DEALEY PLAZA: Organized Crime?

By William P. Litynski

Coup detat or Organized Crime?

The Assassinations of South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem and American President John F. Kennedy in November !"#

Vice President $yndon %aines Johnson &'eft( meets )ith South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem in Saigon* South Vietnam in +ay !" . &Photo, Vietnam: A History by Stan'ey Karno)(

-They started on me )ith .Ngo Dinh/ Diem* you remember. 0e )as corru1t and he ought to be 2i''ed. So )e 2i''ed him. We all got together and got a goddamn bunch of thugs and we went in and assassinated him. No)* )eve rea''y had no 1o'itica' stabi'ity since then.3 4 5.S. President $yndon %aines Johnson* in a ta1e6recorded conversation &Source, htt1,77))).youtube.com7)atch8v9DeNv:";v"<=>feature9re'ated(

South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem, a devout Roman Catholi , !as assassinated in Saigon, South Vietnam on November 2, 1963.

"meri an President #ohn $. %ennedy, a devout Roman Catholi , and his !i&e #a kie %ennedy ride in a motor ade in Dallas, 'e(as, )nited States o& "meri a on November 22, 1963, moments *e&ore President %ennedy !as assassinated.

Chairman o& the #oint Chie&s o& Sta&& +en. ,a(!ell D. 'aylor -le&t., ).S. "m*assador to South Vietnam /enry Ca*ot Lodge #r. - enter., and Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert , Namara laugh during a meeting in South Vietnam in September 1963. South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem !ould *e assassinated in Saigon on Novem*er 0, 1234. President #ohn $. %ennedy !ould *e assassinated on Novem*er 00, 1234. What e(a tly !ere these three men laughing a*out5 -Photo6 Swords and Plowshares *y +en. ,a(!ell D. 'aylor -1270..

/enry Ca*ot Lodge #r. -le&t., the ).S. "m*assador to South Vietnam, greets C8" s9y and retired "ir $or e ,a:. +en. ;d!ard +. Lansdale in Saigon, South Vietnam. Both men !ere mem*ers o& the Council on Foreign Relations, an internationalist organi<ation in Ne! =ork City. What e(a tly !ere these t!o men laughing a*out5 -Photo6 Edward Lansdale: The Unquiet American *y Ce il B. Currey.

-Sour e6 The Secret History of the CIA *y #ose9h #. 'rento -0>>1..

8n the *ook The Secret History of the CIA *y #ose9h #. 'rento, the author states that ?the orders that ended in the deaths o& @South Vietnams President Ngo DinhA Diem and his *rother originated !ith @"verellA /arriman. . .B

8n the *ook The Secret History of the CIA *y #ose9h #. 'rento, the author states that "verell /arriman ordered the death o& South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem.

President $yndon %aines Johnson &right( meets )ith his ?abinet advisers and members of the <arren ?ommission inside the <hite 0ouse in <ashington* D.?. on September 23, !"#. Prominent advisers inc'ude, former ?@A Director A''en <. Du''es &bac2ground* seated at the head of the tab'e(* John +c?'oy &seated by the door* #rd 'eft from Du''es(* former 5.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson &;nd 'eft* )earing a moustache(* Nationa' Security Advisor +cAeorge %undy &'o)er right* )earing g'asses* 'eaning to the 'eft side(* and 5.S. Secretary of State Dean Bus2 &seated to the right of $yndon %aines Johnson(. Du''es* +c?'oy* Acheson* %undy* and Bus2 )ere members of the ?ounci' on Foreign Be'ations. +embers of the <arren ?ommission 1resent their re1ort on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy at the <hite 0ouse on September 2#, !"#. &Photo, A''en <. Du''es Pa1ers* See'ey A. +udd +anuscri1t $ibrary at Princeton 5niversity(

Prelude to the Assassination

Chairman o& the #oint Chie&s o& Sta&& +en. Lyman Lemnit<er, C8" Dire tor "llen Dulles, and De9uty C8" Dire tor &or Plans Ri hard ,. Bissell #r. !ere mem*ers o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations, a 9rivate organi<ation in Ne! =ork City, at the time this 9hoto !as taken in "9ril 1231. +en. Lyman Lemnit<er !as the general *ehind the to9Cse ret D9eration North!oods. Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert , Namara !as a mem*er o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations &rom 123E until his death in 0>>2. -Photo *y #a Fues Lo!e. -Sour e6 Brothers: The Hidden History of the ennedy !ears *y David 'al*ot.

