Anything Goes with Wit and
Ambiguity: Playfulness in
1 These eight characteristics are (1) poetic
impression, (2) asymmetric balance, (3)
emphasis on empty space, (4) simplicity,
(5) ma or ambiguity, (6) spatial structure,
(7) symbolic representation, and (8)
playfulness (Hung Nguyen, “Aesthetics
of Ambiguity and Mystery in Late 20th
Century Japanese Posters” [PhD diss.,
Perth: Curtin University, 2014], 105–07),
https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/
20.500.11937/2033 (accessed May 05,
2018). JDM, a term coined by Nguyen,
includes various design disciplines,
such as visual communication, fashion,
architectural, and industrial designs. In
the field of poster design, the eclectic
style of JDM posters often combines
advanced printing technology with
Japanese cultural references and
East Asian religious philosophies and
aesthetics. JDM originated when the
Japanese economy flourished in the
early 1970s, peaked in the 1980s,
and has gradually declined since the
late 1990s. The styles of these posters
are often characterized by ambiguous,
diverse, and playful expressions. Any
posters that did not consist of these
characteristics were not considered
JDM posters even though they were
produced during this time period.
2 Lou Dorfsman, “Lessons from the
Japanese,” Adweek Portfolio of Graphic
Design (1986), cited in Richard Thornton,
Japanese Graphic Design (London:
Laurence King, 1991), 185–86. Dorfsman
is an American design critic and art
director who was inducted into the
Art Director Club Hall of Fame in 1978
(“ADC Hall of Fame,” adcglobal, http://
adcglobal.org/awards/hall-of-fame/
[accessed April 27, 2018]).
3 Alan Fletcher, “European Posters Article-
Bill Board and Others,” in World Graphic
Design Now: 1 Poster, ed. Kamekura
72
Japanese Visual Culture
Hung Ky Nguyen
Introduction
Among the eight characteristics of the Japanese Design Move-
ment (JDM) posters, “playfulness” is probably the most peculiar.1
Although this characteristic appears to be appreciated in Japanese
culture, those who are not familiar with Japanese visual culture
often find this characteristic baffling. In his 1986 article, “Lessons
from the Japanese,” Lou Dorfsman pointed out the mismatch of
Japanese posters: “Beautiful images. Provocative images. Gentle
images. But images that have no apparent connection to the
product being promoted. There is little or none of our concern
with a tight concept and a true unity of headline, copy, and visual
elements.”2 Moreover, British graphic designer Alan Fletcher
admitted, “But what of the Japanese poster? Well, I can’t read
them, but along with other designers in the Western world I find
them enchanting.”3 Both Dorfsman and Fletcher had extensive
expertise in the field of visual communication design; their
statements reveal a common lack of knowledge of non-Japanese
viewers about the characteristics of JDM posters.
Despite the significance of playfulness in the Japanese
visual culture, limited research has been conducted on this topic.
In Playfulness in Japanese Art, Tsuji states that although the painting
tradition emerged in Japan after its introduction by China and
Korea in the sixth century, Japanese artists were able to establish
their distinctive visual tradition through their emphasis on play-
fulness. However, by focusing mostly on how noted Japanese
painting versions were revamped from the Chinese original
works, Tsuji discounted the cultural, political, social, and philo-
sophical aspects that gave rise to playfulness in Japanese art.4 Play-
fulness surely is not exclusive to JDM poster designers. In A Smile
in the Mind, Beryl McAlhone and David Stuart compiled a consid-
erable number of witty ideas in visual communication design from
around the world. 5 However, only a handful of Japanese works
expressing a lighthearted manner were shown, most of them pro-
duced by Fukuda Shigeo.6
© 2020 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 https://doi.org/10.1162/desi_a_00591

