2/19/2020 DoITPoMS - TLP Library Creep Deformation of Metals - Creep Mechanisms

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Creep Mechanisms
The detailed mechanisms responsible for creep tend to be complex. However, they almost always involve diffusion of some sort. This is
how the time-dependence arises, since diffusional processes are progressive with time. Further information about the fundamentals of
diffusion is available in the Diffusion TLP.

Creep deformation is caused by the deviatoric (shape changing) component of the stress state applied to a sample – the von Mises
stress. The hydrostatic component has no effect, meaning that during creep deformation occurs at constant volume. However, whilst the
overall deformation is in response to the deviatoric stress, local variations in in hydrostatic stress do affect creep behaviour, as will be
outlined below.

Coble Creep
Creep deformation often involves various defects, particularly dislocation cores or grain boundaries. These may simply act as fast
diffusion paths, or play a larger role in creep mechanisms (some of which are beyond the scope of this TLP), depending on factors such
as dislocation density, grain size, grain shape and temperature. The shape change experienced by the sample may arise simply from
atoms becoming redistributed by diffusion. When this occurs on the scale of a grain, with the diffusion occurring mainly via grain
boundaries, then this is commonly referred to as Coble Creep. The simulation below shows how this tends to cause the sample to extend
under an applied load.

Note: Coloured atoms are no different from those in the bulk, but merely allow each atom to be identified easily.

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To "polar" region
of grain

T/Tm σ/σy

0.9 0.9
0.7 0.45
0.4 0

Use the bu ons to vary the applied stress and temperature, observing
the effects these variables have on diffusion and grain deforma on

Simulation demonstrating Coble creep on the atomic scale

It can be seen that raising the applied stress accelerates the rate of deformation. The driving force for this net migration of material (from
the “equatorial” regions of grains to the “polar” regions) is that an applied tensile stress like this creates hydrostatic compression in the
equatorial regions and hydrostatic tension in the polar regions. The hydrostatic tension can be thought of as arising from the applied
tensile stress, where the compression arises from the lateral contraction of the sample (due to volume conservation). The atoms then tend
to move from the more “crowded” to the more “open” regions. The diffusive flux can be considered as a migration of vacancies in the
opposite direction to the motion of atoms, although the concept of vacant sites is less well-defined in a grain boundary than in the lattice.
We could equally imagine how hydrostatic compression could arise in the “polar” regions, and hydrostatic tension could arise in the
“equatorial” regions, via the application of a compressive stress to the sample. Hence diffusive flux would be in the opposite direction,
and the sample would deform in the opposite fashion, with the grains becoming “squashed” by the compressive stress.

It’s also clear that raising the temperature increases the creep rate. This is simply due to the rates of diffusion becoming higher as a
consequence of the Arrhenius dependence (click here for details). The activation energy for grain boundary diffusion is low, and the
cross-sectional area available for diffusion along grain boundaries is much less than for diffusion through the bulk. Therefore this type of
creep is often the dominant one at relatively low temperatures and for samples with a fine grain size.

Nabarro-Herring Creep
A similar type of creep deformation to that described above can occur with the diffusion being predominantly within the interior (crystal
lattice) of the grains, rather than in the grain boundaries. This is often termed Nabarro-Herring creep (N-H creep). It is depicted in the
simulation below.

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T/Tm σ/σy

0.9 0.9
0.7 0.45
0.4 0

Due to the thermodynamics of vacancy forma on there are very few vacancies
present at low temperatures and hence diffusion is also negligible.

Simulation demonstrating Nabarro-Herring creep on the atomic scale

A similar dependence on temperature and stress is observed to that for Coble creep. The diffusion of atoms in one direction can be more
easily pictured as the diffusion of vacancies in the other direction during N-H creep. There is a considerably greater sectional area
available via crystal lattice paths, particularly if the grains are relatively large. On the other hand, the activation energy is higher, so
diffusion rates tend to be low, particularly at low temperature. This type of creep tends to dominate over Coble creep at relatively high
temperature, and with large grains or single crystals.

Dislocation Creep
Purely diffusional creep (Coble and Nabarro-Herring) is fairly simple, and does occur under certain conditions - usually with relatively low
applied stresses. With higher stresses, it is common for a type of creep to occur that involves motion of dislocations, particularly in metals,
where dislocation densities tend to be high. Provided the stress is below the yield stress, conventional macroscopic plasticity, occurring
predominantly via dislocation glide, should not occur. However, with stresses that are starting to approach the yield stress, and are
maintained for extended periods, progressive dislocation motion, and hence macroscopic plastic deformation, can occur, often facilitated
by extensive climb (absorption or emission of vacancies at the core) of individual dislocations. It should be noted that climb does not refer
only to vertical motion of the dislocation, and can refer to horizontal motion too. One of the ways dislocation creep can occur via climb is
shown in the simulation below:

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σ/σy T/Tm

0.9 0.9
0.45 0.7
0 0.4

Due to the thermodynamics of vacancy forma on there are very few vacancies
present at low temperatures and hence diffusion is also negligible.

Simulation demonstrating Dislocation Creep on the atomic scale

In this example, the shear stress provides the driving force for diffusion into the dislocation core, rather than hydrostatic compression or
tension as in the case of Coble or N-H creep. In detail, there are several different ways in which combinations of dislocation glide and
diffusion in the vicinity of dislocations can promote creep. Some of these have been given specific names, but these often relate to
observed dependences on the main variables (e.g. temperature or grain size), rather than being clear about the precise mechanisms
involved. In general, they all involve some combination of dislocation climb and glide, although, in particular cases, factors such as the
presence of obstacles (e.g. fine precipitates), the ease of cross-slip etc. may affect the observed behaviour. Dislocation density may
also affect the behaviour. However, at the high homologous temperatures at which creep typically occurs, the dislocation density may
decrease somewhat with time, or could indeed drop sharply if recrystallization were to occur. It might be imagined that this would reduce
the rate of deformation. However, in practice the associated decrease in the yield stress might well promote the onset of conventional
plasticity - ie extensive dislocation glide - such that the rate of deformation increased.

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