Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Response of sediment flux, bridge scouring on river bed morphology and T

geomorphic resilience in middle-lower part of river Chel, Eastern Himalayan
foothills zone, India
⁎
Md Kutubuddin Dhalia, , Suman Ayazb,1, Mehebub Sahanac, Subrata Guhad
a
Department of Geography, Visva-Bharati (A Central University), West Bengal, India,
b
Department of Geography, Presidency University, Kolkata, India
c
Department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
d
Department of Geography, Netaji Subhas Open University, Barasat Government College, Study Centre, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Dynamism of river bed morphology is continuous and an integrated process of mountain's natural outflow in
Sediment flux Himalayan Foothill Rivers. In-stream seasonal sediment flux, bridge establishments, bridge scouring and
Bridge scouring railway-road construction have detrimental influence over the natural flow regime of the river thereby causing
Aggradation and degradation channel degradation in the piedmont zone of eastern Himalaya of India, specifically near the urban areas where
Bed elevation change
river management strategies are very weak. Such extreme anthropogenic events have a distinctive influence in
Braided active channel shifting
changing river bed morphology in the middle-lower part of river Chel in Darjeeling Himalayan piedmont zone of
India. Huge sediment aggradation and transportation networks historically have affected River Chel and have
caused channel avulsion which poses a serious threat to the physical and ecological environment of Chel.
Aggradation and lifting of sediments from the river bed are fatal for the geomorphologic character of the river,
though no studies have been undertaken yet, to analyse the situation quantitatively in this regard. This paper
presents evidence that suggests the changing river bed morphology, the dynamic nature of the river, the poor
health of the river which is principally the impact of the seasonal sediment flux and bridge construction and thus
some methods of river restoration in the middle-lower part of the river have been explained. Agglomeration of
sediment, flow bifurcation, the volume of seasonal water mass, bed elevation changes and scouring are a major
dynamic disposition for change of river bed morphology. Point bar, sidebar, braided active channel, ripples, and
rise in the bed elevation are rapid changes in upper to lower part of bridges that are examined in the present
study. In the dry season (December to February), a huge amount of sediment lifting makes incommodious man-
made holes and a number of emergent channels which principally control the formation of a new active channel
in the next monsoon season. The avulsion of major intra-active channels and morphological changes of the river
bed for the last 85 years have also been observed in this study.

1. Introduction
Anthropogenic activities are significantly affecting the river bed
morphology by modifying sediments supply and transportation in a
river basin. This variation of sediment regime are also affecting the
ecological integrity of the river channel by disturbing the channels
stability, bed and bank erosion, and aquatic habitats of the riverine
ecology (Comiti et al., 2011). Sediments extraction from river bed is
one of the detrimental anthropogenic activities for altering the river
bed morphology and ecological degradation (Petit et al., 1996; Arnaud
et al., 2015; WyZga, 2007). The impact of sediment flux and extraction
has been widely studied in different parts of the world (Gaillot and
Piegay, 1999; Batalla et al., 2006; Surian, 1999; Scorpio et al., 2015). In
some cases sediment extraction is an important driving force for river
adjustment and channel evolution (Warner, 2000). Gaillot and Piegay
(1999) have studied the impact of the sediment lifting in coastal river
which has produced beach erosion in France. The impact of sediment
abstraction and sediment fluctuation is also dependent on the magni-
tude of the anthropogenic intervention and timescale of the sediment
extraction activity (Surian and Rinaldi, 2003; Belletti et al., 2015) but it