Yusaku, Ikko Tanaka, and Koichi Sato
(Tokyo: Kodansha, 1988), 222.
4 Nobuo Tsuji, Playfulness in Japanese
Art (Lawrence: Spencer Museum of Art,
University of Kansas, 1986).
5 Beryl McAlhone and David Stuart, A
Smile in the Mind: Witty Thinking in
Graphic Design (London: Phaidon, 1996).
6 Ibid., 76, 109, 119, 192, and 193.
Throughout this paper, I place
Japanese surnames first because this
order was officially endorsed by the
Japanese Government on September 6,
2019. However, I maintain the Western
adopted order of Japanese names in
publications before September 6, 2019.
7 See, respectively, Clifford Geertz,
Local Knowledge (New York: Basic
Books, 1983); and Clifford Geertz, The
Interpretation of Cultures (New York:
Basic Books, 1973).
8 Ryusaku Tsunoda, Theodore de Bary,
and Donald Keene, Sources of Japanese
Tradition, vol. 1 (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1958), 141.
9 Ch’an literally means “meditation.”
When Ch’an Buddhism was imported into
Japan—either directly from China or via
Korea—Japanese monks called it Zen.
From this historical background, I use
Ch’an and Zen for distinct Chinese and
Japanese contexts, respectively.
Through the use of “thick description” and “local knowl-
edge,”7 this paper examines in depth how playfulness became
a distinctive mode of Japanese visual expression; sentiments and
expressions of playfulness in the Japanese context; categories of
playfulness; and how the eminent JDM poster designer, Toda Seiju,
used playfulness to convey his aesthetic of ambiguity and austere
simplicity in his works in the 1980s and 1990s.
How Playfulness Became a Distinctive Japanese Mode of
Visual Expression
Playfulness has an enduring tradition in Japanese visual culture,
and the sense of playfulness emerged, remarkably, during the
course of three major developments. The first occurred when Jap-
anese Buddhism gained political and cultural legitimacy in the
Classical and Medieval periods (from the sixth to the sixteenth
centuries). This factor is noteworthy because Japanese Buddhism
has played a major role in the development of Japanese culture
and the arts since its introduction. The second happened when
the merchant class became influential during the Edo period
(1603–1868), and the third occurred when the Japanese economic
growth peaked in the late 1980s. Through these periods, playful-
ness appears to be a sensible response by which Japanese artists
and designers established their cultural voice, as well as their cre-
ative individuality.
Factor One: Japanese Buddhism Gained Significant Political and Cul-
tural Legitimacy
Having been under the profound influence of Chinese culture and
arts for a substantial length of time, the Japanese sense of self-
worth was fully realized after some important Chinese Buddhist
artifacts were brought to Japan. Two major historical events
demonstrate this development. First, after he attained the title of
“Master of Transmitter of the Law” in 805 from Hui-kuo (the
Seventh Patriarch of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in Chang’an), the
Japanese priest Kūkai returned to Japan in 806 as the Eighth Patri-
arch and also the founder of Shingon Buddhism. Kūkai brought
back with him priceless religious artifacts passed down by his
spiritual teacher.8 These artifacts included a collection of mandalas,
a voluminous amount of esoteric and literary works, numerous
religious implements, and priestly robes. Since then, these artifacts
have established Japan as the center of Esoteric Buddhism in the
Far East.
Second, Japanese monks, when studying Ch’an Buddhism
in China during the decline of the Song Dynasty, managed to pur-
chase and take back numerous significant Ch’an paintings for their
temples in Japan.9 Also, when migrating and settling in Kamakura,
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 73
Figure 1
Detail of Josetsu’s “Hyonen-zu.” Courtesy
of Yamashina.
10 Suzuki Daisetz, Zen and Japanese
Culture (New York: Princeton University
Press, 1970), 29.
- [公案] literally means “public (公)
11 Koan
examination (案).” A koan- is a kind of
puzzle used publicly by Zen masters to
eliminate the rational thinking of their
pupils. Theoretically, in the final stage of
- the logic of Zen
meditation on a koan,
pupils is virtually dead. In this stage, Zen
practitioners could enter the realm of
non-duality.
12 Hyonen-zu literally means “gourd and
catfish.” This work is included in the
list of the National Treasures of Japan
by the Ministry of Education, Science
and Culture.
13 Taizo-in, “Hyonenzu ‘Catching a Catfish
with a Gourd’,” http://www.taizoin.com/
en/highlights/hyonenzu.html (accessed
April 27, 2018).
14 The top part of the painting shows the
31 responses. Kyoto National Museum,
“A Mysterious Painting, Josetsu’s
Catching a Catfish with a Gourd,” http://
www.kyohaku.go.jp/eng/dictio/kaiga/
fushigi.html (accessed April 27, 2018).
The five temples are Kennin-ji, Manju-ji,
Shokoku-ji, Tenryu-ji, and Tofuku-ji.
74
Chinese Ch’an masters brought notable artworks and talented
artists with them.10 Among the talented Chinese immigrants,
Josetsu eventually became a celebrated Zen artist and priest in
the Muromachi Period (1336–1573). During the late classical and
medieval periods, when Japan placed a major emphasis on
hierarchical systems, having these iconic artifacts on Japanese
soil gave Japanese Buddhism a profound sense of cultural legit-
imacy. During this period, talented Zen masters became more
innovative in their teaching. Some depicted their kōans in playful
manners to excite and challenge the logical minds of Zen pupils
and viewers.11 In a painting titled “Hyonen-zu” (see Figure 1),
Josetsu depicted an old fisherman trying to catch a catfish with his
gourd.12 This painting was commissioned to capture the essence
of the kōan, “Despite the fact that it is extremely hard to catch a slimy
catfish, why would you catch it with a small gourd, of all things?” created
by Ashikaga Yoshimochi (1386–1428), the Fourth Shogun of the
Muromachi Period. In contemplating this puzzle, Zen practitioners
are able to realize that, like a slimy catfish, the ultimate truth is dif-
ficult to grasp and that, like a small gourd, reasoning cannot be
used to capture or express the truth. The Hyonen-zu is seen as
Josetsu’s greatest work and one of the masterpieces of Zen
painting.13 Moreover, this kōan is the first of its kind recorded to
intellectually test 31 of the brightest monks from the five most
renowned Zen temples in Kyoto.14 This puzzle has been a popu-
lar kōan among Zen monasteries in Japan ever since. Most of
the works of prominent Ch’an painters, such as Liang K’ai (1140–
1210) and Mu-ch’i Fa-ch’ang (1210–1269), were often focused on
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020

