Virtual Synchronous Machines – Classification of
Implementations and Analysis of Equivalence to Droop
Controllers for Microgrids
Salvatore D'Arco*
*SINTEF Energy Research
7465 Trondheim, Norway
Salvatore.D'Arco@sintef.no

Abstract—The concept of Virtual Synchronous Machines (VSM)
is emerging as an alternative approach for control of power
electronic converters operating in the power system. One main
motivation for applying VSM-based control is to achieve a
simple approach for emulating the inertia effect of traditional
synchronous machines. This paper provides a comprehensive
literature review on VSM and a possible classification of the
different schemes. In addition, the small-signal response of the
inertia emulation characteristics of VSM-based control is
proved to be equivalent to conventional droop-based control for
standalone and microgrid operation of converters. Thus, the
droop gain and the filter time constant of the power feedback in
a droop controller can be directly related to the damping factor
and the inertia constant of a Virtual Synchronous Machine. The
derived results are providing additional physics-based insight
into the operation and tuning of both types of controllers.
Index Terms—Distributed Generation, Droop Control, Inertia
Emulation, Power Electronic Converters, Virtual Synchronous
Machine
I. INTRODUCTION
The traditional power system structure dominated by
centralized generation and unidirectional power flow is
currently being challenged by the proliferation of Distributed
Generation (DG). This trend has initiated significant research
and development efforts on control strategies for grid
connected power converters in DG systems [1], [2].
Most of the research on control of converters for feeding
power into existing power systems has been concerned with
maximizing the energy production from DG sources while
providing robustness and operability during grid faults and
disturbances [2]. It is then assumed that the operation of DG
 system structures. The paper will also consider the droop
This work was partly funded by the project "Power Electronics for
Reliable and Energy Efficient Renewable Energy Systems," financed by the
Norwegian Research Council, Wärtsilä, Statkraft and GE, and sponsored by
Westcode Semiconductors, http://sintef.no/OPE
Jon Are Suul*†
†
Department of Electric Power Engineering
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
7495 Trondheim, Norway
power converters mainly affects the local conditions in the
nearby grid with a negligible impact on the overall power
system.
A parallel line of research has focused on the development
of droop-based control systems for converters in stand-alone
operation and in microgrids dominated by power electronic
converters [3]-[9]. In such configurations the converters must
be able to establish the system voltage without the presence of
dominant synchronous machines and must be explicitly
controlled to participate in the frequency control and the
power balancing of the system.
In the near future it can be expected that power electronic
converters in many cases will have a significant impact on
large scale power systems as a non-negligible share of the
traditional synchronous generators in operation will be
replaced by converter-interfaced generation. A potential
problem under such conditions can be the decrease of total
system inertia compared to the overall power level and, thus, a
reduction of corresponding stabilizing effects [10]. Therefore,
it has been proposed to control power electronic converters to
emulate the behavior of traditional Synchronous machines
(SMs) and by that adding virtual inertia to the power system.
The first proposal of a "Virtual Synchronous Machine"
(VSM), was published in English by Beck and Hesse in 2007,
and labeled as "VISMA" [11]. Later, several other approaches
for adding virtual inertia to power electronic converters by
emulating the synchronous machine characteristics have been
proposed but with significant differences in the terminology,
the targeted applications and the proposed implementations.
Thus, the panorama on VSMs from existing literature is rather
dispersed and fragmented. This paper will review most of the
proposed VSM implementations, and attempt to classify them
according to their functional characteristics and their control
control methods widely applied for microgrids and stand-
alone systems, as a conventional approach for achieving
parallel operation and load sharing among power electronic
converters. The similarities in the control structures applied
for droop controllers and VSM-based control will then be
highlighted, and it will be demonstrated how the droop-based
approach under certain conditions is equivalent to a VSM.
Thus, the parameters of a droop controller can be reinterpreted
in the perspective of the inertia and the damping constant of a
VSM. This explicit equivalence can bridge the VSM and the
droop-based control approaches and can provide useful
insights for the design, the tuning and the stability analysis of
both these concepts.
II. INERTIA EMULATION EFFECT OF VIRTUAL
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The underlying idea behind the VSM concept is to emulate
the essential behavior of a real SM by controlling a power
electronic converter. Thus, any VSM implementation contains
more or less explicitly a mathematical model of a SM. The
specific model of the SM and its parameters is largely an
arbitrary design choice as proved by the many different
solutions discussed in literature. However, the emulation of