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: kutubgeo@gmail.com, kutubgeo@yahoo.com (M.K. Dhali).
1
Former Student.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105632
Received 11 May 2018; Received in revised form 18 October 2019; Accepted 20 October 2019
0925-8574/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
M.K. Dhali, et al.
has also been observed that Piave River of Italian Alps has been restored
after the sediment abstraction was stopped on the bed of the river
(Comiti et al., 2011).
To understand the effect of prodigious aggradation and bridge
construction on the river bed it is important to analyse the long-term
river morphology and its changing patterns. Sediment transportation,
aggradation and erosion are dynamic perpetual process of alluvial flu-
vial systems (Alexander and Cooker, 2016; Ayaz et al., 2018). Rate of
sediment deposition in mountain rivers is high and is associated with
the gradient and slope, hydraulic jump, elevation drop etc. (Rinaldi,
2003; Surian, 2002; Surian and Cisotto, 2007; Dhali and Sahana, 2017)
But bridge construction over the alluvial rivers show a remarkable
impact in changing the flow pattern, sediment transportation, ag-
gradation, degradation and modification of river bed morphology of
both upstream and downstream section (Brandt, 2000; Phillips, 2001;
Petts and Gurnell, 2005; Graf, 1984; Sanyal, 2017). The Eastern Hi-
malayan foothill region is dissected by many perennial and non-per-
ennial streams (Shukla and Bora, 2003; Gupta, 1997; Mandal and
Sarkar, 2016; Ayaz et al., 2018), whose morphology and sedimentology
are continuously being altered by the bridge construction (Wiejaczka,
2016). Complexities of micro topography has been observed due to
severity of anthropogenic activities principally establishment of
bridgeson the bedof river Chel (Fig. 1).
In monsoon phase, most of the Indian rivers obtain high amount of
water mass (Singh, 1996; Gupta, 1997; Goswami, 1998; Kale et al.,
1997; Liebault and Piegay, 2002; Starkel et al., 2008; Wiejaczka, 2016;
Ayaz et al., 2018). Transportation of sediment is the predominant work
of the river during this time through various hydrological processes like
solution, suspension, saltation and traction. Many major Eastern
Fig. 1. Response of sediment flux, bridge scouring on river bed morphology and topography; (i) seasonal aggradation of sediment on river bed, (ii) bridge scouring
after monsoon phase, (iii) Secondary deposition and seasonal braided active channel, (iv) Elevated river bed and uneven deposition
2
Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632
Himalayan foothill rivers such as Teesta, Torsa, Jaldhaka are vigorous
but Chel, Neora, Murti, Leesh, Gish, Kurti, Diana become frail at the end
of winter season due low discharge (Ayaz et al., 2018). High volume of
water flow during rainy season deposits heaps of pebble, cobble and
boulder on the downstream section of bridges by the processes of sil-
tation and traction. Bridges built on river bed are predominant an-
thropogenic determinant bringing about uneven distribution of sedi-
ments of variable size characterized by bulk deposition over the
upstream and downstream segment of the bridges. For the bridge
construction, river bed is gradually rising (Wiejaczka, 2016) and river
bed geomorphology is altering due to influx of sediments of large size
mainly pebble, cobble and boulder.
During the period of no rainfall huge sediment aggradation and
raised river bed are the characteristic features of many North Bengal
streams such as Chel (Odlabari), Neora (bridge), Murti (lower part),
Leesh (Bagrakot), Gish (Manabari), Kurti(bridge), Diana (bridge),
Teesta (Sevoke, Domohoni), Jaldhaka (Nagrakata). During this phase of
dry weather, uneven lifting of sediments from river bed creates many
new narrow holes and with the advent of rainy season these zones in-
itiate the formation of new active secondary channels. Many of works in
fluvial geomorphology like potholes morphology (Springer et al., 2005;
Sengupta and Kale, 2011; Ortega et al., 2014; Dhali and Biswas, 2017a,
Dhali and Biswas, 2017b), alluvial fan morphology (Gohain and
Prakash, 1990; Harvey, 2005; Kumar et al., 2007; Fontana et al., 2008;
Chakraborty and Ghosh, 2010; Ayaz et al., 2018), flood plain mor-
phology (Nanson and Croke, 1992; Page et al., 2003; Thayer and
Ashmore, 2016), river bed morphology (Ashmore, 1991; Brasington
et al., 2000; Ashmore, 2001; Comiti et al., 2011), dam-induced and
natural channel changes (Sanyal, 2017), mean bed load flux in braided
M.K. Dhali, et al.
rivers, erosion of river bed (Dhali and Sahana, 2017), flow control by
dam (Zech and Soares-Fra~zao, 2007), sediment transport and flow
condition (Alexander and Cooker, 2016), river bed stability (Konrad,
2009) of mountain stream in global scale have been already developed.
Sediment aggradation, raised and bed channel changes (Gaillot and
Piegay, 1999) are closely related to this study.
In this regard's studies on sediment flux, river bed morphology and
its consequence are currently under the development in the piedmont
zone of eastern Himalayan Rivers. In addition, Himalayan river system
is diversely affected by the land use land cover change and accelerated
urban expansion. Therefore, many Foothill rivers are affected by huge
sediment aggradation and bridge construction, which produce rapid
incision and degradation of Himalayan foothill river channels. In
eastern Himalayan region, urban growth has occurred in foothill region
or the piedmont zones which has adversely influenced the river bed
regimeand hydraulics by establishments of power plants, railroads,
bridge construction, construction of dams etc. The present study is the
first-time attempt to provide quantitative measurements of morpholo-
gical impact of in stream human activities with prime focus on sediment
aggradation and bridge construction in one of the Foothill Rivers of
Eastern Himalaya. The evaluation of the dynamic nature of the river
bed and associated geomorphic resilience of the river as a result of
sediment extraction and bridge construction is the main objective of
this study. To ascertain the fluvial-geomorphological response such as
morphological and hydrological components of the ever-changing river
channel and the river bed in the concerned region is also the focus of
this study.
2. Regional setting anthropogenic impact and environmental
consequence
2.1. Anthropogenic impact and environmental consequences of Darjeeling
Himalayan Piedmont Rivers
Anthropogenic impacts such as bridge and dam construction, in-
crease in population, contamination of water by pesticides from agri-
cultural fields, rapid urbanization, huge sediment flux, bridge scouring,
climate change and land use change (Serena et al., 2015; Dhali et al.,
2018) are the major challenging issues of big rivers in South East Asia.
Bridge and dam construction, sediment flux, bridge scouring are also
serious threats of Chel, Teesta, Murti, Kurti, Mal Gish, Lish, Lethi,
Neora, Jaldhaka, Daina, Torsa rivers in this region. Down and upstream
of bridges are affected by the seasonal large sediment concentration
which is deeply related to river health (Sanyal, 2017). In monsoon
season, construction region of Darjeeling Himalayan piedmont rivers
are showing inflated hydraulic behaviour, variation of fluvial hy-
draulics, an important phenomena of changing landscape of fluvial
system (Dhali and Sahana, 2017).In the dry winter and summer months
the river bed of Odlabari region (Chel river near bridges) become un-
even by sediment scouring. Change of this abiotic component of river
health is an affective consequence over different micro fluvial features
formed such as point bar, side bar, mid channel bar, ripple, bed hole,
sediment agglomeration, intra active channel shifting, and channel
geomorphology especially sinuosity of channel.
2.2. Study sites
Study area is located in the piedmont zone (Gupta, 1997, Shukla
and Bora, 2003, Guha et al., 2007; Sarkar, 2008; Kar and Chakraborty,
2014, Mandal and Sarkar, 2016) of Darjeeling Himalaya which is part
of foothill (Chakraborty and Ghosh, 2010; Chakraborty et al., 2010;
Lama and Maiti, 2019) of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts of West
Bengal. The entire basin is a sub basin of Teesta River which is system
and sub system of Brahmaputra River. Present study focused on the
upper (1 km) and lower part (1 km) of Odlabari railway and Road
Bridge (Fig. 2). Road Bridge is located between 26°51′49.03″ N and
3
Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632
88°38′5.89″ E and Railway Bridge is between 26°51′52.32″ N and
88°38′5.99″ E where the major national highway is running between
the states of Assam and West Bengal. The mean elevation of study sites
is around 130 m to 200 m from mean sea level. The river basin is tec-
tonically very active where the major fault line known as Main Central
Thrust (MCT) passes through the north of the basin (Ayaz and Dhali,
2019; Mandal and Sarkar, 2016; Sarkar, 2012; Brozovic and Burbank,
2000; DeCelles, 1994; DeCelles and Cavazza, 1999;Sarkar, 1999).
Seasonal variation of sediment deposition and variation of fluvial hy-
draulics (Gupta, 1997; Kale et al., 1997) is of utmost significance in the
selective study sites.
3. Data and methods
3.1. Suspended sediment, aggradation and degradation
Different field visit such as 2015 (October and February), 2016
(October and February), 2017 (October and February) and 2018
(February) clearly depict hydraulic behaviour of the study sites. Bed
slope, gradient, bed elevation, water discharge, water depth, mean
width, cross sectional area, velocity, roughness, shear stress and specific
stream power are the prime components for analysis of geo-hydraulic
characters. Some basic hydraulic equations are applied for outcome
results which follow the fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology
(Charlton, 2007). The following equations have been employed in this
research:
Cross sectional area (A) = W × D (1)
Water Discharge (Q) = A ∗ V (2)
Wetted Perimeter (WP ) = W + D (3)
Hydraulic radius (HR) = A/ WP (4)
Mean Shear stress τ0 = ρghS (5)
Stream Power , Ω = ρgQS (6)
Specific stream power (ω) = Ω/ W (7)
Bed roughness (v ) = (R0.67s 0.5)/ n (8)
where, ‘W’ and ‘D’ are mean width and mean depth, ‘A’, ‘h’, ‘s’ and
‘V’ is the cross sectional area, flow depth, channel slope (here slope
indicate gradient, tan−1gradient value is slope) and is mean velocity
respectively, ‘WP’, ‘τ0’ ‘ρ’, ‘g’, ‘ω’ ‘v’, ‘R’ and ‘Ω’ are wetted perimeter,
shear stress, water density (1000 kg/m3), acceleration due to gravity
(9.8 m/m2), specific stream power, Manning equation, hydraulic radius
and stream power, respectively. The result of the hydraulic behaviour
was also used for further calculation of suspended sediment and ag-
gradation behaviour on the river bed. The following mathematical
equation Foley, 1980, Dhali and Sahana, 2017)are employed for ana-
lysing it:
dz 1 Csed vg − vo 2
= ⎛ ⎞
dt 2 γ ⎝ sa ⎠ (9)
where ‘dz’, ‘dt’, ‘dz/dt’, ‘Csed’, ‘vg’, ‘vo’ ‘vg−vo’ and ‘sa’ are erosion rate,
time, rate of bed erosion due to time, river bed load sediment, water
velocity of the first point (upper bridge and lower bridge first segment
point), water velocity of the end point, water velocity difference and
rock susceptibility respectively.
3.2. Scouring calculation for sediment agglomeration
For the calculation of scouring value in the railway and road bridge
section The Richardson's scouring equation (Richardson et al., 1975) is
applied. This scouring value is directly related to seasonal sediment
agglomeration. The equation is:
M.K. Dhali, et al. Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