15 In this type of composition, these
Ch’an painters often left three-fourths
of the canvas area vacant, symbolically
expressing the emptiness concept—
one of the principal teachings of
Northern Buddhism.
16 The social position of this class was
beneath the samurai, the farmers, and
the artisans and above the outcasts
(Jap. Burakumin). See Kallie Szczepanski,
“The Four-Tiered Class System of
Feudal Japan,” ThoughtCo, https://
www.thoughtco.com/four-tiered-class-
system-feudal-japan-195582 (accessed
October 18, 2018).
17 Ukiyo-e is a compound word of ukiyo
and e, literally meaning “picture (e) of
the floating world (ukiyo),” Ukiyo is a
Buddhist term referring to the temporal
and illusory nature of the secular life.
Ukiyo-e was named as a genre of
woodblock printing after Asai Ryoi, a
Buddhist priest and novelist, depicted
the fleeting nature of life in his novel,
Ukiyo-monogatari [Tales of the Floating
World], in 1661: “Living only for the
moment, turning our full attention to the
pleasures of the moon, the snow, the
cherry blossoms, and the maple leaves,
singing songs, drinking wine, and
diverting ourselves just in floating…
like a gourd carried along with the
river current.” (Asai Ryoi 1661, cited in
Richard Lane, “The Beginnings of the
Modern Japanese Novel: Kana-zoshi,
1600–1682,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic
Studies 20, no. 3/4 (1957): 644–701.
18 Katsumi Masaru, “Makksu Biru no Zokei”
[Plastic World of Max Bill], Kogei Nyusu
[Industrial Art News], vol. 22 (April,
1954), 15, cited in Kathryn Hiesinger,
“Japanese Design: A Survey Since
1950,” in Japanese Design: A Survey
Since 1950, eds. Kathryn Hiesinger
and Felice Fischer (Philadelphia, PA:
Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1994), 17.
19 Richard Thornton, Japanese Graphic
Design (London: Laurence King,
1991), 183.
technique mastery and on the “one corner” composition15; hence,
Hyonen-zu is a significant shift of emphasis because Josetsu’s
major objective was to engage actively with the audience. After this
development, Japanese Zen painting was steadily nurtured and
reached its peak during this period.
Factor Two: The Merchant Class Became Influential in the Edo Period
The merchants initially were placed near the bottom of the social
hierarchy during the Edo period, but with their considerable
wealth, they gradually became influential in society.16 The interests
of this class focused primarily on earthly desires; through the form
of ukiyo-e [picture of the floating world], Edo artists effectively
promoted the pleasures of the mundane world.17 Having had simi-
lar social disadvantages and primary interests in worldly things,
Edo artists and merchants both enjoyed their co–living relation-
ship and steadily established their voice in the emerging consumer
culture. Through the medium of woodblock printing, noted Edo
artists often used playfulness to differentiate their positions in a
competitive environment. I discuss the mitate-e [見立絵, view-and-
resemble picture], a common visual manipulation technique used
by Edo artists and innovative Buddhist thinkers in expressing
playfulness, in the section titled “Categories of Playfulness.”
Factor Three: Japan Became a Dominant Economic Power in the Late
Twentieth Century
Throughout their history, the self-confidence of the Japanese
people in themselves and their culture has been noteworthy.
Although the influence of modernism was prevalent in Japanese
society and culture in the mid-twentieth century, many young
Japanese designers began to question whether their outward
journey was still relevant and necessary. In a 1954 article about
the Swiss designer, Max Bill, design critic Katsumi Masaru (1909–
1983) remarked:
We Japanese had great love for honest form and function.
Clarity, purity, and simplicity—these were the aesthetic
ideals of Old Japan…. Now we must look back upon our
traditional treasures and bring (them) to life again.18
Also, when Japan became the world’s second largest economy
in 1968, designer Nagai Kazumasa (b.1929), in an interview with
Graphis Magazine, questioned the wisdom of being faithful to
the strict ideology and principles of international typographic
design. Nagai was particularly discontented with the lack of ma, a
Japanese concept meaning ambiguity and emotional expression,
in functional designs.19 The tendency to return to Japanese aesthetic
ideals soon became a moral imperative for self-respecting and
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 75

