Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

FUNDAMENTALS
OF FLUID FLOW
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
LIQUIDS
Flow and Velocity
What makes a liquid flow from one place to another?
Liquids are made to flow by one of two things, gravity or pressure.
a. Gravity: if you tilt a glass full of water, gravity will force it to flow down
towards the floor.
b. Pressure: if you take a mouth full of water, then increase its pressure by
compressing it with your cheeks, you will force it to flow out horizontally from
your mouth.
Fluid will always flow from a high pressure area to a low pressure area.
The only way you can make fluid flow into a high pressure area is to put it under
even higher pressure.
When controlling a triplex pump we control the speed at which pistons move.
The pistons apply pressure to the fluid to make it move through the pipe.
Volume flow rate describes the volume of fluid passing a point in a given time
and is measured in gallons per minute (gpm) or litres per minute (lpm).
The speed at which fluid flows depends on the flow rate and the area through
which the fluid is flowing. To calculate the area of a pipe from the diameter, use
the equation below:
P(Pi)
Area = x diameter2
4
or use
2
Area = 0.7854 x diameter
which is generally close enough.
© Weatherford, Thru-Tubing 2001 Page 1 MacFlow Tutorial Notes

The equation to calculate the speed of the fluid in oilfield units is,
0.32086 (Q)
V =
A
where v is the velocity of the fluid in ft/s,
Q is the volume flow rate in gpm,
and A is the internal area of the pipe in in2.
This equation can be found in section 7 of the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook as

‘Jet Velocity’.
For example, 30 gpm of fluid flowing through a 1" diameter pipe flows at 12.3
ft/s.
30 gpm
1" 800 lbf

diameter v = 12.3 ft/s
Doubling the flow rate will double the speed of the fluid.
60 gpm
1" 800 lbf

diameter v = 24.6 ft/s

LIQUID FLOW WORKSHEET

1. The following diagram represents three pipes with liquid flowing through
them. Draw an arrow to indicate in which direction you think the liquid must be
flowing in each of the three pipes.
500 psi
950 psi
2 in2
1 in2
3 in2
500 psi
2. What is the area of a circle of diameter 2" (see page 28 of Ops Handbook)?
3. The equation for the velocity of a fluid in a pipe is:
a. Velocity = 0.32086 x pressure x distance

b. Velocity = 0.32086 x flow x area
c. Velocity = 0.32086 x flow / area
d. Velocity = colour x smell
4. Increasing the flow rate of a liquid through a pipe has the following effect:
a. Velocity goes down

b. Area goes up
c. Velocity goes up
d. Density goes up
5. From the relevant equation in the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook find the
velocity of 90 gpm flowing through a pipe of area 0.5 in2.
6. From the relevant equation in the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook find the
velocity of 80 gpm flowing through a nozzle of 0.75" diameter.

PRESSURE
Pressure is a measure of how much force the molecules within a fluid exert on a
surface they are in contact with.
So, for example, a fluid at a pressure of 100 psi (Pounds per Square Inch) will
exert a force equivalent to a 100 lb weight on a plate 1" x 1".
A plate submerged in this fluid will experience this force on both sides. The
forces cancel each other and the net result is no force on the plate – it will not
be pushed in either direction.
Imagine a box of fluid, with a piston 1" x 1" at one end. If there is no fluid, or
fluid at ambient pressure, on the other side of the piston, the piston will be
pushed in the direction away from the high pressure with a force of 100 lbs.
100 psi
100 lbf
1" x 1"
A plate with 2 times the area would experience 2 times the force from fluid of
the same pressure – it sees 100 lbs per square inch and has 2 square inches, so
it sees 200 lbs force.
100 psi
200 lbf
2" x 1"

Pressure can be imparted to a fluid by pushing on it. Pushing on an enclosed

fluid with a force of 200 lb on a 1" x 1" piston will increase the fluid pressure by
200 psi.
200 psi
200 lbf
1" x 1"
If the same force is applied to a larger area, less pressure will result. 200 lbf
acting over 2 square inches gives rise to a pressure of 100 psi (200 lbf / 2in2 =
100psi). Think of it as the same force being spread thinly over a larger area.
100 psi
200 lbf
2" x 1"
The equations that describe the relationship between force and pressure are
F
P = and F =PxA
A
where P is pressure in psi,

F is force in lbf,
and A is area in in2.

PRESSURE WORKSHEET
1. In the following diagram what force would you expect the piston (in a darker
colour with the arrow attached) to see?
300 psi
1" x 1" ? lbf
a. 3 lbf
b. 30 lbf
c. 150 lbf
d. 300 lbf
e. 600 lbf
2. In the following diagram, what force would you expect the piston to see?
400 psi
? lbf
2" x 2"
a. 10 lbf
b. 100 lbf
c. 200 lbf
d. 400 lbf
e. 1,600 lbf

3. In the following diagram, a piston separates two volumes of fluid at different

pressures. What force would you expect the piston to see?
100 psi 300 psi
2" x 2" ? lbf
a. 75 lbf
b. 100 lbf
c. 800 lbf
d. 400 lbf
e. 200 lbf
f. 1,200 lbf
4. In the following diagram, what force would you have to apply to the piston to
achieve the given pressure?
400 psi
2" x 2" ? lbf
a. 50 lbf
b. 100 lbf
c. 200 lbf
d. 1,600 lbf

FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE
If the fluid in the previous examples is not enclosed, exerting a force on the
piston will cause the fluid to leave the box.
If the opening is very large it will be very easy for the fluid to get through it, and
the force exerted on the fluid will be very small – just the force required to
overcome the friction from the wall of the vessel.
For example, it may take just 2 lbs of force to push the fluid out of the box, in
which case the pressure of the fluid behind the piston will be just 2 psi.
2 psi
2 lbf
1" x 1"
If the fluid only has a small orifice to escape from, the force you will need to
apply to the piston will be much greater. The amount of force applied to the
piston determines the rate at which the fluid will escape. The greater the force
applied to the piston, the quicker the fluid will escape.
Let’s say, for example, that if we want the fluid to flow out at 1 gpm, we have to
apply a 200 lb force to the piston. The pressure of the fluid within the vessel
would then be about 200 psi.
Almost 200 psi

0 psi
200 lbf
1" x 1"
Once out of the vessel the fluid has no forces acting on it from the surrounding
air, so its pressure will be close to ambient (i.e. the same pressure as the air
around it). So in the short distance from just before the orifice to just after it, the
fluid has lost nearly 200 psi of pressure. As pressure is an indication of how
much energy is stored in a fluid, where has all the energy gone?

The energy is converted into kinetic energy, as the fluid squirts out at high
velocity, and heat, from the friction of all the fluid being squeezed through the
orifice. The figure of 200 psi represents the amount of energy you have to
supply to the fluid to get 1 gpm through the small opening.
The equation for pressure loss across an orifice is:
MW x Q2
DP =
10858 x A2
where MW is the density of the fluid in lbs/gal,

Q is the flow rate in gpm,
and A is the total flow area in sq in.
This equation can be found in section 7 of the MacDrill Operator's Handbook as

‘Pressure Drop Across the Bit’.