$ront 9age 9hoto6 ,em*ers o& the Warren Commission 9resent their re9ort on the assassination o& President #ohn $. %ennedy at the White /ouse on Se9tem*er 0G, 123G. LCR6 &ormer Chase ,anhattan Chairman #ohn , Cloy, #. Lee Rankin -+eneral Counsel., Senator Ri hard Russell, Re9resentative +erald $ord, Chie& #usti e o& the ).S. Su9reme Court ;arl Warren, President Lyndon B. #ohnson, &ormer C8" Dire tor "llen Dulles, Senator #ohn Sherman Coo9er, and Re9resentative /ale Boggs. #ohn , Cloy !as the Chairman o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations and Chairman o& $ord $oundation !hen this 9hoto !as taken. "llen Dulles !as a Dire tor o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations !hen this 9i ture !as taken. Senator #ohn Sherman Coo9er and Re9resentative -and later President. +erald $ord !ould :oin the Coun il on $oreign Relations later. -Photo6 Ce il Stoughton, Lyndon B. #ohnson Presidential Li*rary.

President #ohn $. %ennedy -le&t. a99ears !ith his advisors in the West Wing Colonnade o& the White /ouse in Washington, D.C. on ,ar h 0G, 1231. $rom le&t to right6 President #ohn $. %ennedy, Se retary o& the Navy #ohn B. Connally #r., De9uty Se retary o& De&ense Ros!ell +il9atri -!alking *ehind., Vi e President Lyndon B. #ohnson, ).S. Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert , Namara -*ehind Vi e President #ohnson.. #ohn B. Connally #r. !as the +overnor o& 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. -Photo6 Ro*ert %nudsen, White /ouse Photogra9hs, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum, Boston.

President John F. Kennedy &center( a11ears )ith the ne)'y6a11ointed ?@A Director John A'eC +c?one &right( and outgoing ?@A Director A''en Du''es &;nd 'eft( in Ne)1ort* Bhode @s'and* on Se1tember ;D* !" .

President John F. Kennedy &'eft( a11ears )ith outgoing ?@A Director A''en Du''es &center( and incoming ?@A Director John A'eC +c?one &right( in Ne)1ort* Bhode @s'and* on Se1tember ;D* !" . A''en Du''es and John A'eC +c?one )ere members of the ?ounci' on Foreign Be'ations* a 1rivate organiEation in Ne) For2 ?ity.

President John F. Kennedy )a'2s )ith outgoing ?@A Director A''en Du''es &'eft( in Ne)1ort* Bhode @s'and on Se1tember ;D* !" .

President #ohn $. %ennedy delivers a s9ee h at a 9ress on&eren es at the State De9artment "uditorium in Washington, D.C.

"meri an $irst Lady #a Fueline Bouvier %ennedy -le&t., !earing a yello! silk shantung suit and mat hing 9ill*o( hat, a99ears !ith her hus*and, ).S. President #ohn $. %ennedy - enter., and $ren h President Charles de +aulle -right. during %ennedys visit to Paris, $ran e in #une 1231. A group of French militar officers le! b "ean#$arie %astien#&hir 'ere involve! in an assassination attempt on French (resi!ent Charles !e )aulle, 'hich occurre! in (aris on August 22, 1962, follo'ing the in!epen!ence of Algeria, a former territor of France, on "ul *, 1962+ President de +aulle himsel& re:e ted the Warren Commissions version o& the %ennedy "ssassination. -Photo6 /ank WalkerH'ime Li&e.

President #ohn $. %ennedy - enter. greets +eneral Park ChungChee, the military strongman o& South %orea, &or a lun heon in honor o& +eneral Park in the North Porti o o& the White /ouse in Washington, D.C. on Novem*er 1G, 1231 + %oth "ohn F+ ,enne! an! (ar- Chung#hee 'ere assassinate! b a .lone gunman/+ (resi!ent "ohn F+ ,enne! 'as shot to !eath in 0allas, &e1as on November 22, 1963 allege!l b members of the 23+S+4 Central 5ntelligence Agenc + )eneral (arChung#hee 'as shot to !eath b ,im "aeg u, the 0irector of the ,orean Central 5ntelligence Agenc 2,C5A4, on 6ctober 26, 1979+ -Photo6 "**ie Ro!e, White /ouse Photogra9hs, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

Vi e President Ri hard Ni(on gestures as he s9eaks to Cu*an Premier $idel Castro in Washington, D.C. on "9ril 1E, 12I2. Ri hard Ni(on &reFuently des ri*ed the assassination o& President #ohn $. %ennedy as the ?hanky 9ankyB and the ?Bay o& Pigs thing.B -BettmannHCDRB8S.

