. The mapping schemes in LTE downlink
are QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM. Then the samples are fed into the IDFT module to get the
time domain samples. An interesting point here is, that usually some carriers are left unused,
which is done by simply putting zeros into the IDFT at the corresponding subcarrier position.
Using less carriers has the advantage that the ltering of the OFDM shoulders is much easier.
After the IDFT there is a parallel-to-serial converter followed by the DAC (Digital-to-Analog
Converter), which converts the signal from digital to analog form. In order to lter out the
shoulders of the OFDM signal which produce out-of-band emissions, there is a spectral shaping
lter after the DAC. Finally an upconverter module consisting of a mixer and a local oscillator
mixes the generated signal from baseband into the RF domain.
In the OFDM receiver, after mixing down in the baseband or low IF, the analog signal is
rst matched ltered and then converted to digital samples with an ADC (Analog-to-Digital
Converter). A very important module here is the synchronization block, which synchronizes
the local oscillator frequency and clock frequency of the ADC using information gained from
the received samples. Channel estimation and frame synchronization are further tasks of this
module. As we see later, frequency synchronization is a must in OFDM systems, because of their
very high sensitivity against frequency shifts. The samples are then parallelized and processed
blockwise by the DFT module. Assuming a frequency-selective channel the equalization in the
receiver is simply done by multiplying the samples with the inverse of the corresponding channel
coecients. This is one of the most important attractions of OFDM. After equalization there
OFDM and Downlink Physical Layer Design 7
is a decision module, which is a hard desicion slicer here. In scenarios with channel coding,
a soft decision is often used, which works with LLRs (Log Likelihood Ratios). A demapping
module recovers the bits from symbol delivered by the decision module. The bits are nally
converted from parallel to serial form. Fig. 8 shows the structure of an OFDM receiver based
on the DFT.
As we already know, if the data symbols are long enough compared to the longest delay in the
channel, then the ISI would be small but it has not completely vanished. In order to eliminate
the ISI properly, one can use some kind of guard space between adjacant symbols. There are
several methods to do so, for example putting zeros in the guard space. However the most
popular way is to use a Cyclic Prex (CP), which means the last samples of the OFDM symbol
are copied and pasted into the front of it. The number of copied samples or the length of the
Guard Interval are important design parameters, which depend on the channel characteristics
and the largest delay existing in the channel. Fig. 9 shows the functionality of the Guard
Interval.
The Cyclic Prex has following properties:
• Converts linear convolution to circular convolution
• Orthogonality is maintained
8 Shahram Zarei
CP
The model discussed here consists of IDFT in the transmitter, the channel which is described
by a channel coecient matrix, additive noise, which for simplicity is not considered here, and
a DFT block at the receiver.
a [n] are the complex-valued samples from the mapper, which are processed blockwise by the
IDFT module. The mathematical description of the whole process is as follows:
The vector with data symbols is given by:
a = [a[1], ..., a[N ]]T . (6)
After the IDFT we get the samples in the time domain:
1
x = [x[1], ..., x[N ]]T = √ WH a.
N
(7)
The DFT matrix is dened as:
1 1 ··· 1
.. .. . . .
···
..
ω N −1
(8)
1 ω
W =
,
1 ω N −1 · · · ω (N −1)(N −1)
with ω = e−j N .
2π
(9)
OFDM and Downlink Physical Layer Design 9
Appending the Cyclic Prex with the length of N to the samples results in:
0
xcp = [x[N − N0 + 1], ..., x[N ], x[1], ..., x[N ]]T , (10)
and the relation between the signal at the input and the output of the channel is:
ycp = Hxcp , (11)
where H is the channel matrix and q the order of the channel impulse response:
h
h[0] 0 0 ··· 0 0
h[1] h[0] 0 ··· 0 0
(12)
.. .. .. .. ..
h[2] h[1] h[0] ··· 0 0
H=
.
···
h[qh ] h[qh − 1] h[qh − 2] · · · h[0] 0
0 h[qh ] h[qh − 1] · · · h[1] h[0]
h[0] 0 h[qh ] · · · h[2] h[1]
h[1] h[0] 0 · · · h[3] h[2]
(14)
.. .. .. .. ..
h[2] h[1] h[0] · · · h[4] h[3]
Hc =
.
···
h[qh ] h[qh − 1] h[qh − 2] · · · h[0] 0
0 h[qh ] h[qh − 1] · · · h[1] h[0]
a0 = Λ a, (18)
Λ = diag(λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λN ), (19)
(20)
qh
2πµ(i−1)
h[µ] e−j
X
λi = N , with i ∈ {1, 2, ..., N }.