NOZZLE WORKSHEET
1. What happens to the pressure drop across a restriction if you double the flow
area?
a. it reduces to a quarter of the original pressure

b. it reduces to a half of the original pressure
c. it doubles
d. it quadruples
2. What happens to the pressure drop across a restriction if you triple the flow
area?
a. it reduces to a twelfth of the original pressure

b. it reduces to a ninth of the original pressure
c. it reduces to a third of the original pressure
d. it triples
e. it goes up by a factor of nine
3. What happens to the pressure drop across a restriction if you double the flow
rate?
a. it reduces to a quarter of the original pressure drop

b. it reduces to a half of the original pressure drop
c. it doubles
d. it quadruples
4. From the relevant equation in section 7 of the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook,

what will be the pressure drop across a nozzle of 0.25" diameter, when pumping
100 gpm of water?

FLOW THROUGH PIPES
As well as losing pressure when flowing through small orifices, fluid also loses
pressure as it flows through pipes. The loss of pressure is due to loss of energy
caused by friction with the pipe walls. This energy is almost all lost as heat. You
will be familiar with this from the pressure loss caused by pumping through
coiled tubing.
1500 psi 1000 psi
15 psi
The pump will always supply just enough pressure to the fluid to push the
desired amount through the system, so that when it finally exhausts it is at the
same pressure as what is around it. So if the reel in the diagram above
exhausted into a pressurised reservoir, the pump would push harder on the fluid,
increasing its pressure, to maintain the same flow rate.
2000 psi 1500 psi 500 psi
515 psi

The amount of pressure required to pump a certain flow rate of fluid through a
pipe is described by the following equation (in SI units):
2x f x l x r x v2
DP =
D
Where f is a friction factor related to the roughness of the pipe,

l is the length of the pipe,
r is the density of the fluid (for water enter 8.34),
v is the velocity of the fluid,
and D is the internal diameter of the pipe.
A form of this equation in oilfield units can be found in section 8 of the MacDrill
Operator’s Handbook as ‘Pressure Drop (practical)’.
What this means is that:
1. as the length of the pipe increases, so does the pressure required to drive
fluid through it – twice the length requires twice the pressure
2. as the density (or specific gravity) of the fluid increases, so does the
pressure required to drive it through the pipe – twice the density requires
twice the pressure
3. as the diameter of the pipe increases, the pressure required to drive fluid
through it reduces – in fact, if the diameter doubles the pressure required
falls by a factor of 32 (as well as being on the bottom of the equation, the
diameter determines the velocity of the fluid as velocity = flow rate /
area)
Take the example of a 1" inside diameter typical coiled tubing pipe, 1000 ft long,
flowing 30 gpm of water. The pressure loss through this pipe will be approx. 270
psi. If the pressure at the outlet end is 20 psi, the pressure at the inlet end will
be 20 psi + 270 psi = 290 psi.

290 psi 20 psi

30 gpm
1" 800 lbf

diameter Loss = 270 psi
1000 ft
If the flow is doubled to 60 gpm, the pressure loss would quadruple to 1080 psi,
and the inlet pressure would be 20 psi + 1080 psi = 1100 psi.
1100 psi 20 psi

60 gpm
1" 800 lbf

1000 ft

If the length of the pipe is doubled, the pressure loss is doubled.
560 psi 20 psi

30 gpm
1" 800 lbf

2000 ft
If the diameter is doubled, the pressure loss falls dramatically.
28 psi 20 psi
30 gpm
2" 800 lbf

1000 ft
Increasing the density of the fluid affects the pressure loss linearly; i.e. an
increase in SG of 14% will increase the pressure loss by 14%.
327 psi 20 psi
30 gpm, 9.5 ppg
1" 800 lbf Loss = 307 psi

diameter
1000 ft
Downhole motors and other tools such as valves and bits also provide resistance
to the flow of fluid, so that a pump must supply extra pressure to push fluid
through them. Bits and valves act just like the orifices we described earlier.
Motors are a more complicated problem.

FLOW THROUGH PIPES WORKSHEET

Consider water flowing through 3000 ft of 1" diameter pipe at 30 gpm as in the
diagram below.
830 psi 20 psi
30 gpm
1" 800 lbf Pressure Loss

diameter = 810 psi
3000 ft
1. What would the pressure loss be through 6,000 ft of pipe?
a. 405 psi
b. 1,215 psi
c. 1,620 psi
d. 2,430 psi
e. 3,240 psi
2. What would the pressure loss be if the fluid has an density of 7.5 lb/gal?
a. 728 psi
b. 810 psi
c. 901 psi
3. What would the pressure loss be if the diameter was halved?
a. 405 psi
b. 1,620 psi
c. 3,240 psi
d. 6,480 psi
e. 12,960 psi
f. 25,920 psi

PRESSURE DROP ACROSS A MOTOR
Pumping fluid through a hydraulic motor will always result in a drop in pressure
through that motor. The pressure of fluid entering the motor will always be
greater than the pressure of fluid leaving it. If the pressure of fluid leaving the
motor is greater, it’s not a motor – it’s a pump!
The reason that the pressure of fluid leaving a hydraulic motor is always less
than the pressure entering it is that a hydraulic motor does not introduce new
energy into the fluid system. It always removes energy from the system. What it
does do is convert energy from one form into another.
Notice that we are talking about the pressure drop across the motor, as
opposed to pressure loss, because some of the pressure may not be lost as such,
but may be converted into useful work. The total pressure drop across a motor,
or the difference between the pressure of fluid coming in to the motor and the
pressure of fluid exiting the motor, is a combination of:
1. a drop in pressure due to friction, restrictions and changes in fluid direction,

and
2. a drop in pressure due to work done by the motor.
The motor will loose a set amount of pressure at a given flow rate, due to friction,
restrictions and changes of direction within the motor. This is referred to as the
off-bottom or free running loss of the motor at that flow rate, because it is the
pressure drop you would see across the motor if you were pumping that volume
of fluid through it with no load.
For example, a 3-1/8" MacDrill running at 70 gpm has an off-bottom pressure

loss of 300 psi. However, even when the motor is on bottom and doing work, if
the flow rate remains at 70 gpm, 300 psi out of the total pressure drop across
the motor will be due to losses and not work done.
When the motor is on bottom, and work is needing to be done, this gives rise to
an increase in the pressure drop across the motor. This can cause confusion
when some people talk about load causing a pressure increase over the motor,
and others talk of a greater pressure drop. So what actually happens to the
pressure when we load up a motor?