, +eorge Bundy -the man on the right !ith glasses. listens to $idel Castro deliver a s9ee h at /arvard )niversity. , +eorge Bundy served as President #ohn $. %ennedys National Se urity "dvisor. , +eorge Bundy !as a mem*er o& Skull J Bones at =ale )niversity. , +eorge Bundys *rother William P. Bundy !as a C8" agent. 'he C8" attem9ted to assassinate $idel Castro on numerous o asions.

$ormer ).S. Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert "*er rom*ie Lovett -le&t. greets PresidentCele t #ohn $it<gerald %ennedy in Washington, D.C. in late 123>. Robert Abercrombie 8ovett 'as a partner of %ro'n %rothers 9arriman : Co+ ban-ing firm in Ne' ;or- Cit , a member of S-ull : %ones secret societ at ;ale 3niversit , an! a member of the Council on Foreign Relations+ -Photo6 Stan WaymanH'ime Li&e.

PresidentCele t #ohn $. %ennedy -le&t. shakes hands !ith Vi e President Ri hard ,. Ni(on a&ter a 9ostCele tion on&eren e in ,iami, $lorida, ).S.". on Novem*er 1G, 123>.

PresidentCele t #ohn $. %ennedy visits &ormer ).S. Se retary o& State Dean " heson -le&t. at " hesons home on Novem*er 0E, 123>. 0ean Acheson 'as a member of the Council on Foreign Relations in Ne' ;or- Cit an! a %il!erberg $eetings participant+

President #ohn $. %ennedy -le&t. listens to his disarmament advisor #ohn , Cloy, a &ormer hairman o& the *oard o& Chase ,anhattan Bank, on D to*er 3, 1231. #ohn , Cloy !ould serve as a ommissioner on the Warren Commission to ?investigateB the assassination o& President #ohn $. %ennedy. "ohn $cClo 'as the chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations at the time this photo 'as ta-en+ -Photo6 )P8HBettmannK The Chairman *y %ai Bird.

President #ohn $. %ennedy -le&t. a99ears !ith +overnor o& Ne! =ork Nelson Ro ke&eller. Nelson Roc-efeller 'as a member of the Council on Foreign Relations+ -Photo6 Thy "ill Be #one$ The Conquest of the Ama%on: &elson 'oc(efeller and E)an*elism in the A*e of +il *y +erard Col*y.

President #ohn $. %ennedy on&ers !ith National Se urity "dvisor , +eorge Bundy at the White /ouse on #une 14, 1230 Both , +eorge Bundy and "verell /arriman !ere mem*ers o& Skull J Bones -se ret so iety at =ale )niversity. and the Coun il on $oreign Relations. -Photo6 "**ie Ro!e, National Park Servi e, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

).S. "ttorney +eneral Ro*ert $. %ennedy listens as his *rother President #ohn $. %ennedy talks to $B8 Dire tor #. ;dgar /oover in the Dval D&&i e on $e*ruary 04, 1231. -White /ouse 9hoto *y "**ie Ro!e.

$ormer C8" Dire tor "llen Dulles, De9uty C8" Dire tor o& Plans Ri hard ,. Bissell #r., #ohn $. %ennedy, and C8" Dire tor #ohn , Cone stand together in "9ril 1230. "ll *ut %ennedy !ere mem*ers o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations. -C8" Photo.

).S. Senator Pres ott S. Bush -se ond &rom le&t. hats !ith President #ohn $. %ennedy -third &rom le&t. as =ale President ". Whitney +ris!old -third &rom right. and &ormer ).S. Se retary o& State Dean +. " heson -se ond &rom right. 9re9are &or ommen ement at =ale )niversity in Ne! /aven, Conne ti ut in 1230. -Sour e6 ,amily of Secrets *y Russ Baker.