Fig. 2. Study area of present work, (a) Map of India, (b) fluvial system and sub system of North Bengal and (c) details study sites of Chel river basin, Odlabari
(Railway and road bridge) is the main working site.

Fig. 3. Summarized methodology of sediment flux, bridge construction and associated dynamism in morphology of river bed.

4
M.K. Dhali, et al. Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

(a) 60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Survey points from the bridge

(b) 180
160
140
120 Survey 2015
^3

100 Survey 2016

Survey 2017
Discharge (

80
60 y = 68.027e-0.007x
40 R² = 0.6942

20
0
Surve points from bridge

Fig. 4. (a) Stream power of selective study sites (from bridge to lower part of the river); 4. (b). Water discharge from bridge to lower part of river Chel.

0.65
ys
y1
= 2.0k1⋅k2 ()
a
y1
Fr 10.43 (10)where, ‘ys’, ‘y1’, ‘k1’, ‘k1’, ‘a’ and ‘Fr1’ 4. Results
are Scour depth (m), flow depth of the pier (m),Correction for pier
4.1. Hydro-geomorphic behaviour
shape, correction for flow angle of attack of flow, Pier width (m),
Froude number respectively. After the calculation of scouring values, it
Change of fluvial hydraulics is a very common and outstanding
was validated with field survey data of the last 4 years which was done
phenomenon of North Bengal fluvial system and sub-system. The source
by Cross section survey (CSS) of different portions of river bed and
region of river has dendritic drainage pattern and the rest of the basin
micro-level study of the bed was conducted by Total Station Survey
manifest parallel and sub parallel character of the basin (Mandal and
(TSS).Sediment agglomeration brings about changes in the bed eleva-
Sarkar, 2016). Changing variation of fluvial hydraulics in Chel bridge
tion for about 1 km upstream and downstream from road and railway
are changes rapidly from wet period to dray. Middle part of the river is
bridge.
very wide from its narrow upper active channel which is controlled
hydro-geomorphic behaviour of the region. Water discharge of river
Chel is 0.06 to 184.5 m3 s−1 (Dutt, 1966; Starkel et al., 2008; Prokop
3.3. Comparison between satellite images and topographical map for
and Sarkar, 2012; Wiejaczka, 2016). High velocity, water discharge and
braided channel shifting
stream power are observed on bridge section, in the bridge section of
Odlabari, water velocity is 0.08 to 156.2 m3 s−1 (October to February;
Google Earth Pro application, Landsat 8 image and different
2015, 2016, 2017) (Fig. 4a, b).River bed in dry season is almost semi
Topographical Map (78B/9) are useful in the comparison of shift in the
dry and high variation of fluvial hydraulics is observed. Sometimes
Chel River for last 80 years. The shift in the River Chel has also been
tracks and others heavy transport cars are moved on the river bed. Flash
studied by Mandal and Sarkar (2016). The changes in the river for the
flood is common feature of this region. Stream length gradient index
last 10 years were monitored by the data collected from the field and
(Hack, 1973) of river basin is 86.5 which is tectonically control and it is
Google Earth pro Image. The major change was noticed in the con-
affected river erosion. Valley sinuosity (Bull and McFadden, 1977) and
cerned study sites i.e. upper and lower part of bridge. The whole
active channel sinuosity are 1.3–1.52 and 1.5–2.2, sinuous to mean-
geospatial technique used is ArcGIS 10.2.2, Surfer 11 and Global
dering formation showing huge sediment flux nature from upper to
Mapper 18 software (Fig. 3).
lower section of the bridge. Hypsometric Integral (Strahler, 1952) is
0.59 which is showing stage of maturity nature of river (Table 1). Geo-
hydraulically the region is very active and integrity of components for

5
M.K. Dhali, et al. Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

Table 1
Hydro-geomorphological character of Chel River and especially Odlabari bridge.
Morphological and hydrological indicators Results Near Odlabari, middle–lower part
(2015–2018)