The MacDrill turns by virtue of fluid pushing against the cams on its rotors. The
rotors are directly connected to the drill bit. So when the drill bit comes into
contact with something that wants to stop it turning, the cams see exactly the
same resistance. Fluid pushing onto the cam in turn sees this resistance too. It’s
kind of like the orifice we discussed right at the start, trying to resist the flow of
fluid through it.
In order for the fluid to keep flowing through the motor, the pump must push
harder in order to overcome the resistance originating from the bit. As the pump
pushes harder, it increases the pressure of the fluid between itself and the cam,
just like in the box and piston examples we started with. The pressure of the
fluid exiting the motor stays the same, but the pressure of the fluid entering the
motor has increased. There
is now an increased
pressure drop across the
motor.
The operator increases the

load on the motor by
increasing weight on bit.
This increases the
resistance from the drill bit,
which has a direct effect
on the pressure drop. For
example, if an operator
runs a 3-1/8" MacDrill at
70 gpm and applies weight
on bit, in addition to the
300 psi that is lost as the fluid flows through the motor, additional pressure will
be used to overcome the resistance from the drill bit. If 100 ft-lbs of torque is
required to overcome the resistance from the drill bit, this requires a pressure of
1000 psi across the power sections. So the total pressure drop across the motor
will be;
1000 + 300 = 1300 psi
Familiarise yourself with the MacDrill power graphs in the MacDrill Operators'
Handbook.

PRESSURE DROP ACROSS A MOTOR WORKSHEET

1. Which phrase best decribes what happens to fluid flowing through a hydraulic
motor:
a. the motor causes a pressure increase, so the fluid coming out has
greater pressure than the fluid going in to the motor due to the work
done
b. the fluid entering the motor has higher pressure than the fluid coming
out, because some of the pressure is lost as heat and some is
converted into mechanical energy
c. the motor imparts mechanical energy to the fluid, giving rise to a
pressure increase
2. Which phrase best describes the difference in the pressure of fluid entering
and the pressure of fluid leaving a hydraulic motor:
a. the amount of pressure difference is a combination of the loss in the

coil and the pressure outside the motor
b. the pressure difference is made up of the losses in the motor minus
the pressure the motor puts into the fluid
c. the pressure difference is a combination of the losses in the motor plus
the pressure that is converted into mechanical energy
d. it's really really big
3. Which of the following phrases is most accurate:
a. the ‘off bottom’ pressure loss of a motor increases with increasing flow
rate
b. the ‘off bottom’ pressure loss is independent of the flow rate
c. the ‘off bottom’ pressure loss decreases as the load on the motor
increases
4. Choose the correct phrase from the following list:
a. applying weight on bit means you are putting the same extra weight
on the fluid which makes the pressure go up
b. increasing weight on bit increases the resistance to bit rotation and
means the pump must push harder on the fluid to keep it flowing
through the motor, so the fluid pressure increases
c. increased weight on bit causes a bigger pressure drop across the
motor so the pressure of fluid leaving the motor must decrease.

5. From the MacDrill Operator's Handbook, how much pressure is lost as a result
of pumping 80 gpm through a 3-1/8" motor with gearbox (just from the internal
friction, restrictions etc within the motor)?
6. For the same parameters as in question 5, if the pressure of the fluid outside
the motor is 1200 psi, what pressure will the fluid entering the motor have to be
at to keep this rate of fluid passing through?
7. What additional pressure will the fluid entering the motor have to be at, to
enable the motor to generate 200 ft-lbs of torque under these conditions?

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
There are three main ways that pressure can be imparted to a typical oil well
fluid system. These three factors contribute energy to the system – everything
else detracts energy. One source of pressure is the pump on surface. Another is
fluid from the formation.
The third source is what is called hydrostatic pressure. In a column of liquid, the
liquid’s own weight acts like a piston pushing down. So the liquid half way down
has the weight of half the liquid pressing down on it, increasing its pressure. The
liquid at the very bottom has the weight of the whole column pushing down on
it, and its pressure will be twice that half way down the column. The pressure of
a liquid increases linearly with depth – twice the depth means twice the
pressure. In a column of water the pressure increases by 1 bar approximately
every 34 ft.
surface
1700 ft
737 psi
3400 ft 1474 psi
In a liquid, the pressure increase due to the hydrostatic effect is given by the
equation
P = 0.052 x TVD x MW
where MW is the density of the fluid in lbs/gal,

and TVD is the true vertical depth of the column in feet.

You can see that the hydrostatic pressure depends only on the density of the
liquid and the height of the column. The shape of the column is irrelevant. So
the pressure of the liquid at the bottom of each of the containers below will be
identical.
Take the second vessel in the row, for example. It has the same area at the
bottom as the first vessel, but there is more fluid above it pushing down, so you
might think the pressure of the fluid at the bottom should be greater. However,
the extra fluid is supported by the sloping sides of the vessel, so the pressure is
actually the same as in the first.
What about the third vessel? There is twice the amount of fluid in it, all pushing
down on the fluid at the bottom, so there is twice the force on the bottom of the
vessel. However, it is spread over twice the area, so the force per unit area, i.e.
the pressure, is the same.
Hydrostatic pressure is also constant whether a fluid is flowing or stationary. The

hydrostatic pressure is additional to, and is not affected by, any other pressures
on the fluid. So, for example, the pressure at the bottom of a 3400 ft column of
water which has no additional pressures acting on it is 1470 psi. If you pressurise
the water at the surface by 500 psi, the total pressure at the bottom will be 1970
psi.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE WORKSHEET

1. In a column of water, the hydrostatic pressure at a depth of X ft is 2000 psi.
The hydrostatic pressure at 2 x X ft will be:
a. 3000 psi
b. 4000 psi
c. 8000 psi
d. exponentially greater
2. Which two phrases most accurately describe the hydrostatic pressure in a coil
full of water:
a. the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil decreases as the

losses in the coil increase
b. the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil increases as the
losses in the coil increase
c. the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil stays the same
regardless of the losses in the coil
d. the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil increases as flow
rate increases
e. the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil stays the same as
flow rate increases
f. the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil falls as flow rate
increases

FLOWS AND PRESSURES IN A WORKOVER SITUATION
There is no magic in how fluid flows in a workover situation in an oil well. Fluid
flows from high pressure areas to lower pressure areas at speeds that depend on
the volume of fluid that is flowing and the area through which it is flowing.
Pressure is imparted into the fluid system by the pumps, is lost due to friction in
pipes and through restrictions and is converted into mechanical energy in
hydraulic motors. Gravity helps pull the fluid down through the coil, but gravity
must be overcome to get the fluid back to surface.
Pressures can simply be added

and subtracted to determine the
pressure remaining at any one
P1 = pump pressure
point. P9 = choke pressure
The hydrostatic pressures, P3

and P7, are determined by the
weight of liquid and the pressure
of the gas being pumped. The
operator can directly control the P8 = pressure loss
in return tubing P2 = pressure loss in coil
choke pressure, P9. The

operator also controls the flow
rate and the load on the motor
through changing the weight on P3 = hydrostatic pressure
bit. in coil
P4 = pressure loss in
bha tools
The flow rate set by the
operator will determine the P5 = pressure drop in
motor
losses due to friction in the P6 = pressure loss in
P7 = hydrostatic pressure
in annulus
system, i.e. P2, P4, P6 and P8. bit
The flow rate will also determine

the ‘off bottom’ component of
P5, the pressure drop across the
motor.
The rest of the P5 is determined by the operator’s setting of weight on bit