$etter of Prescott %ush to ?'over Du''es &A''en Du''ess )ife(

&Source, htt1,77))).Gf2murderso'ved.com71rescott.htm( -0e tried to ma2e a 1'easant evening of it* but @ )as rather sic2 of heart* and angry too* for it )as the Kennedys that brought about the fiasco. And here they )ere ma2ing A''en to be the goat* )hich he )asnt and did not deserve. $ ha%e ne%er forgi%en them.3 4 5.S. Senator Prescott S. %ush

President #ohn $. %ennedy meets !ith his Ca*inet in the Ca*inet Room at the White /ouse during the Cu*an ,issile Crisis on 6ctober 29, 1962. Clo k!ise6 )nder Se retary o& State +eorge W. Ball, Se retary o& State Dean Rusk, President #ohn $. %ennedy, Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert , Namara, De9uty Se retary o& De&ense Ros!ell +il9atri , +en. ,a(!ell 'aylor, "ssistant Se retary o& De&ense &or 8nternational Se urity "&&airs Paul Nit<e, Donald Wilson, 'heodore Sorensen, National Se urity "dvisor , +eorge Bundy, 'reasury Se retary C. Douglas Dillon, Vi e President Lyndon B. #ohnson -hidden., "ttorney +eneral Ro*ert $. %ennedy, "m*assadorCatCLarge Lle!ellyn 'hom9son, and De9uty Dire tor o& C8" +en. ,arshall S. Carter. ;very identi&ied 9erson in the Ca*inet Room e( e9t &or President %ennedy, Lyndon B. #ohnson, and +en. ,arshall S. Carter is or !as a mem*er o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations. -Photo6 Ce il Stoughton, White /ouse, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

).S. "ttorney +eneral Ro*ert $. %ennedy meets !ith $B8 Dire tor #. ;dgar /oover in the Rose +arden at the White /ouse on $a 7, 1963. Ro*ert $. %ennedy a tively investigated and 9rose uted various mem*ers o& the ,a&ia !hile serving as the ).S. "ttorney +eneral. -Photogra9h *y Ce il Stoughton, White /ouse, in the #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum, Boston. htt96HH!!!.:&kli*rary.orgH"ssetL'reeH"ssetLVie!ersH8mageL"ssetLVie!er.htm5guidMNB1"27;0>C1C"CCGGE"C2"G3C ;3>I4G"2C2D$OJty9eM8mage

Le&t to right6 Catholi 9riest $ran is Cardinal S9ellman, Time ;ditorCinCChie& /enry Lu e, and &ormer ).S. "m*assador to 8taly Clare Booth Lu e a99ear at Time maga<inePs G>th anniversary dinner in Ne! =ork City on $a 6, 1963. -BettmannHCDRB8S.

President #ohn $. %ennedy meets !ith +en. Lyman Lemnit<er, the Su9reme "llied Commander o& ;uro9e, at the White /ouse in Washington, D.C. on $a 21, 1963. -Photo *y Ce il StoughtonH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

President #ohn $. %ennedy visits "rlington National Cemetery on ,emorial Day 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC4.html.

President #ohn $. %ennedy o*serves the Berlin Wall in West Berlin, West +ermany on #une 03, 1234. -Photo6 Ro*ert %nudsenHWhite /ouseH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

President #ohn $. %ennedy 9re9ares to deliver his ?Civil RightsB s9ee h to the nation on #une 11, 1234.

President #ohn $. %ennedy is *rie&ed *y &ormer Na<i +erman s ientist Dr. Wernher Von Braun regarding the Saturn ro ket at Pad B, Com9le( 47, Ca9e Canaveral, $lorida on Novem*er 13, 1234. Le&t to right6 Dr. Ro*ert C. Seamans, #r., "sso iate "dministrator, N"S"K Senator +eorge SmathersK President %ennedyK #ames ;. We**, "dministrator, N"S"K Dr. Wernher Von Braun -9artially hidden.K Dr. /ugh L. Dryden, De9uty "dministrator, N"S"K and +en. Chester V. Cli&ton, ,ilitary "ide to the President. -Photogra9h *y Ce il Stoughton, White /ouse Photogra9hs, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

NASA scientist and former NaEi Party member <ernher von %raun &'eft( )a'2s )ith President John F. Kennedy at Bedstone Arsena' on +ay !* !"#.

"meri an President #ohn $. %ennedy -le&t. meets !ith Po9e Paul V8 -right. in Vati an City in Rome, 8taly on #uly 0, 1234. -Q BettmannHCDRB8S.

Po9e Paul V8 and President #ohn $. %ennedy shake hands during their meeting at the "9ostoli Pala e in Vati an City on #uly 0, 1234. 'he 9onti&& re eived %ennedy in a 43Cminute 9rivate audien e and 9raised him &or his RuntiringR e&&orts to o*tain 9ea e in the !orld. -Q BettmannHCDRB8S.