Mountain front sinuosity, Bull and McFadden (1977) [Smf = Lmf/Ls] Most active mountain front (1.0–1.6), Less active Valley sinuosity 1.3–1.52, Active channel
mountain front (1.6–3.0), Inactive mountain sinuosity 1.5–2.2
front
(> 3.0), Mandi and Soren (2016)
Width of valley floor to valley height ratio, Bull and McFadden, 1977, MFT Ridge (North) Crest ranges (0.23 to 0.25) –
[Vf = 2Vf/[(Eld − Esc) + (Erd − Esc)] and Southern scarp (0.29–0.4), Mandi and Soren
(2016)
Catchment area (km2) Mountain region 97 km2, Wiejaczka (2016) Bridge regional area 26.10 km2
Hypsometric Integral, Strahler (1952), 0.67 for whole basin, Mandal and Sarkar (2016) 0.59
[HI = (Emean − Emin) / (Emax − Emin]
River Gradient in degree 2 to 26°, Patel (2012) 6 to 8°
Stream length gradient index, Hack (1973), [SL = (ΔΗ/ΔL) L] 33.6 to 1105.6, Mandal and Sarkar (2016) 86.5 for selective sites
Asymmetry factor [AF = 100 (Ar/At)] > 50, Mandi and Soren (2016) –
Drainage density, km/km2 < 1.60 km/km2 in upper, 1.60–2.00 km/km2 in 1.14 to 1.82 km/km2 (seasonal active
foothill, 1.80–2.20 km/km2 in lower, Patel channel included)
(2012)
Drainage pattern Dendritic and parallel or sub-parallel, Mandal Dendritic and sub-parallel in dray region
and Sarkar (2016) when sub active channel observed
Basin Relative Relief) Upper part 400 m, foothill 250 m − 100 m, lower 86 m in selective study
part 40 m, Patel (2012)
Aggradation by Wiejaczka (2016) 3 cm year−1 and 0.5 cm year−1 in this region 3 cm year−1 and 0.5 cm year−1
Wiejaczka (2016)
Correlation of relative relief and average slope Positive relation, Patel (2012) Positive relation
Channel incision by Wiejaczka (2016) 1 cm year−1 and 5 cm year−1 in this region, 1 cm year−1 and 5 cm year−1
Wiejaczka (2016)
Discharge (m3 s−1) 184.5 m3 s−1 maximum and 0.06 m3 s−1 156.2–0.08 m3 s−1 maximum and m3 s−1
minimum, Wiejaczka (2016) minimum

Table 2
Erosion and suspended sediment of bridge, before bridge and after bridge of Odlabari (October to January, 2015-2017).
X Y Place vg − vo 2 Bed characters on the field (month of February 2015–2018) Statements (dry season)
dz
dt
=
1 Csed
2 γ ( sa )
kg·m2s−3

26.89258 88.64274 Near Pathorjora 2.57730 Boulder (256–768 mm), cobble (64–256 mm), pebble (32–64 mm) More little deposition, bed
deposition; Intra channel avulsion; bed elevation quite increase, gravel elevation increasing
mid channel bars, side bars, ripple observed near active channel
26.878949 88.634487 Near Odlabari 1.14566 Boulder (256–768 mm), cobble (64–256 mm), pebble (32–64 mm), Coarse Little deposition (same;
(before bridge) gravel (16–32 mm), Intra channel avulsion; bed elevation almost same, increase or decrees)
side bars, flow migration in dray season, narrow active channel
26.863455 88.635282 Near Chel bridge 15.91346 Uneven bed surface, deep active channel, channel incision, high scouring, High scouring, erosion high
boulder (256–768 mm), cobble (64–256 mm), pebble (32–64 mm), coarse (eroded)
gravel (16–32 mm), medium gravel (8–16 mm)
26.851122 88.636904 Near Odlabari bridge 0.34080 High rate of increasing bed elevation, seasonal high boulder lifting, Maximum deposition (bed
(after bridge) uneven bed surface, many of intra active channels, boulder elevation rapidly increase
(256–768 mm), cobble (64–256 mm), pebble (32–64 mm), coarse gravel
(16–32 mm), medium gravel (8–16 mm), fine gravel (4–8 mm), very fine
gravel (2–4 mm), very coarse sand (1–2 mm), ripple

Table 3
Scouring values of two bridges (calculation done by 2015, 2016, 2017 season data).
X Y Place ys a
0.65 Remarks
= 2.0k1. k2 ⎛ ⎞ Fr10.43
y1 ⎝ y1 ⎠

26.864522 88.634971 Near Railway bridge, Odlabari 14.19105 High velocity, water depth, stream power, square shape pier, high scour
26.863643 88.634879 Near Road bridge, Odlabari 11.33988 Almost same character

sediment aggradation is very well developed. Released of narrow
channel width has huge effect over the sediment aggradation in lower
part of the bridge. In monsoon season, huge amount of heterogeneous
sediments is deposited in lower part of the bridge. So, many of micro
river bed features are developed such as point bar, mid channel bar,
ripple, sediment aggradation is commonly found.
4.2. Erosion and suspended sediment load on road and railway bridge
River bed erosion and incoming bed materials are excessive on
bridge and lower part of the bridge. From pre monsoon, monsoon and
post monsoon variation of bed erosion and bed load are highly
changeable. In Monsoon time, river transports variety of sediment with
varying size from boulders to cobbles, pebbles and gravels. Near
Pathorjoraie at Odlabari (above the bridge) and Chel bridge i.e.
Odlabari (downstream of the bridge) reveal the erosion rate value of

6
M.K. Dhali, et al. Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

Net bed elevation change near 18

Empirical values
bridge (February, 2018)
12

0
1.20
0.98
0.90

Neaar Near Odlabari Near Chel Near Odlabari

Pathorjora (before bridge) bridge bridge (after
bridge)
Net bed elevation change

Places
near bridge (2017)

Fig. 5. Changing empirical values of erosion and suspended sediment relation

in different place of middle part of river Chel in dry season

2.577630 kg·m2 s−3, 1.14566 kg·m2 s−3, 15.91346 kg·m2 s−3, and
1.15
0.98
0.95

0.34080 kg·m2 s−3, respectively (Table 2). Low values of erosion rate
indicate aggradation which has a profound influence over the sediment
Net bed elevation change

agglomeration (Foley, 1980; Dhali, 2019). Eroded materials are de-

near bridge (2016)

posited in lower part of the bridge. In the dry season most of the ag-
graded bed materials are raised and carried creating large tracks on the
river bed which form narrow holes on the bed and is responsible for
changing the bed morphology of the Chel River bed.
0.95
0.78
0.75

Table 2. Erosion and suspended sediment of bridge, before bridge

and after bridge of Odlabari.
Net bed elevation change

4.3. Scouring address of road and Railway Bridge

near bridge (2015)

Scouring is a common technique of observation of aggradation and

degradation in fluvial geomorphology. The Richardson's scouring
equation (Richardson et al., 1975) has been applied for analysis of
1.00
0.73
0.65

scouring value in river Chel between October and February 2015–2017.