(WOB). The operator increases the load on the motor by increasing WOB. This
has a direct effect on the pressure drop in the motor, as seen previously.
That leaves P1, the pump pressure. As we mentioned earlier, fluid will only flow
from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure, and a pump will always supply

just enough pressure to a fluid system to ensure the fluid exits the system at the
ambient pressure of the exit.
So, working backwards from the choke, to keep fluid flowing in the correct
direction through the motor, the pump pressure will first have to be at least the
pressure loss through the choke, P9. It will also have to overcome the pressure
taken up by the friction of the annulus on the return side P8.
Looking at the pressures outside the motor, to make fluid flow in the correct
direction through the motor the pump will have to supply pressure at least equal
to the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus, P7. So far, then, we have that P1
must be at least P7 + P8 + P9.
Looking now inside the string, the pump must supply enough pressure to
overcome the loss through the bit, motor and BHA tools, P6, P5 and P4.
The hydrostatic pressure above the motor, P3, is an addition of pressure, acting
to push fluid down through the motor, so the pump’s work load is reduced by
this amount. So we will subtract P3 from our equation. Finally the pump must
supply pressure sufficient to overcome the losses through the coil, P2. So for a
given flow rate and WOB, P1 will be given by:
P1 = P2 – P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 + P7 + P8 + P9
So setting the flow rate and the weight on bit, determines how much pressure
the pump has to supply to push that amount of fluid through the entire system.
Increasing the flow rate increases the pressure the pump must supply to the
fluid, and increasing weight on bit increases the pressure the pump must supply
to the fluid.

FLOWS AND PRESSURES IN A WORKOVER SITUATION WORKSHEET

1. The pump pressure P1 in the following diagram will be:
a. P1 = P2 – P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 + P7 + P8 + P9
b. P1 = P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 - P7 + P8 + P9
c. P1 = P2 – P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 - P7 + P8 + P9
d. P1 = P2 + P4 + P5 + P6 + P8 + P9
P1 = pump pressure
P9 = choke pressure
P8 = pressure loss
P2 = pressure loss in coil
in return tubing
in coil
P4 = pressure loss in
bha tools
P5 = pressure drop in
motor
P6 = pressure loss in in annulus
bit

2. In the diagram above, the pressure of the fluid just above the motor will be:
a. P1 + P2 - P3 + P4
b. P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
c. P1 - P2 + P3 - P4
d. P1 - P2 - P3 - P4
3. The pressure just after the motor will be:
a. P1 + P2 - P3 + P4 + P5
b. P1 - P2 - P3 - P4 - P5
c. P1 - P2 + P3 - P4 - P5
d. P1 - P2 - P3 - P4 + P5
4. Name two parts of the system in the above diagram that contribute pressure
to the fluid.

UNDERSTANDING POWER
In physics, the term ‘work’ is used to measure changes in energy. If energy is

measured in joules or calories, work is also measured in joules or calories. Work
has to be done on something to change its energy level.
Imagine a large boulder resting on ice. As it is not moving you could say its
energy level is zero. If you want to set it moving, i.e. give it energy, you must do
work on it. If you wanted the boulder to accelerate to 10mph you could push on
it gently, and keep pushing gently as it accelerated until it eventually reached the
desired speed. Alternatively you could give it a mighty shove for a short period of
time to get it to the same speed. The amount of work done, the change in
energy, is the same in both cases.
What is different is the rate at which the work was done. This is referred to as
power. Power is the rate at which changes in energy can be achieved. So greater
power means more work done in a shorter period of time.
Hydraulic power is a measure of how quickly work can be done by the fluid, or
how quickly it can supply energy. This depends on the pressure of the fluid and
the rate at which it is flowing. Hydraulic power in oilfield units is given by the
equation:
Power (hp) = flow rate (gpm) x pressure (psi) / 1714
This equation appears in the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook section 7 as

‘Hydraulic Horse-Power’.
It is important to realise that when using a hydraulic motor, all the power comes
from the fluid. All the motor does is convert the energy in the fluid into
mechanical energy, losing some of the energy as heat and noise in the process.
The motor itself has no power and does not generate energy – it merely converts
energy from one type to another.
The maximum power you get out of a downhole motor depends on the power
being supplied to it and its efficiency. The power generated by a downhole motor
is given, in oilfield units, by the equation:
Power (hp) = bit speed (rpm) x torque (ft-lbs) / 5252

This equation appears in the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook section 7 as

‘Mechanical Power’.
A given amount of horsepower can be delivered in any number of speed/torque

combinations. MacDrill motors, particularly without gearboxes, deliver high
horsepower, but at higher bit speeds and lower torques than conventional
Moineau style PDM’s. In any drilling or milling operation, the ability of the motor
to deliver power to the cutting face is of primary importance. There are
circumstances where too high a bit speed is counter-productive, such as when
milling certain types of metal where work hardening of the target can occur, or
when heating of steel cutting blades affect their hardness.
Generally speaking though, the amount of material that can be removed in a

given time is proportional to the power output by the motor, not the torque. The
crucial thing is matching the bit type to the speeds and torques of the motor.
MacDrill motors generally will remove material more quickly with a less
aggressive drill bit than would be optimal for a conventional Moineau PDM.

POWER WORKSHEET
1. Which phrase most accurately describes the power output of a hydraulic
motor:
a. a motor generates its own power, as long as some fluid is being

pumped to keep it turning
b. the power output of a hydraulic motor is determined by the power
supplied by the fluid and the efficiency of the motor
c. the motor converts hydraulic power into the same amount of
mechanical power
2. What is the hydraulic power, in horsepower, in a fluid flowing at 110 gpm at a

pressure of 1400 psi?
3. What power is a motor generating if it is turning at 600 rpm and generating

150 ft-lbs of torque?

GASES
Gases differ from liquids in that they are compressible. If you apply a force to a
piston acting on an enclosed volume of gas, the pressure of the gas increases as
with a liquid, but its volume decreases at the same time. Let’s say we have 1
cubic foot of gas, which is compressed to 10 psi.
1 cubic foot, 10 psi
6" x 6" 360 lbf
48"
If we double the force acting on it to 720 lbf, the pressure will be doubled, as
with a liquid, but unlike a liquid which would retain the same volume, the volume
of the gas is halved (assuming constant temperature).
0.5 cubic foot, 20 psi
6" x 6" 720 lbf
As there is the same mass of gas in a smaller volume the density, which is
defined as mass / volume, is also doubled.
The pressure, volume and temperature of a given amount of gas are interrelated
- the pressure times volume divided by temperature remains constant.
P x V / T = a constant
So if gas is losing pressure as it moves through a pipe at a constant temperature

its volume must be increasing correspondingly.
What happens to the pressure of a gas if the temperature increases while the
volume remains constant? The pressure increases – a canister of deodorant that