the inertial characteristic and damping of the
electromechanical oscillations are common features for every
VSM implementation. Additional aspects as the transient and
sub-transient dynamics can be included or neglected,
depending on the desired degree of complexity and accuracy
in reproducing the SM dynamics. Furthermore, the parameters
selected for VSM implementations are not constrained by the
physical design of any real SM. Thus, the VSM parameters
can be selected to replicate the behavior of a particular SM
design or can be specified during the control system design to
achieve a desired behavior.
If the purpose of VSM is to accurately replicate the
dynamic behavior of a SM, a full order model of the SM has
to be included in the converter control system. This includes a
5th order electrical model with dq-representation of stator
windings, damper windings and the field winding, together
with a 2nd order mechanical model resulting in a 7th order
model [12], [13].
A. Swing Equation for VSM Inertia Emulation
While a full order model faithfully represents the behavior
of a real SM, it adds unnecessary complexity if the goal of the
VSM is to emulate the inertia and damping properties of the
SM. Indeed, these two main aspects can be already captured
by the swing equation (1) well known from the literature on
power system stability and dynamics [12], [13].
d
J  T0  Tel  D   g  (1)
dt
In (1), J is the rotor inertia, ω the rotating speed of the
machine, ωg the angular frequency of the grid, T0 the
mechanical torque, Tel the electromagnetic torque, and D a
coefficient accounting for the damping torque associated with
the damper windings during transient conditions. It should be
remarked that the coefficient D in a real SM is not constant
but depends on the operating point of the machine. Thus, a
reduced order model with a fixed value of D will not be able
to match the SM behavior in the entire operating range.
The swing equation can be even more conveniently
expressed in terms of power instead of torque by multiplying
Electrical system and power converter control
p
p0   1  pu 1  pu g , N 
 Ta s s
 g , pu
kd 
Inertia emulation
Fig. 1. Inertia emulation for Virtual Synchronous Machines
all terms of (1) by the frequency ω. For small oscillations
around the synchronous conditions, the power balance can be
expressed in the Laplace domain by the approximation given
by (2) where P0 is the emulated mechanical input power, Pel is
the electrical power, and Kd is the damping constant associated
with D.
J  g  s    P0  Pel  K d    g  (2)
By introducing the mechanical time constant Ta (=2H) the
mechanical swing equation can then be expressed in p.u. by:
Ta  s   pu  p0  pel  kd  pu   g , pu  (3)
The virtual rotor angular position of the VSM is given by
the integral of the frequency ω, and this angular position
corresponds to the phase angle of the voltage induced by the
VSM model. The amplitude of the VSM voltage can then be
given by either a reduced order electrical model of the SM or
directly by a separate reactive power control loop. Since the
active power flow of the VSM is associated with the speed
and angular position of the virtual inertia with respect to the
grid voltage, in the following the voltage or reactive power
control of the VSM will be considered as decoupled from the
inertia emulation. A block diagram implementation of the
swing equation intended for VSM is shown in Fig. 1.
B. Inertia Effect by Estimating Power Response
From (3) it can also be derived an alternative approach for
inertia emulation. Assuming that the electrical power pel can
be directly controlled by the converter, and replacing the
actual grid frequency ωg,pu by its reference value while the
inertia frequency ωpu is replaced by the measured grid
frequency, this equation can be reformulated as given by (4).
pel*  p0  k g* , pu  g , pu   ki  s   g , pu (4)
In (4) the damping constant kd from (3) is replaced by a steady
state droop constant kω, while the mechanical time constant Ta
is multiplied by −1 and represented by an inertia constant ki.
The grid frequency and the derivative of the grid frequency
(s·ωg,pu) must then be estimated from the grid voltage, for
instance by using a Phase Locked Loop (PLL) [10]. However,
this approach is only emulating the inertia effect with respect
to the response to changes in the grid frequency, together with
a steady state power droop but does not establish an internal
model of the machine inertia. Thus, the implementation of
virtual inertia by (4) requires the presence of an external
voltage with a physical inertia, and is not suitable for islanded
operation in contrast with a real SM or a VSM implementation
based on (3).
 III. REVIEW OF VIRTUAL SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE Options for Virtual Synchronous Machine (VSM) Simulation:
CONTROL SCHEMES - Mechanical model combined with Vg
In the previous section, several alternatives for SM models - Full 5th order electrical model
to be used in VSMs have been discussed. These models need - Recuced order electrical model Z g ,tot
to be interfaced with the power electronic converter through vs
additional controllers which should receive reference signals
from the VSM implementation and translate them into gate q L1 C1
p PQ-calc
signals for the converter. The control schemes proposed in
literature can be categorized into three main groups based on ic I c ,abc
the nature of the output reference from the SM model. q0 vf Synchronous
Q-reg Machine Current
Simulation
A. Current References from the SM model iVSM
ic* Control g PWM