The scouring value of 11 to 14 (14.19105, 11.33988) near railway
bridge and road bridge of river Chel (Table 3) have been obtained.
2014 [Wiejaczka

Above 60% of the river bridges are a failure due to high level of
scouring (Landers, 1992) which is directly related by swift stream water
movement. Normally, degradable mass is deposited in the lower part of
(2016)]
River bed elevation during 2011 to 2018 in Odlabari site and piedmont area of river Chel.

7.20
6.32
5.25

the bridge. In Chel River, after the rainy season huge eroded materials
are deposited which increase in the bed elevation. Due to increase in
the bed elevation the Piedmont area of river Chel has also been raised
by6.21 m, 6.23 m and 6.32 m in the respective years 2011, 2013 and
2013 [Wiejaczka

2014 (Wiejaczka, 2016). Near bridge the scouring value is 7.05, 7.10,
7.30 and 7.30 in the month of February for the years 2015, 2016, 2017
(2016)]

and 2018 respectively (Table 4). In the upper reaches of the bridge the
6.95
6.23
5.25

maximum bed elevation is between 160 m and 180 m and minimum

elevation is 130 m to 143 m (Fig. 5). The rate of aggradation was
around 0.5 cm year−1 for 2016, 2017 and 2018.
2012 [Wiejaczka

4.4. Change of river bed morphology and intra active channel shifting
(2016)]

7.25
6.05
5.20

After the rainy season, upper and lower part of the bridge especially
lower part gets rapidly agglomerated by boulders and cobble, pebble
and gravel concentration. In North Bengal, after December River bed
2011 [Wiejaczka

sediment lifting is a common scene observed which pose a serious

challenge to the health of the river. This in turn affects the river
transport capacity in the monsoon seasons which have an over-
(2016)]

whelming influence in the morphology of the river. The River Chel does
7.80
6.21
5.15

intense morphological adjustments as a consequence of this and the

most remarkable change is the change in the active channel of the river.
Chel River (Piedmont

During non-monsoon period between 10.00 am and 4.30 pm, the trucks
carry unaffected sediments and river again got their energy (Fig. 6) but
Maximum (m)

Minimum (m)
Average (m)

thereby creates holes and carves small channels. When rainy season
commences, the water enters these holes and these become wide and
Table 4

area)

join to form small intra channels. From 1932 to 1972, Chel River has
shifted to a large extent (Mandal and Sarkar, 2016).It has migrated

7
M.K. Dhali, et al. Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

Fig. 6. Bed elevation of different point of the upper part of railway bridge at Odlabari, (A); Bed elevation of different point of the lower part of road bridge at
Odlabari (B).

Fig. 7. Present scenario of river bed affected zone and associate function of bridges (A) Image source Arc Map image 10.2.2; Main Channel avulsion since 1932 (B),
Image source Landsat 8 and data source Topographical image, Mandal and Sarkar, 2016, Google Earth; Intra channel shifting after 2006 at Nagrakata (C), Image
source Landsat 8 and data source Google Earth.

0.45 towards the west from its original position since 1972 to 2007 but from
0.4 2007 to 2018 it is almost in the same position (after 1960s Indian
railways developed in North Bengal region). Though the main channel
0.35
has not shown much variation in its position after 2007 but huge ag-
Relative width

0.3
graded sediments and rise in the bed elevation has led to the formation
0.25 of innumerable intra active channel and shifts over the years of 2006,
0.2 2009, 2013 and 2018 (Fig. 7).The field observations have revealed
0.15 1942 Oct-Jan
changes in daily basis where the small active channel fluctuate their
0.1 1971 Oct- Jan
position from day to day. Relative width of 1942 to 1971 and 1971 to
2018-time duration indicated similar values. When the railway bridge
0.05 2015Oct- Jan
was being constructed then the relative width was maximum above the
0
Sample points (ueper to lower bridge) bridge but after the construction of the bridge the relative width be-
came maximum in the lower part of the bridge (Fig. 8) which has
Fig. 8. Changing relative width of river Chel from upper to lower part of the clearly indicated the intra active channel avulsion by bridge construc-
bridge since 1942 to 2015. tion. Some micro fluvial features such as point bars, side bars, ripples,

8
M.K. Dhali, et al. Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632

Fig. 9. Different micro fluvial l features such as (a) Micro mid channel bar, (b) Side bar, (c) Sediment agglomeration, (d), Ripples, (e) Intra active channel shifting and
(f) Point bar developed in after and before bridge.

Fig. 10. Downstream with sediment flux and river bed raising affected points and unevenness river bed surface (a)′ upstream with huge sediment aggradation points
and irregular bed elevation (b).