20 Onna monogurui literally means deranged
woman (Onna: 女, woman + monogurui:
物狂い, deranged). Noh should be
understood as “ability” or “skill.” In
essence, noh actors are required to have
the ability to bring out hana [flower, a
metaphor used by Zeami Motokiyo to
describe the subtlety and profoundness
of acting and dancing]. See The Flower-
ing Spirit: Classic Teachings on the Art of
Nō, trans. William Scott Wilson (Tokyo:
Kodansha International, 2006), 112–23.
21 Mitsukuni Yoshida, Asobi: The Sensibili-
ties at Play, eds. Mitsukuni Yoshida, Ikko
Tanaka, and Tsune Sesoko (Tokyo: Cosmo
Public Relations, 1987), 7. According to
the synopsis of the Sumida-gawa play,
these divinities should be understood as
the Amida Buddha and his Bodhisattvas.
See The–Noh.com, Sumida-gawa, http://
www.the-noh.com/en/plays/data/pro-
gram_012.html (accessed April 27, 2018).
22 The original play was written by the
renowned Japanese noh playwright,
manager, and actor Kan’ami (1333–84).
23 With its 5-7-5-7-7 meter, waka [和歌,
Japanese poetry] is seen as the prede-
cessor of haiku (5-7-5 meter).
24 For viewing the Butoh play “Komachi,”
see https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=VaKl2Tc6eJ0 (accessed April
27, 2018).
25 The Heart Sutra is one of the key works
of Northern Buddhism. I prefer to use
this term over Mahayana to avoid an
unconscious bias toward Theravada, or
Southern Buddhism. The Heart Sutra was
chosen because its teaching emphasizes
the non-difference of the opposites,
such as qualities of being young and
old, beautiful and ugly, and sacred and
profane. Those who attain this wisdom
are able to cut through all illusions
and are thereby freed from their
mental sufferings.
26 For further details about this aesthetic,
see Hung Nguyen, “Evoking Audience’s
Emotion with Disturbing Images:
The Aesthetic of Intense Elegance of
Makoto Saito in The Two Hasegawa
Posters,” The Design Journal 20,
no. 3 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1080/
14606925.2017.1301102.
76
innovative JDM designers. As a result, Japanese sensitivity and
spirit now are extensively used to express playfulness in
the works of these designers, as discussed and shown in the fol-
lowing section.
Expression and Sentiment of Playfulness in the
Japanese Context
In the context of Japanese sensibility, playfulness can manifest in
things that appear to be dreadful or negative—as illustration of
how Buddhist teachings can be used to transcend human suffer-
ings. Yoshida notes, that mad female characters, called Onna
monogurui, appear in many noh plays.20 This character becomes
deranged after experiencing a tragic loss of or separation from her
loved one—whether a sibling, parent, husband, or even her own
beauty. Nonetheless, her insanity brings her closer to, and allows
her to enter into, the realm of the gods—a realm in which despair
and sorrow are commonly believed to be absent. On stage, this
character dances in graceful and spontaneous ways. Being capti-
vated by a person who has wandered into the realm of mystery,
the spectator also is brought closer to the divinities.21
This perplexing connection between human suffering and
spiritual experience is well expressed in the Butoh play, “Koma-
chi,” choreographed by Waguri Yukio and performed by the
Japanese female dancer Denise Fujiwara in 2005.22 In this play,
the Japanese female dancer, Denise Fujiwara, playfully portrayed
an intense feeling of saudade, captured by the Japanese waka poet,
Ono no Komachi (825–900 CE). 23 Legend has it that Komachi’s
beauty and talents were greatly admired by many of her contem-
poraries. In her youth she was known as a femme fatale. When she
got old, Komachi lived alone on a mountain as a hermit. Acting as
an old and insane woman who was obsessed with her long-gone
beauty and remorse for having mistreated many of her suitors,
Fujiwara enthralled the audience with her facial expression, sym-
bolic gesture, and trance-like movements. 24 Together with the
noh music and the chanting of the Heart Sutra in the background,
Fujiwara’s performance enabled the audience to absorb the insanity
and fleeting beauty of Komachi in a playful manner.25
This ambiguous tendency is also manifested in JDM post-
ers. Designer Saito Makoto (b.1952) often uses disturbing images
to evoke the audience’s emotion. In a poster produced in 1985
for Alpha Cubic, one of the leading fashion stores in Tokyo, Saito’s
aesthetic of intense elegance is demonstrated through an image of
a decayed foot (see Figure 2). 26 This perplexing art direction
appeared to be inappropriate in a fashion advertising campaign,
where glamour and elegance are often regarded as the norm.
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020
Figure 2
Saito’s poster for 1985 Alpha Cubic. Courtesy
of Makoto Saito.
27 René T. Proyer, “Playful people are at
advantage,” Martin Luther University
Halle-Wittenberg, no. 005 / January
2017, http://pressemitteilungen.pr.uni-
halle.de/index.php?modus=pmanzeige
&pm_id=2662 (accessed May 3, 2018).
Categories of Playfulness
Proyer found that playfulness is an important aspect not only of
children but also of adults. 27 Playful people have an advantage
because they are able to reinterpret situations in their lives to
entertain themselves and reduce stress levels. Among the four
types of playfulness that Proyer identified, the third type—intel-
lectual playfulness—fits those who enjoy playing with thoughts
and ideas. Individuals who belong to this group have the ability
to turn dull things or situations into something exciting. Their
tendency to play with thoughts and ideas means that almost all
visual communication designers around the world use this type
of playfulness.
However, the ways the JDM poster designers specifically
express playfulness in their works that separate them from their
Western counterparts. In the following discussion, I identify the
four key areas—themes, compositions, techniques, and context—
which are often used to express playfulness in JDM posters.
Themes
In 1989 in a poster produced for Vivre 21, a Tokyo fashion depart-
ment store, Toda Seiju aroused the imagination of viewers through
the theme of eroticism. By placing a pair of red lips vertically and
on a white background, Toda was able to transform the image of
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 77
Figure 3
Toda’s “Red Lips” poster for Vivre 21, 1989.
Photo by Sachico Kuru. Courtesy of Toda Seiju.