&
In such schemes, the full order or reduced order model of a p0
VSM
vs
Modulation
SM generates a current reference i*. This allows a quite natural
implementation of high order electrical models for the SM VISMA Concept CDC
since the measured voltage at the converter interface to the vDC
grid can feed a simulation model calculating the currents that Fig. 2. VSM implementation providing current references for based on
would result from a real SM. This approach was applied by the VISMA concept proposed in [11]
the VISMA concept which was the first proposal of a VSM
controlled saturation of the voltages and currents of the
implementation [11]. A simplified block diagram illustrating
converter cannot be easily and explicitly included in this
this approach is shown in Fig. 2.
structure. Protections can be implemented at the hardware
The current controller in Fig. 2 can be realized by level or as parallel loops overriding the references from the
hysteresis controllers on phase currents as initially proposed in VSM, but their interaction with the inertia emulation and
[11], by PI-controllers as discussed in [15], or by any other reactive power control and the resulting behavior can be
conventional current controller in the stationary or difficult to predict.
synchronous reference frames. In principle, the current
The controllability can be enhanced by applying a classical
regulators can be easily tuned while saturations and limitations
cascaded control scheme where the voltage output from the
can be embedded directly on the iref. However, in practical
VSM is used as the reference for an external voltage loop
implementations these schemes can be prone to numerical
cascaded with an internal current loop as shown in Fig. 3 b).
instability, especially for high order SM models, and this
This scheme ensures more flexibility for embedding
requires specific attention on the practical discrete time
protection strategies since both voltages and currents can be
implementation of the control system, as discussed in [15].
limited by saturating the regulators outputs [24], [25].
The origin of these stability problems have not yet been
Although these schemes are currently not very common for
thoroughly analyzed and it is therefore not clear if this is
VSM applications, they are becoming widespread in controls
purely related to numerical issues solvable by a proper choice
for microgrid applications where the voltage and frequency
of integration method in the implementation or if such
references are provided by droop controllers [6]-[9]. Due to
schemes results in intrinsically poor numerical stability
the cascaded loops, the appropriate tuning of the controllers in
conditions.
such structures is critical to ensure stability in all operating
B. Voltage References from the SM model conditions, especially in case of low switching frequencies
limiting the bandwidth of the inner current control loop [25].
Another possible approach for VSM implementation is to
configure a SM model to provide a voltage reference output. C. Power reference from the SM model
This is for instance discussed in [16] where implementation of
The inertia response can be also emulated by tracking the
the VISMA concept with current and voltage outputs are
grid frequency without implementing any full order or reduced
compared. However, if a reduced order model of the SM is
order SM model as in (4). The resulting structure is shown in
applied, the power flow is mainly related to the inertia
Fig. 4 where the current reference corresponding to a given
emulation and the phase angle resulting from the swing
power reference can be calculated from the measured grid
equation, while the voltage amplitude and reactive power
voltage. The inertia emulation can be achieved in a relatively
control can be handled separately. This is indicated in Fig. 3 a)
simple way and can be combined with any conventional
and b), where the voltage amplitude is resulting from a
strategy for current controlled operation of converters. This
reactive power control loop (Q-reg) while the VSM frequency
approach can be easily applied for making converters
and phase angle is resulting from inertia emulation by the
contribute to the total apparent inertia of large scale power
swing equation from Fig. 1. The scheme shown in Fig. 3 a) is
systems, and has therefore been pursued by the European
arguably the simplest and most direct implementation of the
Union VSYNC project [26]-[28]. However, the control will
VSM concept, since the voltage amplitude and phase angle are
rely on grid synchronization by a PLL and the presence of en
directly used for generation of PWM gate signals for the
external grid with a rotating inertia. Operation in very weak
converter. For instance, this approach is followed by the
grids can therefore be dubious, and the control system will not
"Syncronverter" concept discussed in [17], and in several
have any inherent capability for black-start or islanded
other recent publications [18]-[23]. However, limitations or
operation.
 Active Power Droop Controller Reactive Power Droop Controller
0 v̂0
Open loop control of the converter:
Vg p0  N  q0 v̂*
- No explicit overcurrent protection in the control 
mP  