9
M.K. Dhali, et al.
sediment agglomeration is also observed on river bed during different
field visits at different times. Ripples are common micro feature on dry
channels on the river bed, many point bars have developed in lower
part of the bridge. Sediment agglomeration is an outstanding feature
observed every year after rainy season in upper to lower bridge. Side
bars are commonly found in upper (3 majors) and lower (5 majors)
areas of the bridge which have also been developed after the bridge
construction (Fig. 9).
5. Discussion
Sediment flux, bridge scouring and bridge construction has become
a major contributor of river degradation and channel dynamic in the
last 50 years over the globe (Collins and Dunne, 1989; Rinaldi and
Simon, 1998).In-stream sediment raising, bridge scouring have ex-
tensively increased in last few decades in developing countries basically
in the foothill region. Numerous Himalayan rivers are facing the threat
of sediment aggradation, dam building, bridge construction which are
causing severe degradation in the morphological character of the river
bed and is causing dreadful floods in lower areas. The present study
discussed the morphological consequence of sediment scooping and
human intervention which has disrupted the natural flow of the river.
The result revealed that the upper part of the river flowing over steep
sided mountain valley have very high the stream power. The river bed
in the northern part of the river is characterized by big boulders, un-
even bed, and narrow to very narrow channel, high bed roughness and
high gradient. The anthropogenic activities are spotted near the urba-
nised areas which is synchronous to the middle lower part of the river.
Thus, this is the precariously affected zone. At the confluence river bed
deposition, elevated bed, Chanel avulsion, agriculture mainly paddy,
tea, seasonally affected the river at this stage. Human activities and
disturbance has strongly affected the dynamics of the channel, exposed
gravels and vegetated patches. The legacy of bridge construction,
bridge scouring and other human activities reflected flow regulation,
channel excavation, sediment entrapment and reduced sediment supply
in the Chel river basin. The sediment aggradation and degradation have
caused significant decrease in the channel width and braiding index
near the bridge area. The bed incision has increased in intense sediment
aggraded and degraded areas in the lower middle part of the river and
also has made the bed irregular (Fig. 10). Extreme incision and head cut
erosion is a consequence of sediment lifting. The present study set forth
further studies on the impact of sediment aggradation and geomorphic
resilience of river bed morphology in the major Himalayan foothill
rivers.
6. Conclusion
The present study has done in-depth investigation of the impact of
sediment flux, bridge scouring, bridge construction and railway net-
work on river bed erosion and geomorphic resilience of Chel River in
Darjeeling Himalayan piedmont zone of India. The influence of an-
thropogenic intervention was assessed by using topographical sheet,
satellite imagery and field-based investigation. Bridge construction and
associated functional change in fluvial system is a common phenom-
enon in Eastern Himalayan Foothill Rivers and Chel is one of them.
After the bridge construction, distribution of sediment is totally affected
by this anthropogenic activity from upstream to downstream. River bed
geomorphology and its health are affected by bridge construction.
Lower part of Chel bridge is showing an increase in elevation by the
influence of bridge. Thus, alluvial and gravels are being deposited (0.5
to 0.9 cm year−1) which is deeply related to scouring, sediment ag-
gradations and degradation. Scouring (10 to 15) value is much more in
bridge construction points i.e. Railway Bridge and Road Bridge.
Aggradation (0.34, lower value high deposition) is too high in the zone
of lower part of the bridges where maximum bed sediment is deposited
in rainy season. Deposited sediments are lifted which in return changes
10
Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632
river bed geomorphology. Many of intra active channels are formed by
narrow elongated hole in rainy season. Points bars, mid channel bars,
side bars, gravel bars, ripples are micro-features which are observed in
lower and upper part of the bridge. The braiding pattern of the river
Chel has been significantly reduced due to sediment lifting and it can
cause further channel migration to the non-extraction zones. The se-
diment aggradation and rise in bed elevation has increased in last few
years especially towards the downstream of the river. The most affected
areas of sediment scooping are near the bridge and main road network
where the huge aggraded and raised sites are located. The current width
of the river and elevation losses is quite persistent in spatio-temporal
scale. The river channel has adjusted the present sediment lifting and
human intervention by narrowing its channel, increasing incision and
shifting its channel towards the weaker zones. Incision had played an
important role to recover the human intervention and has reshaped the
river bed. As per the environmental contention river Chel is one of the
most important rivers in the piedmont zone of northern Himalayan
region and its requisite awareness is necessary for an effective man-
agement. The local government and environmental management au-
thority should consider the sustainable river management plan. The
possible environmental consequence can be reduced by adapting the
real time restoration and management strategies by allowing scientists
and authorities to intervene in the matter.
Acknowledgements
The corresponding author wishes to thank the Editor-in-Chief, Prof.
Jan Vymazal, Ecological Engineering and the anonymous reviewers for
their valuable comments to substantial improvement of the manuscript.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
References
Alexander, Cooker, 2016. Moving boulders in flash floods and estimating flow conditions
using boulders in ancient deposits. Sedimentology 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/
sed.12274.
Arnaud, F., Piegay, H., Schmitt, L., Rollet, A., Ferrier, V., Beal, D., 2015. Historical
geomorphic analysis (1932–2011) of a by-passed river reach in process-based re-
storation perspectives: the old rhine downstream of the kembs diversion dam (France,
Germany). Geomorphology 236 (Supplement C), 163–177. http://www.ciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S0169555X15000926.
Ashmore, P., 1991. Channel morphology and bed load pulses in braided, gravel-bed
streams. In: Geografiska Annaler. Series A 73 (A(1))pp. 37–52.
Ashmore, P., 2001. Braiding phenomena: statics and kinetics. In: Mosley, M.P. (Ed.),
Gravel-Bed Rivers. vol. V. New Zealand Hydrological Society, Wellington, New
Zealand, pp. 95–121.
Ayaz, S., Dhali, M.K., 2019. Longitudinal profiles and geomorphic indices analysis on