is heated will eventually explode as the force on the canister wall, due to the
difference in pressure between the gas inside the can and the air outside,
exceeds its yield strength.
One consequence of the compressibility of gas is that hydrostatic pressure (more

correctly called pneumostatic pressure when talking about a gas) does not
increase linearly with depth.
In a column of gas, the weight of gas near the top compresses the gas
underneath it, making it more dense and heavy. This gas then exerts greater
pressure on the gas underneath it, making that gas denser and heavier still, and
so on. This means that pressure increases exponentially with depth in a static
situation. Unlike the liquid case, the hydrostatic component of the pressure of a
gas depends on other absolute pressures. So the hydrostatic component in a
column of high-pressure gas will be greater than the hydrostatic component of a
column of gas at low pressure, due to its higher density. However, the pressure
increase due to depth is much less in a gas than in a liquid.
When flowing gas, the exponential effect of the hydrostatic pressure increase is
counteracted by the pressure loss in the coil. The tendency for density to
increase as depth increases is counteracted by the loss of pressure due to the
friction of the coil, which tends to make the gas less dense as it progresses.
How much gas is being pumped is generally measured in terms of standard cubic
feet per minute. One standard cubic foot is the amount of gas that would fill one
cubic foot at normal atmospheric pressure. At high pressures downhole, the gas
occupies a much smaller volume. For example, 1000 scf of gas will fill 1000 cubic
feet at atmospheric pressure. At 1470 psi (100 times atmospheric pressure) the
same amount of gas will occupy only 10 cubic foot, and be 100 times denser.
When gas is pumped through tubing downhole, the loss of pressure due to
friction from the coil wall tends to make the gas expand. However, increasing
hydrostatic pressure as the gas gets deeper into the hole tends to compress it.
If you are pumping gas into a well filled with gas, the gas will be under high
pressure until it gets to the motor. In most scenarios, the gas will be at its
densest and most compressed just as it enters the motor. As it passes through
the motor it loses pressure due to the restrictions, friction, etc., of the motor and
any work it has to do to overcome resistance to rotation of the bit. As the gas
exits the drill bit, it will immediately be at the pressure of the fluid around the
motor (which must by definition be lower than the pressure of fluid entering the
motor, or else it would want to flow backwards through the tool). So the gas on
the return side will always be much less dense than the gas within the string.

As the gas on the return side is always less dense than in the coil, the
hydrostatic component of pressure will always be less on the outside of the coil
than on the inside. This should be remembered when estimating the BHP (the
pressure of fluid outside the motor) for a situation where gas is being pumped.

GASES WORKSHEET
For the following questions, assume the situation in the diagram below.
1 cubic foot, 20 psi
6" x 6" 720 lbf
48"
1. What would the volume and pressure of the gas be if you applied 1440 lbf to
the piston?
a. 4 cubic feet and 80 psi

b. 2 cubic feet 40 psi
c. 1 cubic foot 40 psi
d. 0.5 cubic feet 40 psi
e. 0.25 cubic feet 80 psi
2. What volume will 2000 standard cubic feet of gas take up at a pressure 400
times atmospheric pressure?
a. 800,000 cubic feet

b. 8,000 cubic feet
c. 2,000 cubic feet
d. 500 cubic feet
e. 5 cubic feet
3. If the pressure of a gas/liquid mix rises as it flows down a coil due to the
hydrostatic effect being greater than pressure loss due to friction of the coil wall
what will happen?
a. the volume of the mixture will reduce

b. the volume of the mixture will increase
c. both of the above
d. the volume remains unchanged, but the pressure increases

4. Compared to gas within the coil, gas on the return side will generally
a. take up a bigger volume and be more dense

b. take up a bigger volume and be less dense
c. take up a smaller volume and be more dense
d. take up a smaller volume and be less dense
Why?
5. If the volume of a body of gas decreases, and its pressure stays the same,
what has happened to its temperature?

MACFLOW VERSION 3.0
PREFERENCES
Power Graph.
Allows you to change the colour of the lines in the power graphs.
Allows you to choose whether or not to display horsepower (HP) curves on the
graphs.
General
Allows you to choose whether new files will default to:
• imperial or metric units, and
• coiled tubing or jointed pipe.
EXPLANATION OF INPUTS AND OUTPUTS

All blue fields are inputs, and all green fields are outputs.
SURFACE BOX
Gas – the type of gas being pumped. Choose ‘no gas’ for a straight liquid job.

Gas Flow – the rate at which the gas is being pumped in ‘standard’ units (the
volume of gas at ambient pressure) – standard cubic feet per minute in imperial
units. Note that this is the gas flow at surface, as distinct from the flow through
the motor. As noted below, a standard cubic foot of gas will change volume
depending on the pressure.
Liquid Flow – the rate at which liquid is being pumped.
Flows at Pump – the two values below show the flow at the pump
ü Gas – the gas flow at the current pump pressure as a volume flow.
For example: 800 scfm at 2000 psi is equivalent to 44 gpm, but
800 scfm at 2500 psi is equivalent to 35 gpm.
ü Total – the true gas volume flow and liquid flows added together,
showing the total flow at the pump (note – this may differ from the
total flow going through the motor, due to expansion or contraction
of the gas).
Choke – the choke pressure at surface. (If the return flow is not choked then
enter zero. If the Live Well or Lost Circulation checkbox is ticked, this field is
not used.)
Pump Pressure – the pump pressure that will be required to generate the
specified flow rate in the current scenario.
Over Off-Bottom – the increase in pump pressure over the off-bottom pressure
at the current flow rate through the motor.

DOWNHOLE BOX
Output Torque – this input field allows you to state the expected load on the
motor. Zero output torque corresponds to the off-bottom situation. In the field, if
all other parameters are filled in correctly, the pump pressure MacFlow predicts
when zero torque is entered here should be close to the pressure seen at the
pump on surface when
downhole but off bottom.
Annulus Pressure at
Motor – this field displays
the pressure of the fluid in
the annulus outside the
motor. The value displayed in
this field is calculated by
MacFlow provided there is no
influx of fluids from the well
and there is no loss of
circulation. In a live well or
lost circulation situation the
Estimated Annulus
Pressure at Motor must be entered by the user in the Well tab. The value
entered there is then displayed as an output in this field.
Pressure Loss in String – the amount of pressure that is lost in the coil or
jointed pipe.
dP over Motor – the total pressure difference across the motor. Make sure that
this value does not exceed the Max Total deltaP Over Motor value stated in the
Motor Specifications section of the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook
Total Flow into Motor – this field shows the total volume flow into the motor,
including the liquid portion and the actual gas volume downhole. This is the
value that should be used when assessing motor performance, not the total at
the pump.
The colour bar under this field indicates whether or not sonic flow has been
achieved. A blue bar which does not extend to the end of the box indicates sub-
sonic flow through the motor. When the blue bar fills the box sonic flow has
been achieved. The bar then starts to fill from the right with green, indicating
that parameters required for sonic flow have been exceeded. It is beneficial
but not critical to the performance of the motor to have sonic flow.