mQ  

 s 
p f pm q f qm
Z g ,tot s f P-reg s f Q-reg

vs

q Fig. 5. Active and Reactive Power Droop Controllers for microgrids

L1 C1
p PQ-calc
IV. DROOP CONTROL FOR MICROGRIDS
ic I c ,abc
A major advantage of the VSM concept is the possibility
q0 Q-reg v̂* for load sharing among parallel connected units, as well as the
g PWM inherent capability for stand-alone and microgrid operation.
PWM
Inertia * As mentioned in the introduction, design of control systems
p0
Emulation
for converter dominated microgrids has been a line of research
which has received significant attention during the last years.
CDC Although a large range of control structures for converter
vDC dominated microgrid operation has been proposed, the
a) VSM with open loop PWM control simplest and most common approach for control system
design is based on droop regulators for the active and the
Closed loop control of the converter: reactive power according to (5) and (6) [6], [7].
- Cascaded voltage and current loops Vg
1
- Protection and controller saturation can be explicitly included  *pu  g , pu  m p  pm  p0  ,     *pu (5)
- Carefull tuning of controller parameters is necessary Z g ,tot
s
vs v*  vg  mq  qm  q0  (6)
q In such a scheme, the converter frequency is determined
L1 C1
p PQ-calc by a droop gain mp and the deviation between the measured
power pm and the power set-point p0. Similarly, the converter
ic I c ,abc voltage is determined by the droop gain mq and the deviation
q0 Q-reg
between the measured reactive power qm and the reactive
v̂* Current
Voltage ic* power set-point q0. However, the active and reactive powers
Control g PWM

 Control & pel and qel at the output of the power electronic converter must
Inertia Modulation be low pass filtered, as given by the first order transfer
p0
Emulation functions of (7), before they are used as the measurement

CDC feedback signals pm and qm in (5) and (6) [6], [7]. This is
vDC necessary for stabilizing the control loops and rejecting
b) VSM with cascaded voltage and current loops disturbances and oscillations in the measurements.
Fig. 3. VSM Implementations providing voltage references f f
pm  pel , qm  qel (7)
s f s f
Inertia emulation combined with conventional control: Similarly as for the VSM model, the instantaneous phase
- Inner loop current controller with limitations Vg
angle resulting from the droop controllers are given by the
- Depends on strong grid and frequency tracking by PLL integral of the frequency resulting from (5). The block
- No inherent capability for island mode operation Z g ,tot
diagrams representing the implementation of the active and