tectonic evidence of fluvial form, process and landform deformation of Eastern
Himalayan Rivers, India. In: Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes. Taylor Francis, pp.
1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2019.1568130.
Ayaz, S., Biswas, M., Dhali, M.K., 2018. Morphotectonic analysis of alluvial fan dynamics:
comparative study in spatio-temporal scale of Himalayan foothill, India. In: Arabian
Journal of Geoscience. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3308-2.
Batalla, R., Vericat, D., Martínez, T., 2006. River-channel changes downstream from dams
in the lower Ebro River. Z. Geomorphol. 143 (Suppl. B), 1–14.
Belletti, B., Dufour, S., Piégay, H., 2015. What is the relative effect of space and time to
explain the Braided River width and island patterns at a regional scale? River Res.
Appl. 31, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.2714.
Brandt, S.A., 2000. Classification of geomorphological effects downstream of dams.
Catena 40 (4), 375e401.
Brasington, J., Rumsby, B.T., Mcvey, R.A., 2000. Monitoring and modelling morpholo-
gical change in a braided gravel-bed river using high resolution GPS-based survey.
Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 25, 973–990.
Brozovic, N., Burbank, D.W., 2000. Dynamic fluvial systems and gravel progradation in
the Himalayan foreland. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 112, 394e412.
Bull, W.B., McFadden, L.D., 1977. Tectonic geomorphology north and south of the
Garlock Fault, California. In: Doehring, D.O. (Ed.), Geomorphology in Arid Regions.
State University of New York, Binghamton, NY, pp. 115e138.
Chakraborty, T., Ghosh, P., 2010. The geomorphology and sedimentology of the
Tistamegafan, Darjeeling Himalaya: implications for megafan building processes.
Geomorphology 115, 252–266.
Chakraborty, T., Kar, R., Ghosh, P., Basu, S., 2010. Kosimegafan: historical records,
M.K. Dhali, et al.
geomorphology and the recent avulsion of the Kosi River. Quat. Int. 227, 143–160.
Charlton, R.O., 2007. Fundamentals of Fluvial Geomorphology. Routledge, pp. 10–107.
Collins, B.D., Dunne, T., 1989. Gravel transport, gravel harvesting and channel-bed de-
gradation in rivers draining the Southern Olympic Mountains,Washington, U.S.
Environ. Geol. 13, 213–224.
Comiti, F., Da Canal, M., Surian, N., Mao, L., Picco, L., Lenzi, M., 2011. Channel ad-
justments and vegetation cover dynamics in a large gravel bed river over the last
200years. Geomorphology 125, 147–159.
DeCelles, P.G., 1994. Late CretaceousePaleocenesynorogenic sedimentation and kine-
matic history of the Sevier thrust belt, Northeast Utah and Southwest Wyoming. Geol.
Soc. Am. Bull. 106, 32e56.
DeCelles, P.G., Cavazza, W., 1999. A comparison of fluvial mega fans in the Cordillarians
(Upper cretaceous) and modern Himalayan foreland basin systems. Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull. 111, 1315e1334.
Dhali, K., Sahana, M., 2017. Spatial variation in fluvial hydraulics with major bed erosion
zone: A study of Kharsoti river of India in the post monsoon period Arabian Journal of
Geosciences. 10(20) Springerhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017- 3205-8.
Dhali, M.K., Chakraborty, M., Sahana, M., 2018. Assessing spatio-temporal growth of
urban sub centre using Shannon’s Entropy Model and Principle Component Analysis:
A case from North 24 Pargana’s district of India. Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing
and Space Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.02.002.
Dhali, M.K., 2019. Dynamic evolution of riverbed potholes in the granitic bedrock of
Chota Nagpur Plateau, middle part of Subarnarekha River basin. In: India Journal of
Hydrology. 571. Elsevier, pp. 819–836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.02.
022.
Dhali M. K., Biswas M., (2017a) Geo-hydrological response to pothole formation: a
quantitative study of Kharsoti River, India, Model. Earth Syst. Environ. (2017) 3:32,
Springer International Publishing Switzerland, DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-
017-0280-5, pp.1–11.
Dhali, M.K., Biswas, M., 2017b. MCA on mechanism of river bed potholes growth: a study
of Middle Subarnarekha River Basin, South East Asia. In: Environ Dev Sustain.
Springer Nature (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-0069-8.
Dutt, G.N., 1966. Landslides and soil erosion in the Kalimpong subdivision, Darjeeling
district and their bearing on the North Bengal flood. Bull GeolSurv India B 15, 62–69.
Foley, M.G., 1980. Bed-rock incision by streams. GeolSoc Am Bull Part II 91, 2189–2213.
Fontana A, Mozzi P, Bondesan A (2008). Alluvial megafans in the Venetian–Friulian plain
(north-eastern Italy): evidence of sedimentary and erosive phases.
Gaillot, S., Piegay, H., 1999. Impact of gravel-mining on stream channel and coastal se-
diment supply: example of the Calvi Bay in Corsica (France). J. Coast. Res. 774–788.
Gohain, K., Prakash, B., 1990. Morphology of the KosiMegafan. In: Rachoki, A., Church,
M. (Eds.), Alluvial Fans: A Field Approach. John Willey and Sons Ltd, Chichester, pp.
151–178.
Goswami, D.C., 1998. Fluvial regime and flood hydrology of the Brahmaputra River,
Assam. In Kale, V.S. editor, Flood studies in India. Bangalore: Geological Society of
India. Memoir 41, 53–76.
Graf, W.L., 1984. A probabilistic approach to the spatial assessment of river channel in-
stability. Water Resour. Res. 20 (7), 953e962.
Guha, D., Bardhan, S., Basir, S.R., De, A.K., Sarkar, A., 2007. Imprints of Himalayan thrust
tectonics on the Quaternary piedmont sediments of the Neora–Jaldhaka Valley,
Darjeeling–Sikkim Sub-Himalayas, India. J. Asian Earth Sci. 30, 464–473.
Gupta, S., 1997. Himalayan drainage patterns and the origin of fluvial megafans in the
Ganges foreland basin. Geology 25, 11–14.
Hack, J.T., 1973. Stream profile analysis and stream gradient index. In: Journal of
Research of the U.S Geological Survey. 1(4). pp. 421e429.
Harvey, A.M., 2005. Differential effects of base-level, tectonic setting and climatic change
on quaternary alluvial fans in the northern Great Basin, Nevada, USA. In: Harvey,
A.M., Mather, A.E., Stokes, M. (Eds.), Alluvial Fans: Geomorphology, Sedimentology,
Dynamics. 251(1). Geol Soc Spec Publ, pp. 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.
SP.2005.251.01.09.
Kale, V.S., Hire, P., Baker, V.R., 1997. Flood hydrology and geomorphology of monsoon
dominated rivers: the Indian Peninsula. Water Int. 22, 259–265.
Kar, R., Chakraborty, T., 2014. Comment on Geomorphology in Relation to Tectonics: a
Case Study From the Eastern Himalayan Foothill of West Bengal, India. 2014.
Konrad, C.P., 2009. Simulating the recovery of suspended sediment transport and river-
bed stability in response to dam removal on the Elwha River,Washington. Ecol. Eng.
35 (2009), 1104–1115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.03.018.
Kumar, R., Suresh, N., Sangode, S.J., Kumaravel, V., 2007. Evolution of the quaternary
alluvial fan system in the Himalayan foreland basin: implications for tectonic and