MOTOR & BHA TAB
Tool – choose
between MacDrill
and CTD PDM
motors
Motor OD –
choose the desired
size of motor from
the pick list. Always
try to use the
biggest motor
possible.
With GearBox -
click in this box to
show whether you
are using a gearbox
with the motor or
not. A cross in the box means a gearbox is being used.
Bit Pressure Drop – enter the expected pressure drop across the bit at the
current flow rate. The loss through the drill bit will obviously vary depending on
flow rate, so for accurate simulation this value should be updated whenever the
flow rate through the motor changes.
BHA Losses (ex-motor) – enter an estimate of the pressure losses through

the BHA tools above the motor. The losses through the BHA tools will obviously
vary depending on flow rate, so for accurate simulation this value should be
updated whenever the flow rate through the motor changes.
Pressure Before BHA – the total static pressure just before the BHA. This is
given by the pressure from the pump plus the hydrostatic pressure in the pipe
minus the losses in the pipe due to friction.
Motor Free Running Losses – this field shows the amount of pressure loss
across the motor when off bottom at the current flow rate.

MACJET TAB
MacJet – click on this checkbox

if a MacJet attachment is being
used.
Nozzles – state whether 2 or 4

nozzles are being used.
Nozzle Loss – this shows the

pressure loss across the nozzles.
This pressure is mostly converted into kinetic energy. For optimum jetting
efficiency aim for just over 3000 psi across the nozzles. There is a colour band
below this box. The optimum range is coloured green. For effective jetting you
should always aim to be in the green band. If the band is all blue the pressure
of the jets will be too low – if the band is showing any red the pressure of the
jets will be too high and there will be a danger of washing out the nozzles.
Impact Pressure jetting into Gas – this shows the impact pressure of the
fluid as it leaves the MacJet nozzles, assuming that the jet is entering a gas filled
annulus. This impact pressure falls of with increasing distance, as can be seen in
the Jetting tab (see below).
Impact Pressure jetting into Liquid – this shows the impact pressure of the
fluid as it leaves the MacJet nozzles, assuming that the jet is entering a liquid
filled annulus. This impact pressure falls of with increasing distance, as can be
seen in the Jetting tab (see below).
MacJet Diameter – the diameter of the MacJet body. The default value is the
diameter of the chosen motor.
Nozzle Diameter – diameter of the nozzles within the MacJet. The standard
MacJet nozzle sizes are built into MacFlow, and should be used for all but
specialist applications.
Customise – this checkbox allows the customisation of the MacJet body and
nozzle sizes. This should only be used for specialised applications that require
unusual configurations. The reset buttons will reset the inputs to the default
sizes.

JETTING TAB
When the MacJet checkbox is checked, the Jetting tab displays a graphic
showing the effectiveness of the jets at the current parameters.
The distance from the nozzle to the casing is given.

Below this is a graph showing how jetting effectiveness falls off with increasing
distance, with 100% being the effectiveness of the jet at the nozzle exit.
This is given up to a distance of 10 times the jet nozzle diameter, which is the
maximum recommended jetting distance. A vertical dotted line indicates where on
this curve the current parameters place you.

FLUID TAB
Friction Multiplier – if no friction reducer is being used this should be set to

one. As friction reducer is introduced this multiplier should be reduced
accordingly. It is a linear multiplier, so if for example enough friction reducer is
added to reduce coil losses by 10%, enter 0.9, or if enough friction multiplier is
added to reduce coil losses by 15%, enter 0.85.
Specific wt of Liquid – this is the specific weight of the liquid portion only. So,
for example, even if you are pumping mostly nitrogen, if you are pumping any
water enter 8.34 lbs/gal.
Composite Specific wt of Fluid – MacFlow calculates the specific weight of

the fluid flowing through the motor, taking into account the liquid and gas
portions.

WELL TAB
Well Profile – this table allows you to describe the profile of the well. The Angle
column allows you to specify the angle off vertical of a section of well. The Vert
Depth column allows you to specify a true vertical depth for that section. The
Measured column allows you to specify the measured depth of that section. The
measurements are relative, not total, ie three 5000 ft sections would each be
entered as 5000 ft. For example, a 10,000 ft vertical well with a 1,500 ft
horizontal lateral would be entered as
TVD Total – the total cummulative true vertical depth, calculated from the table
inputs.
TMD Total – the total cummulative measured depth, calculated from the table
inputs.
Live Well/Lost Circulation – check this box if there is any significant influx of
well bore fluids or if there is lost circulation. If there is no influx of well bore
fluids and no lost circulation (ie you get back exactly what you pumped in so you
have a “closed loop”) MacFlow uses the information in the Completion/Tubing
table to calculate the pressures in the return side. However, if there is any loss of
circulation or influx of well bore fluids, MacFlow cannot determine what the
pressure of the fluid just outside the motor will be. In this situation you must
provide the best available estimate of the pressure just outside the motor.
Estimated Annulus Pressure at Motor – an estimate of the pressure of the

fluid just outside the motor. Note that this is not necessarily the bottom of the
hole! If the well is flowing then more complex reservoir modelling programs may
be required to predict the pressure of fluid in the annulus. If there is lost
circulation then the pressure of the annulus fluid will depend on the height of the
fluid column and where in the system the fluid is being lost.
For gas operations bear in mind that the gas within the annulus is under lower
pressure than the gas in the coil, so it will be less dense and lighter. So the

Estimated Annulus Pressure at Motor value would generally be less than the
Hydrostatic Pressure in String value on the String tab.
Another factor that affects the BHP figure is whether the well is choked at
surface, and allowances should also be made for this.
It is important to remember that when running liquid, if any change is made to

the current depth of the motor, the Annulus Pressure at Motor value should
be altered accordingly. When running on gas, changing virtually any parameter
can affect this value, so one eye should constantly be kept on it.
Completion/Tubing Details – in a closed loop situation, this table is used to

describe the annulus bore. For each change in the inner diameter of the well,
enter the length and diameter. Measurements are relative length as opposed to
total length.
Surface Temp – the ambient temperature at surface. This field has no effect
when pumping only liquid, but can have a significant effect when pumping gas.
Temperature at Motor – the temperature at the motor's current depth.
Current Measured Depth – the measured depth of the motor at the point you
wish to model. This allows the user to describe the total well profile and tubing
details, but quickly simulate motor performance at different depths.
Current V Depth – the current vertical depth of the motor. This is calculated
from the current measured depth input and the well profile.
Total Length – the total length of the completion details entered. This is a
reference to check the inputs of the completion table.

STRING TAB
Tubing OD – the diameter of the coiled tubing or jointed pipe.
Coiled Tubing / Jointed Pipe Radio Buttons – choose the appropriate

deployment method.
String Sections – enter the appropriate length and wall thickness for each of
the sections in the coil or for the entire jointed pipe string.
Volume – this tells you the total volume of the coil or pipe.
Total Length – the total length of the coil or pipe sections entered.
Charge Time – the time it will take to for fluid from the pump to reach the
motor at the current flow rate settings.
Hydrostatic Pressure in String – the hydrostatic component of pressure in

the coil or jointed pipe at the motor.