vs
reactive power drops are shown in Fig. 5. Since the output of
vs PLL these blocks will be the voltage amplitude and phase angle, it
q L1 C1 can easily be seen that they can be combined with either the
p PQ-calc
open loop PWM or the cascaded voltage and current loops
ic I c ,abc shown in Fig. 3 a) and b) respectively.
q*
q0 Q-reg Current As the frequency and phase angle is directly associated
Current
Reference
ic* Control g PWM with the power flow while the voltage is associated with the
p* &
Inertia Calculation Modulation
reactive power flow, the control scheme in Fig. 3 is based on
p0
Emulation the assumption of a predominantly inductive system
CDC impedance, in order to decouple the action of the two droop
vDC regulators. If this is not the case, virtual inductance in the
converter control system or the application of reference signal
Fig. 4. Inertia emulation as outer loop of conventional Current Controlled
Voltage Source Converters
transformations based on the impedance angle of the grid can
be applied to ensure the stable and satisfactory operation of
the droop controllers [7], [9].
 Grid equivalent Filter VSC Table 1 System parameters
Energy Storage
Vg Rg Lg Vf R1 L1 Parameter Value Parameter Value
CDC
C1
 Rated voltage Vn 690 V Grid resistance Rg 0.003 pu
Rated power Sn 2.75 MVA Grid inductance Lg 0.08 pu
Fig. 6. Schematic of the simulated system
Rated grid frequency fn 50 Hz Filter capacitance C1 0.074 pu
V. EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN VIRTUAL SYNCHRONOUS Moment inertia Rotor J 50 Kg m2 Proportional and
MACHINES AND MICROGRID DROOP CONTROL -1
integral gains for current 1.27, 14.25
Damping coefficient Kd 50 MW s regulator kpc kic
The control system structures for droop controlled Filter resistance R1 0.003 pu Proportional and
converters and the VSM implementations providing voltage integral gain for voltage 0.59, 736.09
reference outputs present strong similarities. Indeed, assuming Filter inductance L1 0.08 pu regulator kpv kiv
a reduced order SM model, the only difference is that the
frequency and phase angle are provided by the swing equation
in (3) for the VSM and by (5) for the droop controller.
However, these two equations can be proved to be equivalent
for small signal behavior around a steady state operating
condition when assuming the grid frequency ωg and the
reference for the active power p0 as constant.
Combining (7) and (5) leads to:
 f 
 *pu   g , pu  m p  p  p0  (8)
 s   el 
 f 
The active power pel can be calculated from (8) as:
 s  1  Fig. 7. Comparison of results from simulation of various concepts for
pel  

 1 
 m   g , pu   *pu   p0 

(9) VSM and droop controllers
 f  p  can therefore be directly applied to conventional droop
Expanding the products of (9) results in: controllers. Similarly, stability considerations performed on