28 See Hung Nguyen, “Aesthetics of

Ambiguity and Mystery in Late 20th
Century Japanese Posters” (PhD diss.
Curtin University, 2014), 210-1, https://
espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.
11937/2033. Because this concern ordinary lips into an erotic image (see Figure 3). Toda clarified how
was satisfactorily dealt with, it avoided he created the poster in the first place:
prosecution for breaching the Japanese
I did not intend to create a female’s genitals—I wanted to
Penal Code.
29 Pornographic art, curiously, also was place a simple image of a pair of red lips there and thought
consumed by Japanese maidens for it would be interesting if the lips were vertical—yet, it
their wedding night preparation. turned out erotic at the end.... So I made this image erotic
(Duncan Bartlett, “Historic Japanese by accident. After all, the female lips set in verticality
Erotica Reveals Tokyo’s Sex Secrets,”
is symbolically erotic. Thus, I was glad that people
http://www.bbc.com/news/entertain-
ment-arts-24298728 (accessed March unexpectedly took it that way, even though the poster
09, 2018). attracted many complaints from some feminist groups.28
30 For viewing Toda’s book cover, see
https://www.amazon.com/Toda-Masa- Toda’s caution is understandable; he was well aware that his state-
toshi-Tokyo-Grafica-2/dp/4897371422.
ment would be shared later with a larger audience. However, his
31 This code defines obscenity as “anything
eliciting sexual desire, excitement hidden intention was revealed because he was delighted when
or arousal in vain, or that violates a many viewers thought his design erotic. Through the use of play-
reasonable person’s sense of propriety fulness—by leaving out the insignificant details and arranging the
or principles of righteous and moral red lips in a vertical position—Toda subtly implies a sense of por-
sexuality.” Supreme Court of Japan
nographic art, the once-popular fascination of many poor, male
2014, “Case number 1953 (A) 1713”
(References: Article 175 of the Penal Edo inhabitants who could not afford the pleasure quarter of Edo
Code), paragraph 4 (under the section Japan.29 To entice the audience into seeing beyond the lips, Toda
I. Translation and Publication of “Lady symbolically depicted a sign of intense climax through a crimson
Chatterley’s Lover” and Article 175 drop trickling down from the red lips. Toda’s playfulness did not
of the Penal Code). See also Mark
stop there. On the front cover of his book, Toda Masatoshi: Tokyo
McLelland, “Sex, Censorship and
Media Regulation in Japan: A Historical
Graphica 2, published in 1991, Toda set his name in a cursive style,
Review,” Routledge Handbook of providing a suggestion of pubic hair over the upper part of the red
Sexuality Studies in East Asia, eds. lips.30 Through Toda’s ambiguous and playful approach, his poster
Mark McLelland and Vera Mackie fully engaged the audience, and yet it did not overstep Article 175
(Oxford: Routledge, 2014), 402–13;
of the Japanese Penal Code.31
and University of Wollongong
Research Online, http://ro.uow.edu.
au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=
2719& context=lhapapers (accessed
April 28, 2018).

78 DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020

 Composition
A profound transformation has quietly taken place in the way
JDM poster designers create their composition without any for-
mal manifesto. Since JDM posters were primarily produced for
the Japanese domestic market, Western typefaces and typography
are found to be irrelevant for JDM poster designers. JDM poster
designers Saito Makoto and Sato Koichi (b.1944) both stated that
most of their works relate to calligraphy rather than typography.
Typographic principles are not helpful for the Japanese intuitive
mode of design.
Because my objective is to tease out how JDM poster de-
signers express playfulness through their noteworthy composi-
tions, I use the principles of composition of Japanese traditional
painting and ukiyo-e as a model for this discussion. In theory, this
model often consists of three elements: image, text, and the artist’s
personal seal. Similarly, a JDM poster often comprises an image,
text, and logo of the sponsor (or client). To produce playful posters,
Toda and Saito often use the one-corner system. In this system, the
image is placed in certain places according to their intuition, while
the logo of the sponsor is positioned at the bottom right-hand side
(see Figures 2 and 3). When text is included, it is often placed on
the top left-hand side. In responding to my question about his
principles of composition and how he arranged the text in his
work, Toda notes, “I am not concerned with where it should be
placed. I just want to place it in an extreme manner.”32
In contrast, designer Sugiura Kohei (b.1932) often used what
I call an “all-things-considered typographic system” for his work.
In this system, Sugiura positions all information along the four
sides of the poster with reading orders from top to bottom (for
Kanji, Hiragana, and Katakana), left to right (for English), and right
to left (for Kanji and Arabic). Sugiura used this eccentric approach
to create for viewers a dynamic, vibrant, and vivid space.33 In real-
ity, how viewers read depends largely on the context in which they
are exposed to the material being read. For example, in certain cir-
cumstances, motorists have to read from bottom to top when the
“Bus Lane Only” is written on the roadway. In addition, the condi-
tions in which a work is produced could dictate the way viewers
read. For example, in Australian Aboriginal painting, the creative
task often requires a team of qualified men sitting on the ground
around the canvas, and each member depicts part of the visuals
from his point of view. The work thus can be read from each of its
four sides.

32 See Hung Nguyen, PhD diss. (Perth:

Curtin University, 2014), 210–11.
33 For a sample of this typographic system,
see https://www.pinterest.com.au/
pin/332351647496245693/ (accessed
April 27, 2018).

DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 79


34 Daruma (IAST: Bodhidharma) is a legend-
ary Indian monk whose life was shrouded
in mystery. He was credited with estab-
lishing the Ch’an tradition in China in the
fifth century. Legend has it that because
of Daruma’s extensive meditation, all of
his limbs were atrophied. Also, a Japa-
nese myth says that when leaving China,
Daruma headed to Japan instead of India
and that the legendary Prince Shotoku
encountered a person who resembled
Daruma at the foot of Mt. Kataoka in
Oji (Nara Prefecture). From these myths,
the Daruma doll has been created and
popularized as an icon of Japanese cul-
ture. Fugen Bosatsu (Bodhisattva Fugen)
is a Japanese version for Bodhisattva
Samantabhadra (IAST), a Northern
Buddhist saint whose beneficence is
manifested everywhere.
35 Daruma’s crossing the river is a common
theme for Zen artists to depict—the
return to the source of their first Ch’an
Patriarch when he left China. Suzuki
Harunobu’s work in the Museum of Fine
Arts Boston is one example. See “Parody
of Bodhidharma (Daruma) Crossing The
River on a Reed,” http://educators.mfa.
org/asia-africa/parody-bodhidharma-
daruma-crossing-river-reed-94563
(accessed April 27, 2018).
36 According to Southern Buddhism,
Arahathood is the highest level of
spiritual attainment of a Buddhist priest
or nun. An arahat is a person who attains
perfect knowledge, with which he or
she escapes from the cycle of birth
and death.
80
Technique
Edo artists often used a visual manipulation technique called
mitate-e [to see something as resembling others], or parody picture,
to excite the audience. The mitate-e technique is effective when
religious or historical figures are manipulated and used in unex-
pected or inappropriate ways. For example, Edo artists often
depicted Daruma and Fugen Bosatsu, two popular Buddhist
icons, in contemporary garments or manifested as courtesans or
disreputable figures in Edo society.34
Mitate-e also is apparent when contemporary events are
placed in ancient settings. This technique was popularized by
ukiyo-e artists and Buddhist thinkers: both sides of the Edo
world. First, it was used to ridicule the way in which the Japanes
Buddhist Church closely collaborated with the Tokugawa gov-
ernment in running state affairs. In a woodblock printing of
Suzuki Harunobu, Daruma was depicted as a courtesan crossing
a river on a reed.35 Innovative Buddhist thinkers also often used
mitate-e to highlight the non-difference of the profane and the
sacred, as stated in the teaching of non-duality of Northern Bud-
dhism. In the Noh play, Eguchi, the eminent playwright Zeami
Motokiyo (1363–1443) set up an encounter in which a vagabond
Buddhist priest was enlightened by a renowned courtesan who
was widely believed to be a manifestation of Bodhisattva Fugen
by the Eguchi villagers. As a result, Zen philosophy affirmed that
no distinction can be made between a courtesan and Fugen, the
Bodhisattva of compassion. Historically, this non-difference
between a courtesan and a Buddhist saint occurred in the time of
the Gautama Buddha. Among the kind patrons of the Monk Com-
munity was Āmrapālī, the most famous nagarvadhu [bride of the
city]—a title given to a royal courtesan—of the Republic of Vaishali
(now a district in Bihar, India). After being ordained as a nun,
Āmrapālī donated all her wealth, diligently studied, and soon
attained the Arahathood. 36 Inspired by this story, numerous ukiyo-e
artists in the Edo period used as a popular theme the image of a
Japanese courtesan seated astride a white elephant with six tusks,
representing Bodhisattva Fugen. As with Āmrapālī, in the mani-
festation of a courtesan in a boat of pleasure, Bodhisattva Fugen
would make salvation more accessible even to thieves, the Buraku-
min [outcast class], and the downtrodden peasants in Edo society.
The shift in emphasis is remarkable, as Buddhist temples tradition-
ally had been considered places where spiritual guidance and
salvation could be offered to Buddhist devotees.
To display playfulness in their works, JDM poster design-
ers often used eccentric techniques, such as montage (by Yokoo
Tadanori), instantaneous fingerprint (by Sato Koichi), mitate-e, and
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020
Figure 4 (left)
x-ray photography (both by Toda Seiju).37 Specifically, in a series of
Toda’s poster for Kon’yo Shen’te, 1986. Photo two posters produced for Kon’yo Shen’te, a museum art franchise
by Toda Seiju. store in Tokyo, Toda inventively used an x-ray camera to capture
the multiple dimensions of wooden structures and the organic
Figure 5 (right)
forms of a fish and a Japanese pit viper in mysterious and playful
Toda’s poster for Kon’yo Shen’te, 1987. Photo
manners (see Figures 4 and 5).38
by Toda Seiju.
Toda recollected that he had seen an x-ray image of a dead
bird published in an article about environmental issues around
Tokyo, particularly in the area around the Haneda Airport. The
forensic x-ray revealed that a needle in the bird’s stomach was
responsible for its death. Toda was impressed by the enigmatic
37 To view Tadanori’s poster designed for beauty of the photo and decided to experiment with x-ray photog-
Haizuka Printing (the fifth in a series of raphy using an industrial x-ray camera, which allows for viewing
five), see https://www.flickr.com/photos/
the internal structures of the item photographed. Toda took some
takeshiyoshida/4521561405/in/faves-
82949101@N08/ (accessed May 3,
photos of the scale model of the Church of the Light, which he bor-
2018). To view Sato’s spontaneous finger rowed from architect Andō Tadao.39 Andō was astonished to see
print technique, see http://blog.sina.com. how his three-dimensional model was captured in a two-dimen-
cn/s/blog_7bd34e770101lzy7.html sional image. Later, in the two posters produced for Kon’yo Shen’te
(image 4/8) (accessed May 3, 2018).
in 1986 and 1987, Toda accentuated the beauty and mystery of the
38 Toda’s x-ray poster displaying a Japanese
pit viper was included in Masataka
organic forms of the fish and the Japanese pit viper by making the
Ogawa, Best 100 Japanese Posters two wooden abodes in which these two creatures were concealed.40
1945-89 (Tokyo: Toppan Printing, 1990),
213. For the highest quality, please
see plate number x = 033 in Seiju Toda,
X=t The Art of X-Ray Photography
(New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1995).

DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 81


39 The Church of Light was built in the City
of Ibaraki, Osaka in 1989. The design
of the church won Ando worldwide rec-
ognition and was one of the major works
mentioned in his Pritzker Architecture
Prize in 1993. To achieve the intended
effects in the x-ray photo, Toda retouched
and reshot the negative several times.
40 To see how Toda constructed the abodes
for these two creatures and others, see
Toda, X=t The Art of X-Ray Photography,
144–52.
41 Geertz advocates a “holistic” approach
and stresses the importance of putting
things in context to understand a cultural
artifact and its manifestations: “Chartres
is made of stone and glass. But it is not
just stone and glass; it is a cathedral,
and not only a cathedral, but a particular
cathedral built at a particular time by
certain members of a particular society.
To understand what it means, to perceive
it for what it is, you need to know rather
more than the generic properties of stone
and glass and rather more than what is
common to all cathedrals. You need to
understand also—and, in my opinion,
most critically—the specific concepts
of the relations among God, man, and
architecture that, since they have
governed its creation, it consequently
embodies. It is no different with men:
they, too, every last one of them, are
cultural artifacts.” See Clifford Geertz,
The Interpretation of Culture (New York:
Basic Books, 1973), 50–1.
42 Lady Kaede was the mastermind
behind the chaos and elimination of
the sovereign state of the Lord Hidetora
(actor: Tatsuya Nakadai). With intelli-
gence, patience, and ruthlessness, she
successfully destroyed Lord Hidetora
and his three sons because they were
responsible for the death of her family
members and the destruction of her
family’s fortune.
43 Interview with the author, October 30,
2008.
44 Dominique Buisson, Japan Unveiled:
Understanding Japanese Body Culture
(London: Hachette, 2003), 92–5.
82
Context
Context is the most essential part of understanding the Japanese
sense of playfulness in the JDM posters. Without knowing the
socio-cultural environments and production process from which
these posters were produced, many of these posters would essen-
tially remain to be the objects of ambiguity and irrelevance.41 The
following case study explores in depth the context in which Toda’s
poster was produced.
Toda Seiju’s Playfulness in a Japanese Context
Toda is a prominent Japanese art director, creative director, and
JDM poster designer. Toda’s posters often are characterized by
ambiguity and playfulness. Born and raised in post-World War II
Japan, Toda was first inspired by U.S. culture and artists—particu-
larly by John Milton Cage (1912–1992). Later, Toda’s art direction
has been profoundly influenced by the film direction and aesthetic
of Kurosawa Akira (1910–1998) and Japanese aesthetic sensitivity.
Toda’s poster produced in 1986 for Vivre 21 shows how Lady Kaede
(actress Mieko Harada), a wicked female character in Kurosawa
Akira’s 1985 movie Ran [Revolt], inspired his concept and art direc-
tion (see Figure 6).42 This work also shows how Toda used the
mitate-e technique to render a contemporary model in the look of a
Heian (the last era of the Classical period, 794–1185) aristocrat.
Toda disclosed how he embarked on the poster: “I simply
told the president of Vivre 21 that I would like to create a mysteri-
ous woman for his campaign.”43 This remark reveals Toda’s domi-
nant position in the field of poster design in Japan in the 1980s.
Because Toda had the authority to create his own design brief and
had a generous allowance and a loose deadline for this work, he
put much energy and time into producing it. To depict an emotion-
less expression for the poster model’s face, Toda chose the same
style of Heian makeup as that of Lady Kaede in Kurosawa’s film. In
this style, Japanese noblewomen could conceal their emotions by
having their eyebrows shaved and then redrawn higher, in the
shape of clouds.44 Having been inspired by the simplicity of Zen
aesthetics, Toda often excluded the text provided by his copywrit-
ing colleague in his posters. When it was required, Toda preferred
fewer words and ambiguous words. For example Toda and his col-
league, Okabe Masayasu, chose the Japanese Romaji word kyūkon
[bulb] (kyū, 球 [globe] and kon, 根 [root]) as the main text and
placed it on the upper left corner. Toda seldom explains the mean-
ing of his works, but knowledge of haiku provides a clue as to how
the word kyūkon might relate to Toda’s femme fatale theme and the
coming fashion event. In haiku vocabulary, kyūkon is a kigo [sea-
son word] signifying late winter and early spring. In the context of
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020
Figure 6
Toda’s “Mysterious Woman” poster for Vivre
21, 1986. Photo by Sachiko Kuru, courtesy of
Toda Seiju.
Toda’s poster, beside its possible indication of the spring fashion
event, this word might bring to mind the image of the narcissus
flower and its myth. Among the spring bulbs, with its exquisite fra-
grance and elegant look, narcissus is commonly regarded as one of
the most admired spring flowering bulbs in the Far East. While
Narcissus tazetta is widely used as a scientific name, this species is
personified as sui-sen [Water immortal] (sui, 水 [water] and sen, 仙
[immortal]) by Far Eastern peoples. Etymologically, the word
sui-sen is conceptually derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus,
the son of the river god Cephissus and nymph Liriope. Legend has
it that Narcissus fell in love with his beautiful image reflected in
water without realizing that it was his own. At the pond, Narcissus
kept staring at his own image until he lost his will to live. Subse-
quently, narcissus flowers sprung up around the pond where
he died. It is in the circumstances in which Narcissus lost his
mind and life that narcissus is often connected with personality
disorders, such as obsession, seduction, and bewitchment. Yet,
these personality traits have been popularly used as femme fatale
to market contemporary fragrance products. Toda’s art direction
illustrates how Japanese cultural references can be playfully used
for his commercial posters. In addition, Toda positioned a black
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 83
Figure 7 (left) ant in front of the lower part of the model’s abdomen; the insect
One of Jean Paul Gaultier’s 1993 torso-shaped had not been used in any JDM posters before but in this context is
perfume bottles. Photo by Hung Ky Nguyen. drawn as hardly noticed, fearless, and relentless in pursuing its
goal, just as Lady Kaede is. In the movie, Lady Kaede is depicted
Figure 8 (right)
as a mysterious, predatory, alluring, manipulative, and wicked
A butane lighter by an unknown designer.
Photo by Hung Ky Nguyen.
yet intelligent character. By combining a black ant with a Lady
Kaede-looking model clad in black lingerie, Toda subtly associated
the model with a femme fatale.45
Theoretically, Toda’s figure without arms reflects his aes-
thetic of austere simplicity, which he began to develop in the early
1980s. In this aesthetic, all insignificant design elements, including
the text, are left out. Toda’s aesthetic approach might reflect the
45 The black ant was associated with
elegance of deficiencies in Zen art, as Suzuki points out:
femme fatales in a warning given by
the renowned Indian mystic and yogi,
In spite of shortcomings or deficiencies that no doubt
Sri Ramakrishna (1836–1886), to his are apparent, you do not feel them so; indeed, this
disciples. Ramakrishna noted that imperfection itself becomes a form of perfection. Evidently,
“those whose buttocks bulge out like beauty does not necessarily spell perfection of form.
the hind parts of black ants” have
This has been one of the favorite tricks of Japanese
the tendency to develop their inward
attachment to sensual enjoyment.
artists—to embody beauty in a form of imperfection or
See Narasingha Sil, Ramakrishna even of ugliness.46
Paramahamsa: A Psychological Profile
(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 37.
46 Daisetz Suzuki, Zen and Japanese
Culture (New York: Princeton University
Press, 1970), 24.