climatic decoupling. QuatInt 159, 6–20.
Lama, S., Maiti, R., 2019. Morphometric Analysis of Chel River Basin, West Bengal, India,
using Geographic Information System, Earth Science India eISSN: 0974–8350, V. 12
(I). pp. 1–23.
Landers MN (1992). Bridge Scour Data Management. Published in Hydraulic Engineering:
Saving a Threatened Resource—In Search of Solutions: Proceedings of the Hydraulic
Engineering sessions at Water Forum ‘92. Baltimore, Maryland, August 2–6, 1992.
Published by American Society of Civil Engineers.
Liebault, F., Piegay, H., 2002. Causes of 20th century channel narrowing in mountain and
piedmont rivers of southeastern France. Earth Surf. Process. Landform. 27, 425e444.
Mandal S. and Sarkar S.,(2016). Overprint of neotectonism along the course of River Chel,
North Bengal, India.Journal of palaeography, 2016,5(3), 221–240 pp, doi:10.1016/j.
jop.2016.05.004.
Nanson, G.C., Croke, J.C., 1992. A genetic classification of floodplains. Geomorphology 4,
459–486.
Mandi, S., Soren, K., 2016. Morphotectonic analysis of the Chel river basin, northern West
11
Ecological Engineering 142 (2020) 105632
Bengal, India. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) 21
(6), 1–6.
Ortega, J.A., Gomez-Heras, M., Perez-Lopez, R., Wohl, E., 2014. Multiscale structural and
lithologic controls in the development of stream potholes on granite bedrock rivers.
Geomorphology 204, 588–598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.09.005.
Patel, P., 2012. GIS Techniques for Landscape Analysis – Case Study of the Chel River
Basin. In: State Level Seminar on Geographical Methods in the Appraisal of Landscape
Kolkata on 20th March, pp 1–14.
Petit, F., Poinsart, D., Bravard, J.-P., (1996). Channel incision, gravel mining and bedload
transport in the Rhone River upstream of Lyon, France (“Canal de Miribel”). Catena
26 (3), 209–226. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/
034181629500047X.
Petts, G.E., Gurnell, A.M., 2005. Dams and geomorphology: research progress and future
directions. Geomorphology 71 (1), 27e47.
Phillips, J.D., 2001. Sedimentation in bottomland hardwoods downstream of an east
Texas dam. Environ. Geol. 40, 860e868.
Prokop, P., Sarkar, S., 2012. Natural and human impact on land use change of the
Sikkimese-Bhutanese Himalayan piedmont, India. QuaestionesGeogr 31 (3), 63–75.
https://doi.org/10.2478/v10117-012-0010-z.
Richardson, E.V., Simons, D.B., Karaki, S., Mahmood, K., Stevens, M.A., 1975. Highways
in the River Environment, first ed. U. S. Dept. of Transportation, FHW A, Ft.
Collins, Co.
Rinaldi, M., 2003. Recent channel adjustments in alluvial rivers of Tuscany, central Italy.
Earth Surf. Process. and Landforms 28, 587–608.
Rinaldi, M., Simon, A., 1998. Bed-level adjustments in the Arno River, central Italy.
Geomorphology 22, 57–71.
Sanyal, J., 2017. Predicting possible effects of dams on downstream river bed changes of a
Himalayan river with morphodynamic modelling. Quaternary International 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.03.063.
Sarkar, S., 1999. Landslides in Darjeeling Himalaya, India. Transactions of the Japanese
Geomorphological Union 20 (3), 299–315.
Sarkar, S., 2008. Flood hazard in the Sub-Himalayan North Bengal, India. In: Singh, S.,
Starkel, L., Syiemlieh, H.J. (Eds.), Environmental Changes and Geomorphic Hazard.
Bookwell, New Delhi/ Shillong, pp. 247–262.
Sarkar S. (2012). Evolution of Relief and Drainage in the Himalayan Foreland of West
Bengal, India, Geographical Thought, University of North Bengal, All Rights
Reserved, ISSN 2229-466X, Vol. 10, 2012, 1–110.
Scorpio, V., Aucelli, P.P., Giano, S.I., Pisano, L., Robustelli, G., Rosskopf, C.M.,
Schiattarella, M., 2015. River channel adjustments in southern Italy over the past
150years and implications for channel recovery. Geomorphology 251, 77–90.
Sengupta, S., Kale, V.S., 2011. Evaluation of the role of rock properties in the develop-
ment of potholes: a case study of the Indrayani Knick point, Maharashtra. In: J Earth
Syst Sci. 120(1). Springer, pp. 157–165.
Serena, C., Francesco, L., Alberto, M., 2015. Human Pressure on Rivers is Increasing
Worldwide and Threatens Water Security, Hydrological Sciences and Water Security:
Past, Present and Future (Proceedings of the 11th Kovacs Colloquium, Paris, France,
June 2014). 366. IAHS Publ., pp. 2015.
Shukla, U.K., Bora, D.S., 2003. Geomorphology and sedimentology of Piedmont zone,
Ganga Plain, India. Current Science Vol. 84 (8), 1034–1040.
Singh, M., 1996. The Ganga River: Fluvial Geomorphology, Sedimentation, Processes and
Geochemical Studies. Ruprecht-Karls- Universitat, Heidelberg.
Springer, S.G., Tooth, S., Wohl, E.E., 2005. Dynamics of pothole growth as defined by
field data and geometrical description. J. Geophys. Res. 110, 1–10. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2005JF000321.
Starkel, L., Sarkar, S., Soja, R., Prokop, P., 2008. Present-day evolution of the Sikkimese-
Bhutanese Himalayan Piedmont. In: Geographical Studies. vol. 219 Institute of
Geography and Spatial Organization PAS, Warsaw.
Strahler, A.N., 1952. Dynamic basis of geomorphology. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 63, 923e938.
Surian, N., 1999. Channel changes due to river regulation: the case of the Piave River,
Italy. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 24, 1135–1151.
Surian, N., 2002. Downstream variation in grain size along an Alpine river: analysis of
controls and processes. Geomorphology 43, 137–149.
Surian, N., Cisotto, A., 2007. Channel adjustments, bedload transport and sediment
sources in a gravel-bed river, Brenta River, Italy. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 32,
1641–1656.
Surian, N., Rinaldi, M., 2003. Morphological response to river engineering and man-
agement in alluvial channels in Italy. Geomorphology 50 (4), 307–326.
Thayer, J.B., Ashmore, P., 2016. Floodplain morphology, sedimentology, and develop-
ment processes of apartially alluvial channel. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.geomorph.2016.06.040.
Warner, R.F., 2000. Gross channel changes along the Durance River, southern France,
over the last 100 years using cartographic data. Regul. Rivers Res. Manag. 16 (2),
141–157.
Wiejaczka, L., 2016. Riverbeds level changes in the margin and foreland of the Darjeeling
Himalaya during the years with a normal monsoon rainfall. In: Singh, R.B., Prokop, P.
(Eds.), Environmental Geography of South Asia, Advances in Geographical and
Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55741-8_5.
WyZga, B., 2007. 20 a review on channel incision in the polish carpathian rivers during
the 20th century. In: Habersack, H., Piegay, H., Rinaldi, M. (Eds.), Gravel-Bed Rivers
VI: From Process Understanding to River Restoration. Developments in Earth Surface
Processes. vol. 11. Elsevier, pp. 525–553.
Zech, Y., Soares-Fra~zao, S., 2007. Dam-break flow experiments and real-case data. A
database from the European IMPACT research. J. Hydraul. Res. 45, 5–7.