).S. "m*assador to South Vietnam /enry Ca*ot Lodge #r. -le&t. attends a di9lomati re e9tion and shakes hand !ith a Catholi 9riest in Saigon, South Vietnam in Se9tem*er 1234. -Photo6 Larry Burro!sH'ime Li&e.

"verell /arriman -le&t., the )nder Se retary o& State &or Politi al "&&airs, talks to President #ohn $. %ennedy at the White /ouse on "ul 1<, 1963. "verell /arriman !ould later order South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem to *e assassinatedK Ngo Dinh Diem died in Saigon on Novem*er 0, 1234. President #ohn $. %ennedy !ould *e assassinated 0> days later. -"sso iated Press 9hoto. -Sour e6 S-annin* The Century: The Life of ". A)erell Harriman$ /01/2/103 *y Rudy "*ramson.

President #ohn $. %ennedy meets !ith ).S. "m*assador to South Vietnam /enry Ca*ot Lodge #r. at the White /ouse on August 1*, 1963. -Photo *y Ro*ert %nudsenH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

Chairman o& the #oint Chie&s o& Sta&& +en. ,a(!ell D. 'aylor -le&t., ).S. "m*assador to South Vietnam /enry Ca*ot Lodge #r. - enter., and Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert , Namara laugh during a meeting in South Vietnam in September 1963. South Vietnams President Ngo Dinh Diem !ould *e assassinated in Saigon on Novem*er 0, 1234. President #ohn $. %ennedy !ould *e assassinated on Novem*er 00, 1234. What e(a tly !ere these three men laughing a*out5 -Photo6 Swords and Plowshares *y +en. ,a(!ell D. 'aylor -1270..

President #ohn $. %ennedy signs the Nu lear 'est Ban 'reaty inside the White /ouse 'reaty Room on 6ctober 7, 1963. $rom le&t to right6 "CD" dire tor William C. $oster, Senator ,ike ,ans&ield, #ohn , Cloy, "CD" de9uty dire tor "drian $is her, Senator #ohn Pastore -near the desk., )nder Se retary o& State &or Politi al "&&airs "verell /arriman, Senator +eorge Smathers -standing *ehind /arriman., Senator #. William $ul*right, Dean Rusk, Senator +eorge "iken, Senator /u*ert /um9hrey, Senator ;verett Dirksen, unidenti&ied, Senator /o!ard W. Cannon, Senator Leverett Saltonstall, Senator 'homas /. %u hel, and Vi e President Lyndon B. #ohnson. , Cloy, /arriman, Rusk, /um9hrey, $oster, and $is her !ere mem*ers o& the Coun il on $oreign Relations. -Photo6 Ro*ert %nudsenHWhite /ouseH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

).S. "rmy +en. ,a(!ell 'aylor, Chairman o& the #oint Chie&s o& Sta&&, -le&t. and Se retary o& De&ense Ro*ert , Namara - enter. meet !ith President #ohn $. %ennedy at the White /ouse on 6ctober 2, 1963 to give him an a99raisal o& the situation in South Vietnam. 'he t!o returned &rom a loseCu9 ins9e tion tour o& the guerilla !ar in South Vietnam earlier on D to*er 0. -BettmannHCDRB8S.

Soviet "m*assador to "meri a "natoly Do*rynin -le&t., Soviet $oreign ,inister "ndrei +romyko -se ond &rom le&t. meet !ith President #ohn $. %ennedy at the White /ouse in Washington, D.C., ).S.". on D to*er 1>, 1234 &or a revie! o& ;astCWest R&ri tionsR designed to lessen the danger o& !ar *y mis al ulation. 8n enter is an inter9reter. -Photo6 Q BettmannHCDRB8S.

President o& South Vietnam Ngo Dinh Diem !as assassinated in Saigon, South Vietnam on November 2, 1963.

A famous handbi'' )as circu'ated on November ; * !"# in Da''as* TeCas one day before the assassination of John F. Kennedy.

-Sour e6 ,amily of Secrets *y Russ Baker.

-Sour e6 ,amily of Secrets *y Russ Baker.