84 DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020


47 Toda notes that his posters aim to appeal
to those who can appreciate his design
aesthetics rather than to those who are
wealthy customers (Interview with the
author, October 2008).
48 Jonathan Jones, “Why We’re Still Up
in Arms About the Mystery of the Venus
de Milo,” The Guardian, https://www.
theguardian.com/artanddesign/short-
cuts/2015/may/11/venus-de-milo-
arms-reconstruction-spinning-prostitute-
sculpture (accessed April 18, 2018).
The omission of the two arms of the female model there-
fore should not be perceived as distasteful. Rather, it is a visual
trick in which the distinction between the figure and its surround-
ing ceases to exist. Many images of female bodies with no arms
have been appreciated by design practitioners and their intended
audience around the world.47 In particular, after the statue of Aph-
rodite—the Venus de Milo—the Greek goddess of beauty and
love, was discovered in 1820, public appreciation favored this
statue armless rather than with arms.48 The same sentiment is
manifested in some novel artifacts, such as the 1993 lingerie-clad
perfume bottle, created by Jean-Paul Gaultier (Figure 7), and the
nude butane lighter featuring a see-through bikini when lighting
up (Figure 8).
Conclusion
Although playfulness is not exclusive to Japanese visual culture,
the Japanese sense of playfulness is noteworthy because it often
is culturally dependent and contains intriguing aspects of a
Japanese psyche. Following the three significant events related to
cultural, social, and economic achievements from the Heian Period
to the late twentieth century, playfulness has been used to estab-
lish cultural identity and influence, social voice, and individual
distinction. Specifically, Zen masters and artists were able with
playfulness to convey Buddhist teachings in engaging and enter-
taining ways. Playfulness was also used by Edo artisans and the
merchant class to express their social voice and to promote the
emerging consumer culture. Meanwhile, motivated by the desire
to achieve individual distinction and to demonstrate Japanese
sensibilities, JDM poster designers often express playfulness
through peculiar themes, unusual compositions, daring tech-
niques, and distinctive contexts. First, although many JDM posters
are produced for commercial purposes, some noted JDM poster
designers seek to engage viewers with provocative and creative
themes. Second, with regard to composition, JDM poster designers’
playful approaches are often characterized by individuality and
intuition. Since both Toda and Saito favor the use of empty space
with little or no text they often use the one corner typographic
system. By contrast, Sugiura’s typographic system is noted for its
“all things considered” approach in which all elements of Japanese
and Asian religious arts are combined without being restricted to
the International typographic design conventions. Third, a Japa-
nese sense of playfulness often manifests through distinct tech-
niques. Both Edo artists and JDM poster designers confidently
used the mitate-e and other daring techniques and approaches in
DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020 85
 search of personal distinction and notable styles. And fourth, only
recognition and understanding of the contexts in which the JDM
posters are produced can make clear the centrality of playfulness
as one of the eight major characteristics of JDM posters. Without
having sufficient knowledge of context, Toda’s “Mysterious
woman” poster and many JDM posters continue to be perplexing
and susceptible to misinterpretation.

Acknowledgments
I thank Professor (ret.) Cal Swann for his constructive comments
and suggestions, as well as Mr. Toda Seiju and Mr. Saito Makoto
for their precious time, enthusiasm, and copyright permissions to
use the images of their posters.

86 DesignIssues: Volume 36, Number 2 Spring 2020