POWER CURVE
The power curve area displays an approximation of the power curve of the
current chosen motor, and displays a cross-hair showing where on the curve the
current scenario is. This should be used as a guide, but ultimate reference
should be made to the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook for more accurate reading.
ANNULAR VELOCITIES
The tab contains a table of annular

velocities and fluid densities in the
returns annulus. The radio buttons at
the bottom of the tab determine
whether values are given only at
changes in the annulus diameters or
alternatively every 50 ft throughout
the annulus.

NOTES TAB
The notes tab is a

large text box for
entering in any
additional comments
about the job that
cannot be entered
directly into MacFlow.

MACFLOW PROCEDURE
A recommended procedure for running a MacFlow simulation is as follows:
I. Fill in the input fields as fully as possible from the data supplied by the
customer. Any assumptions that are made should be noted as such when
making recommendations to the customer. For example, you may have to
make an assumption that the BHA losses other than the motor are less
than 100 psi.
II. Enter the customer’s specified flow rate, or if none was specified enter the
optimum flow for the size of motor.
III. If in a live well or lost circulation situation, fill in the ‘Estimated Annulus
Presssure at Motor’, taking into account what information you have on the
height of the column in the annulus and the additional pressure from well
bore fluids.
IV. Check through all the tabs one by one, making sure that all the blue input
boxes are filled in. CAUTION: the program will still give readings even
though you may have missed out some data.
V. Enter a torque of 0 ft-lbs. This corresponds to the off bottom situation.

Check that the pump pressure is within acceptable limits.
VI. From the appropriate motor performance graph, select a maximum

running torque for the flow rate (from flow through the motor, not flow
through pump). On site, select a mid-range loading of the motor for
maximum motor life.
VII. Enter a stall torque for the motor and flow rate in use. Check whether
pump pressure is still within acceptable limits.

CASE STUDY 1
Model the following job.
No gas, 80 gpm liquid flow rate

No choke pressure
3-1/8" MacDrill without gearbox
Bit pressure drop 50 psi at 80 gpm
BHA losses 50 psi at 80 gpm
No friction reducer added
Drive fluid is water
Well Profile:
First section – vertical depth of 12,320 ft, measured depth of 12,320 ft
second section – 1815 ft vertical and 2000 ft measured
Non-producing well with no lost circulation
Hole size: 4" ID tubing to 14,320 ft measured
Surface temperature 80°F
Temperature at obstruction 350°F
Measured depth at obstruction: 12,250 ft
Coiled tubing: tapered 2" string, 6000 ft of 0.151" wall, 4075 ft of 0.129" wall,
4930 ft of 0.104" wall
1. What will the off-bottom pump pressure be?
Save your file, giving it a name consisting of your initials and "Case 1",
e.g. "DS Case 1".
2. What is the off-bottom pressure loss through the motor?
3. What is the total pressure drop across the motor at 200 ft-lbs?
How much of this is used to provide the torque?
4. From the performance curve of this motor calculate the power output when
generating 200 ft-lbs of torque.
5. From the performance curve what horsepower is the motor generating at

2000psi over the off bottom pressure?
Note from the difference between answer 5 and 4 that more pressure
increase does not necessarily mean more power at the drill bit!

CASE STUDY 2
Location: Louisiana , ambient temperature 80°F
Objective: Remove suspected scale build-up from 8000 to 9500 ft measured
depth in 4.5" 11.6 lb/ft casing
No gas. Desired flow rate 50 gpm of water with no friction reducer
Motor size: 2-1/8".
Pressure loss across bit is 50 psi, and in other BHA components is 50 psi.
First well section - vertical depth: 8,000 ft, measured depth: 8,000 ft
Second well section – 1500 ft measured, at 45°
Live well, estimated annulus pressure when pumping 50 gpm is 4000 psi
Bottom hole temp: 320 F
Coiled tubing: 1.75" string,16000 ft of 0.109" wall
a. What is the off-bottom pump pressure at the top of the scale.
Save this file as "XYZ Case 2-1.mff", replacing XYZ with your initials.
b. Adjust the torque to get acceptable on load conditions (aim for a pressure
increase of 1000 psi) and note the pump pressure.
Save this file as "XYZ Case 2-2.mff", replacing XYZ with your initials.

CASE STUDY 3
Location: West Texas, ambient temperature 80°F
Objective: to mill out 1500 ft of scale with 3-1/8 motor without gearbox
Estimated BHA losses: 25 psi
Estimated bit losses: 50 psi
Casing size: 5", 13 lb per foot (get ID from MacDrill Operator’s Handbook)
Vertical depth at top of scale: 4760 ft
Measured depth from top of scale to TMD: 5170 – 6570 ft
No lost circulation
Coiled tubing: 8,200 ft of 2-7/8", 0.190" wall
Desired flow rates: 430 scfm nitrogen, and absolute max 3-5 gpm native crude
1. What problem would you encounter with this job?

Describe what happens when you load up the motor and why.
2. Suggest more suitable parameters.
Save your file as "XYZ Case 3.mff"
3. What happens if you pull off bottom at these rates?

CASE STUDY 4
In the remainder of the case studies you may find that not all the necessary
information is provided. You must therefore make reasonable assumptions to fill
in the gaps in the data you've been given.
Location: California.
Vertical well, 8000 ft deep, 4" bore tubing
Coiled tubing: 11,500 ft of 2-3/8", 0.175" wall
The customer wanted to pump as much nitrogen as possible and a max of 30
gpm water, using a 2-7/8" MacDrill motor.
1. At 30 gpm of water, what gas rate will give a total of 90gpm through the
motor off-bottom at a measured depth of 7000 ft, and what will the pump
pressure?
Save your file as "XYZ Case 4-1.mff", replacing XYZ with your initials.
2. What gas rate is required to maintain 90gpm when the WOB is increased to
give a pressure increase at the pump of 200 psi over the off bottom
pressure?
3. Suggest suitable flow rates for running at 150 ft-lbs of torque.

CASE STUDY 5
Coil details: 1.5” tapered string as follows
2600,0.102"
1504, 0.109"
1577, 0.116"
956, 0.125"
999, 0.134"
897, 0.145"
2155, 0.156
2-1/8” motor, BHT 280 F, approx. 60 quality foam (60% nitrogen and 40% water
at surface), TVD and MD 2800 ft. Set tubing ID to 3.5". Bit loss 100 psi, BHA
losses 25 psi.
1. What flow rates are required to get the optimum flow through the motor off
bottom, whilst pumping 60 quality foam at surface?
2. What is the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the coil?
3. What flow rates are required to maintain optimum flow through the motor,
pumping 60 quality foam at surface, when the motor is loaded to 80 ft-lbs?