President and +rs. John F. Kennedy* a'ong )ith Vice President $yndon %aines Johnson* $ady %ird Johnson* and &.S. Supreme Court Chief 'ustice (arl Warren are seen in this co'orfu' 1hoto ta2en at the <hite 0ouse in <ashington* D.?. on +ay ;* !";. Standing behind Justice <arren are, Angier %idd'e Du2e* 5nder 5.S. Secretary of State Aeorge <. %a''* and ?hester %o)'es. Du2e* %a''* and %o)'es )ere members of the ?ounci' on Foreign Be'ations* a 1rivate 1o'itica' organiEation in Ne) For2 ?ity.

6pen $otorca!e in 1963= (rior ,no'le!ge>

President #ohn $. %ennedy, ,ayor o& West Berlin Willy Brandt, and Chan ellor o& West +ermany %onrad "denauer greet the +erman 9eo9le in West Berlin, West +ermany in an o9en motor ade on #une 03, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC0.html.

"meri an President #ohn $. %ennedy, Chan ellor o& West +ermany %onrad "denauer, and West Berlin ,ayor Willy Brandt ride in an o9en motor ade and a kno!ledge heering +erman iti<ens in West Berlin, West +ermany on #une 03, 1234 as the three leaders make their !ay through the streets o& West Berlin a&ter visiting the Berlin Wall. -Photo6 Q BettmannHCDRB8S.

President #ohn $. %ennedy greets 8rish iti<ens as he rides in an o9en motor ade in Cork, 8reland on #une 0E, 1234. -White /ouse Photogra9h *y Ro*ert %nudsenH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

President #ohn $. %ennedy is seen riding in an o9en motor ade in Rome, 8taly on #uly 0, 1234. Se ret Servi e agents Blaine and +rant ride on the rear o& the 9residential limousine. -Photo6 -htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

;m9eror o& ;thio9ia /aile Selassie -le&t. and President #ohn $. %ennedy stand in an o9en motor ade outside 'he Riggs National Bank in Washington, D.C. on D to*er 1, 1234 during a 9arade honoring the ;m9eror o& ;thio9ia. -Photo6 Q CDRB8S.

President John F. Kennedy and Hm1eror of Hthio1ia 0ai'e Se'assie ride in an o1en motorcade outside the <hite 0ouse in <ashington* D.?. on Ictober * !"# during a 1arade honoring the Hm1eror of Hthio1ia. &Photo, ?eci' Stoughton* John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary(

President #ohn $. %ennedy greets the 9eo9le o& Costa Ri a !hile riding in an o9en motor ade in Costa Ri a in ,ar h 1234. Se ret Servi e agents and Costa Ri an soldiers are seen 9roviding se urity. -Photo6 htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

President #ohn $. %ennedy rides in an o9en motor ade in /onolulu, /a!aii on #une 2, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC4.html.

;( ited +erman !omen rea h to shake President #ohn $. %ennedyPs hand !hile riding in an o9en motor ade in West Berlin, West +ermany on #une 03, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC4.html.

"meri an President #ohn $. %ennedy, Willy Brandt -+overning ,ayor o& West Berlin., and Chan ellor o& West +ermany %onrad "denauer ride ato9 an o9en motor ade in West Berlin, West +ermany on #une 03, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HH!!!.&li kr. omH9hotosH0300G370SN>0HI321I00277H.

Se ret Servi e agents =eager, +od&rey, and Payne a99ear !ith President #ohn $. %ennedy, %enneth DDonnell -S9e ial "ssistant to the President., and ).S. "rmy +en. William C. Westmoreland -Su9erintendent o& ).S. ,ilitary " ademy. at the ).S. ,ilitary " ademy -West Point.. -Photo6 htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and others !alk to Paulskir he -St. Pauls Chur h. &ollo!ing the Presidents address at RTmer*erg SFuare in $rank&urt am ,ain, West +ermany -$ederal Re9u*li . on #une 0I, 1234. 'hose 9i tured in lude6 ,inisterCPresident o& /esse, +eorg "ugust UinnK D*er*Vrgermeister o& $rank&urt, Werner Bo kelmannK )S "m*assador to West +ermany, +eorge C. , +heeK West +erman "m*assador to the )nited States, %arl /einri h %na99steinK ,inister o& $oreign "&&airs o& +ermany, +erhard S hrTderK )S Chie& o& Proto ol, "ngier Biddle DukeK ,ilitary "ide to President %ennedy, +eneral Chester V. Cli&tonK S9e ial "ssistant to President %ennedy on $oreign "&&airs, , +eorge BundyK S9e ial Counsel to President %ennedy, 'heodore C. SorensenK Dire tor o& the )S Se ret Servi e, #ames #. Ro!leyK President %ennedys sisterCinCla!, Prin ess Lee Rad<i!ill o& PolandK %ennedy &amily &riend, %irk Le,oyne ?LemB BillingsK White /ouse Se ret Servi e agents, +erald ". ?#erryB Behn, Bill Payne, and 'ony Sherman. Cro!ds line the street to !at h the President 9ass. -Photo6 Ro*ert %nudsen, White /ouse Photogra9hs, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

John F. Kennedy &seated in 'imousine( rides )ith TunisiaJs President 0abib %ourguiba in a motorcade on Kth Street in <ashington* D.?. on +ay #* !" .