µ=0
The λ are the DFT coecients of the channel or the eigenvalues of the channel coecient
matrix.
i
At this point we have derived a very important feature of ODFM with Cyclic Prex, namely
that the communication chain reduces to a diagonal matrix with the DFT of the channel
coecients as diagonal elements, which means, if we want to equalize the channel, we have to
multiply by the inverse of this diagonal matrix, which is also a diagonal matrix with inverted
diagonal elements. In other words, we can simply multiply each output of the DFT module by
its inverted channel coecient.
An OFDM system has some key parameters, which have to be designed correctly depending on
the considering scenario. The design parameters of OFDM are:
• ∆f : Subcarrier spacing
⇒ Demand in order to keep Doppler caused ICI low: ∆f f , f : Max. Doppler
shift
dmax dmax
• N : Number of subcarriers
⇒ N < B∆f , B : OFDM signal bandwidth
The physical layer parameters of the LTE downlink are summarized in Fig. 10.
The technology used in LTE downlink is OFDMA, which stands for Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access. In OFDMA, in contrast to OFDM, dierent subcarriers can be
assigned to dierent users.
OFDM and Downlink Physical Layer Design 11
The LTE signal in time domain is based on frames, which are 10 ms long and consist of 10
subframes each of 1 ms duration. The subframes are divided further into two slots each 0.5 ms
long. In each slot 7 or 6 OFDM symbols are contained depending on whether normal or short
Cyclic Prex is used, cf. [1]. The time domain frame structure of the LTE downlink can be
seen in the Fig. 13.
LTE uses a three dimensional space to manage the resources time, frequency and space (an-
tennas). In Fig. 14 only time and frequency dimensions are shown. The smallest unit is the
so-called Resource Element (RE), which consists of a time interval of duration of one OFDM
symbol and one subcarrier. Seven OFDM symbols (in case of normal CP length) or 6 symbols
(in case of long CP length) build a time slot. The area consisting of 12 subcarriers (180 kHz)
and one time slot is called Resource Block and contains 12x7=84 Resource Elements in case of
normal Cyclic Prex.
In each Resource Block four so-called reference symbols are transmitted. The position of the
reference symbols can be seen in the Fig. 15, cf. [7]. The main task of the reference symbols
can be summarized as given below:
• Cell search and initial aquisition
• Channel estimation
• Coherent detection
In Fig. 16 the components of the downlink physical layer signal generation chain can be seen.
First a 24 bit CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) eld is introduced to detect errors in the
receiver. After the CRC module comes a turbo encoder as forward error correction (FEC)
channel coder. The LTE downlink turbo encoder has R = 1/3 as basic code rate and is (can
be) with puncturing. There is an HARQ module following the turbo encoder. HARQ stands
for Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request and is a mechanism based on stop and wait ARQ which
transmits the packets again in case of errors detected by the CRC. In order to achieve more
coding gain, a scrambling module based on a 31 bit Gold sequence is used after the HARQ
module. The nal module is the modulator, which can use QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM in LTE
downlink, cf. [1].
OFDM and Downlink Physical Layer Design 15
In LTE there is the possibility to use MIMO. In this case an antenna mapping module decides
on which antenna the packets are to be sent. In LTE downlink up to 4 antennas can be used.
Finally the resource management module selects the appropriate resources, which are in LTE
time slots and subcarriers to transmit the packet.
One of the important technologies used in LTE downlink is MIMO. MIMO stands for Multiple-
Input Multiple-Output. In MIMO systems, independent parts of a data block are sent over
uncorrelated antennas (with a minimum distance greater than e.g. 10λ to ensure uncorrelated-
ness). The number of transmit and receive antennas can vary from 1 to 4. For example a 4x4
system MIMO has four TX and four RX antennas. MIMO exploits the independency of the
scattered signal components in a radio channel und makes some data rate gain possible. The
greater the independencies between dierent paths in a channel with scattering, the higher the
achieved data rate gains.
Example: Downlink peak data rates (64QAM):
• MIMO (2x2): 172.8 Mbps
References
[1] E. Dahlman, S. Parkvall, J. Sköld, P. Beming: 3G Evolution: HSDPA und LTE for
mobile broadband, 2007, Academic Press.
[2] S. Sesia, I. Touk, M. Baker: LTE - The UMTS Long Term Evolution: From Theory
to Practice, 2009, John Wiley Sons.
[3] W. Koch: Lecture script "Fundamentals of Mobile Communications", 2008, University
of Erlangen-Nuremberg.
[4] R. Fischer, J. Huber: Skriptum zur Vorlesung "Digitale Übertragung", 2009, Univer-
sity of Erlangen-Nuremberg.
[5] U. Barth: 3GPP Long Term Evolution / System architecture evolution overview,
2006, Alcatel.
[6] J. Zyren, W. McCoy: Overview of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution physical layer
[7] E. Seidel, V. Pauli: Nomor 3GPP Newsletter, Overview LTE PHY, Nomor Research