CASE STUDY 6
Model the job described below.
1.75” coil , 15,000 ft of 0.134” wall. The motor was a 2-1/8”. BHT 240, estimated
annulus pressure at unknown obstruction depth of 10800 was 1000 psi. Bit
losses are estimated at 50 psi and BHA losses at 25 psi. The customer wanted to
pump no more than 20 gpm of water, plus as much nitrogen as they could get
away with.
1. What gas rate is required to give 50gpm total equivalent through the motor
off bottom?
2. What is the off bottom pump pressure?
3. What will the on bottom (say 80 ft-lbs) pressure be at the pump,

remembering not to let the total flow through the motor drop off?

CASE STUDY 7
A 1.75” coil , 18,000 ft of 0.134” wall. The motor was a 3-1/8” with gearbox.
Surface temperature is 80°F, BHT is 190°F, enter the tubing ID as 3.75", 14,500
ft vertical. Customer wanted to pump nitrogen and water to achieve approx. 70
quality foam downhole. Estimate bit losses at 75 psi and BHA losses at 25 psi at
110 gpm
1. What nitrogen and water rates are required to give 110gpm of 70 quality
foam through the motor off bottom? What will the pump pressure be?
2. You want to load up the motor to about 250 ft-lbs, keeping the equivalent
rate through the motor at 110 gpm. What gas rate will you have to pump to
achieve this?
3. What would the max pressure likely be if the motor stalled now (ie without
adjusting the gas or liquid flow rates)?

CASE STUDY 8
2” CT, 0.156 wall, 8000 ft reel, 160 deg F, 3.125” motor, TVD 5,000 ft, well bore
4.75". Flow rate of 2000 scfm N2. Bit losses estimated at 125 psi, BHA losses
estimated at 25 psi.
f. Set the output torque to 159 ft-lbs. What is the pressure increase seen at
the pump compared to the off bottom pressure?
g. What is the pressure loading, ie pressure over off bottom, of the motor
(read this off the performance graph)?
What does the difference between the answer to questions 1 & 2 tell you?
h. Change the coil length to 16,000 ft, and the TVD, measured depth, tubing
length and current measured depth to 15,000 ft.
Set the torque at 364 ft-lbs. The "Over Off-bottom" pressure at the pump
should be 727psi as in the previous example, but estimate the pressure
increase over off bottom at the motor.
i. What does the difference in the answers to question 2 and 3 tell you?
This effect can become very considerable in deep wells. Care must be
taken not to overload the motor. .

CASE STUDY 9
Coil Details : 16,000 ft coil, OD 1.25", Wall 0.125"
Well profile: 9000 ft vertical 3.75" bore, 500 ft horizontal of 2.5" bore, temp 250
F,
Estimated bit losses 50 psi and BHA losses 25 psi. 2-1/8” motor
1. What is the free running pump pressure at 0.5 bbl/min water if doing a test
on surface?
2. What is the free running pump pressure at 0.25 bbl/min and however much
gas is necessary to maintain 50 gpm at TMD?
3. What will the pump pressure be when the motor is loaded to 80 ft-lbs, if you
are pumping 19gpm of liquid and however much gas is needed to maintain
50 gpm at through the motor?
4. If there is a 5000psi pressure limit on the coil, will you exceed it when you
stall at the above pump rates?
5. In order to ensure that you don't overpressure on stall, how can you reduce
the pump pressure to below 4500psi at 80 ft-lbs of load, whilst keeping the
same total flow through the motor?

CASE STUDY 10
Unknown fill at 21,100 ft. BHT 325 deg F. 2-1/8” motor. Estimated bit loss is
125psi BHA losses are 25 psi. Coil is a 1.5” tapered string as follows:
15500, 0.125"
1500, 0.134"
1500, 0.145"
1700, 0.155"
2500, 0.175"
1800, 0.190"
1. Model this with just water as the drive fluid. What problem do we have here?
2. The customer wants to pump approx. 50 quality foam (surface). What flow
rates can be used and what pump pressure can be expected off bottom?
3. The customer also wants to intersperse slugs of straight water. What is the
difficulty in modelling this?
4. Will we be able to pump our water slugs given the problem we encountered
in question 1?

CASE STUDY 11
Jetting with 3-1/8 motor and MacJet attachment, down to 11200 ft in a vertical
well of 4.5" bore. Surface temp is 60°F and downhole temp is 150°F. The string
is a 2.25", 12,110 ft reel of 0.151" wall.
1. Model this using 2 nozzles. What flow rate range can be used?
2. How much difference in pump pressure does a 1 gpm change in flow rate
make?
Why does such a small change in flow cause such a large change in pressure?
3. What flow rate should be used if using 4 nozzles?
4. What pressure do the jets exert on the tubing, if jetting into air?
5. What pressure do the jets exert on the tubing, if jetting into water?
6. What is the distance from the nozzle to the ID of the casing (read off the
diagram in the “Jetting” tab)?
7. From this same graph, how effective is jetting in water compared to jetting
into gas and why is this?

Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

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Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

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FUNDAMENTALS

Flow and Velocity

What makes a liquid flow from one place to another?

Liquids are made to flow by one of two things, gravity or pressure.

which is generally close enough.

© Weatherford, Thru-Tubing 2001 Page 1 MacFlow Tutorial Notes

This equation can be found in section 7 of the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook as

1" 800 lbf

1" 800 lbf

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LIQUID FLOW WORKSHEET

3. The equation for the velocity of a fluid in a pipe is:

a. Velocity = 0.32086 x pressure x distance

a. Velocity goes down

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Pressure can be imparted to a fluid by pushing on it. Pushing on an enclosed

where P is pressure in psi,

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1" x 1" ? lbf

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3. In the following diagram, a piston separates two volumes of fluid at different

100 psi 300 psi

2" x 2" ? lbf

2" x 2" ? lbf

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FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE

Almost 200 psi

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The equation for pressure loss across an orifice is:

where MW is the density of the fluid in lbs/gal,

This equation can be found in section 7 of the MacDrill Operator's Handbook as

© Weatherford, Thru-Tubing 2001 Page 9 MacFlow Tutorial Notes

a. it reduces to a quarter of the original pressure

a. it reduces to a twelfth of the original pressure

a. it reduces to a quarter of the original pressure drop

4. From the relevant equation in section 7 of the MacDrill Operator’s Handbook,

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FLOW THROUGH PIPES

1500 psi 1000 psi

2000 psi 1500 psi 500 psi

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Where f is a friction factor related to the roughness of the pipe,

What this means is that:

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290 psi 20 psi

1" 800 lbf

1100 psi 20 psi

1" 800 lbf

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If the length of the pipe is doubled, the pressure loss is doubled.

560 psi 20 psi

1" 800 lbf

If the diameter is doubled, the pressure loss falls dramatically.

2" 800 lbf

1" 800 lbf Loss = 307 psi

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FLOW THROUGH PIPES WORKSHEET

1" 800 lbf Pressure Loss

1. What would the pressure loss be through 6,000 ft of pipe?

3. What would the pressure loss be if the diameter was halved?

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PRESSURE DROP ACROSS A MOTOR

1. a drop in pressure due to friction, restrictions and changes in fluid direction,