President John F. Kennedy &'eft( rides in his famous Lbubb'eto1L $inco'n ?ontinenta' 'imousine during a motorcade that too2 the President and ?a'ifornia Aovernor Hdmund %ro)n from A'ameda to %er2e'ey* ?a'ifornia on +arch ;#* !";.

President John F. Kennedy rides in his famous Lbubb'eto1L $inco'n ?ontinenta' 'imousine during a motorcade that too2 the President and ?a'ifornia Aovernor Hdmund %ro)n from A'ameda to %er2e'ey* ?a'ifornia on +arch ;#* !";.

JFK rides in his famous Lbubb'eto1L $inco'n ?ontinenta' 'imousine during a motorcade that too2 the President and ?a'ifornia Aovernor Hdmund %ro)n from A'ameda to %er2e'ey* ?a'ifornia on +arch ;#* !";.

Se ret Servi e agents, in luding Roy %ellerman, run alongside the 9residential limousine during President #ohn $. %ennedys tri9 in Ne! Drleans, Louisiana, ).S.". on ,ay I, 12306 -Photo6 htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

President #ohn $. %ennedy rides in an o9en motor ade in ,e(i o City, ,e(i o on #une 02, 1230. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC4.html.

President #ohn $. %ennedy rides in an o9en motor ade in ,e(i o City, ,e(i o on #une 02, 1230. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC4.html.

The President of Peru ta'2s )ith President John F. Kennedy in the bac2 seat of Kennedys $inco'n ?ontinenta' 'imousine &)ith a roof covering the 'imousine( on Se1tember !* !" . A Secret Service agent is seen standing beside the 'imousine.

Four 0a s %efore 0allas=

President #ohn $. %ennedys 'ri9 to 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234

8n this image made availa*le *y 'ony Ua99one, President #ohn $. %ennedy stands in a onverti*le as he is driven through 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234. 'he 9resident !as in 'am9a to give a s9ee h ommemorating the I>th anniversary o& the &irst s heduled 9assenger air9lane &light and to s9eak to the $lorida Cham*er o& Commer e. " &ilm and 9hoto e(hi*it at the 'am9a Bay /istory Center, do uments those &e! hours he s9ent in 'am9a. ).S. Re9. Sam +i**ons is seated to the right. -"P PhotoH'ony Ua99one. htt96HH!!!.vosi<neias. omH1G3340H0>14H11H17Htam9aC&lCkennedysC&laCtri9Cremem*eredC&orCho9eCinno en eH

President #ohn $. %ennedy stands in a onverti*le as he is driven through 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234. htt96HH!!!.tam9a*ay. omHne!sHhumaninterestHinCtam9aC atholi sCreveredC9residentCkennedyCasCtheirCo!nH01I0217

Se ret Servi e agents Don La!ton and Chu k U*oril stand on the rear o& President %ennedyPs limousine in 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234.

Se ret Servi e agent Don La!ton -!earing sunglasses. stands *eside President #ohn $. %ennedy in 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHhenryry*kadonla!ton:&kse retservi e.*logs9ot. omH0>10H>EHhenryCry*kaCdonCla!tonC!hoC ares.html.

President #ohn $. %ennedy shakes hands o& s9e tators in 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HH!eird.tam9a*ay. omH&eaturesHhumaninterestHtimeC a9suleC:&ksCvisitCtoCtam9aCnovC1EC1234H01G22E2.