pel 
 s  g , pu  s   *pu    g , pu   *pu 

s  p0
 p0 (10)
the droop based controls for microgrids could be extended to
the VSM schemes by applying (12).
 f mp mp f
To verify the equivalence derived in (12), the simple
As indicated, the expression in (10) can be simplified by electrical system shown in Fig. 6 has been simulated both with
eliminating the derivatives of constant terms, leading to: VSM-based control and with a droop controller. The main
1 1 parameters of the simulated system are given in Table 1, and
 f mp
s    p0  pel 
mp
 *pu  g , pu  (11) three different cases have been simulated. Firstly, the VSM
  swing equation from Fig. 1 combined with cascaded voltage
Inertia term Damping term
and current loops according to Fig. 3 b) have been compared
Equation (11) has exactly the same form as (3). Thus, to the droop controller from Fig. 5 while using the same
equivalent inertia and damping terms can be clearly identified parameters of the controllers. Then, the results from both these
from the active power droop regulator of (5). The formal control structures have been compared to the VSM with open
equivalence between the VSM model from (3) and the droop loop PWM according to Fig. 3 a), and all results are plotted
regulator from (5) can then be explicitly expressed by: together in Fig. 7. From this figure, it is clearly seen that the
1 1 VSM with cascaded loops is identical to the microgrid droop
Ta  , kd  (12) controller with the same inner loops. The simulation of the
 f mp mp
VSM with open loop PWM verifies that the inertial dynamics
The relations in (12) provide a further insight in the corresponding to the swing equation is dominant under these
functional meaning of the terms in (3) and (5). Indeed, the conditions and is common to all three control systems, while
damping gain, kd, in the VSM swing equation is inversely the small oscillations shown in the two first curves must be
linked to the droop gain mp. Moreover, the first order low pass associated with the dynamics of the cascaded voltage and
filter on the active power serve an analogous function of the current loops.
virtual inertia. Thus, the parameters of the droop regulator can
be tuned in order to emulate the small signal behavior of a VI. CLASSIFICATION OF VSM IMPLEMENTATIONS AND
specific synchronous machine. For example, the low pass DROOP CONTROLLERS
filtering of the active power can be designed not only to
reduce the effect of high frequency power harmonics in the Since the concept of Virtual Synchronous Machines is still
control, but also to provide an inertia function. As long as the relatively new, the proposed implementations have been
inertial dynamics are dominant, without significant influence mainly based on individual preferences and objectives
of any inner loop dynamics, simplified stability analysis based resulting in a rather fragmented state-of-the art literature.
on the swing equation of synchronous machines and VSMs However, as discussed in section II, it is possible to identify
 Table 2 Classification of Control Methods for VSM and Droop Control implementation
Model output Voltage vector reference Current vector Power Reference General Comments
Direct PWM Cascaded Voltage and reference
VSM Implementation
Current Controllers
Represents the full
th VISMA concept as in dynamics of the SM.
7 order model – Full
Possible Possible [11], [15], [29], [32], and Not relevant May result in
order SM model.
in [34]. (ref. Fig. 2) unnecessary level of
detail.
5th order or 4th order Typically considering
model – Reduced order Voltage output VISMA concept as in only stator windings.
SM model (2nd or 3rd formulation of the Possible [16], [30], [31], [33]. Not relevant Voltage amplitude is
order) combined with VISMA concept [16] (ref. Fig. 2) provided by a reactive
mechanical dynamic. power control loop.
"Syncronverter" concept
2nd order model –Swing as in [17], [18] and
Analysed in [24]. A similar concept as in Simple implementation
Equation and voltage others by same authors.
Ongoing study of control [22], [23] and other that can be combined
amplitude given by Also in [19], [20], [21]. Not relevant
system tuning in [25]. publications by the same with virtually any control
reactive power Similar concept in [35]
(ref. Fig. 3 b) authors. scheme for the converter.
controller and others by same
authors. (ref. Fig. 3 a)
1st order model – EU VSYNC project [27]. No inherent capability
Inertia emulation with Possible, but not Discussed in [10], [26], for islanded operation or
power (or current) Not relevant Not relevant explicitly found in [28], [36], [37], [38], black-start. Depends on
output calculated from literature. [39]. Also in [41], [42], PLL for tracking grid
grid voltage. [44], [45]. (ref. Fig. 4) frequency dynamic.
Extensive literature
Microgrid Droop Common approach as for Common approach, as Possible, and partly
Not relevant available. Only selected
Controllers instance in [4] for in [6], [8], [9] discussed in [5]
examples are given here.

several detailing levels for the SM model implementation
while section III has shown that the VSM concept can be
adapted to several control structures for the power electronic
converters. A classification of the literature proposals is
suggested in Table 2 with direct references to related
publications. The table indicates also configurations that are
not relevant and configurations that are technically feasible
but not yet proposed in literature.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
The concept of Virtual Synchronous Machines (VSM) has
been introduced in the last decade with the aim of providing
the controllability and stability features of a classical
synchronous machine to a power electronics converter. This
paper has reviewed the background for the various
implementations and control structures proposed for the VSM
concept in the literature, and classified the presented proposals
according to the VSM detailing level and the control structure
used for implementation. The paper has also proved the
equivalence between the VSM concept and droop controllers
commonly applied for converter control in microgrids by
derivations and time domain simulations. This equivalence
provides a new perspective for the VSM concept and a deeper
physical insight into the interpretation of the parameters used
in conventional power-frequency droop controllers for
converter-based microgrids.
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