?ongressman Sam Aibbons DHN@HS that JFK ever ordered the agents off the 'imo in Tam1a* F$

7 M7"#

White /ouse Photogra9her Ce il Stoughton also rode on the rear o& limousine on Novem*er 1E, 1234. -Sour e6 htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

President #ohn $. %ennedyPs motor ade a99ears on $ranklin St. *et!een ,adison J '!iggs St. in 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234. Photo is ourtesy o& 'im and Cindy ,enende<. Se ret Servi e agent Don La!ton -le&t, !earing sunglasses. and Se ret Servi e agent Chu k U*oril - rou hing on other side o& the limousine. are seen 9roviding se urity as they stand on the rear o& the 9residential limousine. -Photo6 htt96HH*eyondthe9hysi al.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>7HmarkCdanko&sCameri aC onversationC!ith.html. -Photo6 htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

Se ret Servi e agents Don La!ton and Chu k U*oril ride on the rear o& President %ennedys limousine in 'am9a, $lorida on Novem*er 1E, 1234.

8n this image made availa*le *y 'ony Ua99one, President #ohn $. %ennedy shakes hands o& s9e tators in 'am9a, $la. on Nov. 1E, 1234. President %ennedy !as in 'am9a to give a s9ee h ommemorating the I>th anniversary o& the &irst s heduled 9assenger air9lane &light. " &ilm and 9hoto e(hi*it at the 'am9a Bay /istory Center, do uments those &e! hours he s9ent in 'am9a. -"P PhotoH'ony Ua99one, /D. htt96HH!!!.vosi<neias. omH1G3340H0>14H11H17Htam9aC&lCkennedysC&laCtri9Cremem*eredC&orCho9eCinno en eH

-@ rode )ith Kennedy every time he rode. @ heard no such order. As @ remember it the agents rode on the rear bum1er a'' the )ay. Kennedy )as very ha11y during his visit to Tam1a.3 4 former 5.S. ?ongressman Sam Aibbons &Democratic Party6F'orida(

President #ohn $. %ennedy -le&t. and ).S. Senator +eorge Smathers - enter. ride in an open motorca!e and greet the ro!d in ,iami, $lorida, ).S.". on November 1?, 1963. -Photo6 State Li*rary and "r hives o& $lorida.

-Sour e6 htt96HHvin e9alamara. omH0>10H>GH1>Hvin eC9alamaraCmainCse retCservi eC*logCimagesH.

The Final Hours of President ohn F! "enned#

Tragedy in Dallas:

The head tab'e at the Fort <orth ?hamber of ?ommerce %rea2fast* 0ote' TeCas in Fort <orth* TeCas on November ;;* !"#. $eft to right, $ady %ird Johnson* Vice President $yndon %. Johnson* First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy and President John F. Kennedy. &Photo by ?eci' Stoughton7<hite 0ouse Photogra1hs7John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary and +useum(
htt96HHne!s.yahoo. omH9hotosH:&kCsClastCdayCtheCassassinationCo&CanCameri anC9residentC14EGG7>EI3Cslidesho!H

The head tab'e at the Fort <orth ?hamber of ?ommerce %rea2fast he'd at 0ote' TeCas in Fort <orth* TeCas on November ;;* !"#. $eft to right, Ne''ie ?onna''y* TeCas Aovernor John ?onna''y* $ady %ird Johnson* Vice President $yndon %. Johnson* First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy and President John F. Kennedy behind the 'ectern. &Photo, ?eci' Stoughton7<hite 0ouse Photogra1hs7John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary and +useum(
htt96HHne!s.yahoo. omH9hotosH:&kCsClastCdayCtheCassassinationCo&CanCameri anC9residentC14EGG7>EI3Cslidesho!H

$ady %ird Johnson &'eft(* Vice President $yndon %. Johnson &center(* and First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy greet the audience at the Fort <orth ?hamber of ?ommerce %rea2fast* 0ote' TeCas in Fort <orth* TeCas on the morning of November ;;* !"#. &Photo, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7;O #7O;71age6 .htm'(

President John F. Kennedy and First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy eCit the 0ote' TeCas after the Fort <orth ?hamber of ?ommerce %rea2fast in Fort <orth* TeCas on the morning of November ;;* !"#. &Photo by ?eci' Stoughton7<hite 0ouse Photogra1hs7John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary and +useum(

President John F. Kennedy* front* right* eCits the 0ote' TeCas in Fort <orth* at M,KP a.m.* Nov. ;;* !"#. 0e is on his )ay to greet cro)ds and ma2e a s1eech. At right ho'ding hat and )earing raincoat is Vice President $yndon %. Johnson. &AP Photo(

President John F. Kennedy s1ea2s at a 1ar2ing 'ot ra''y at the TeCas 0ote' in Fort <orth* TeCas on November ;;* !"#. $6B, President Kennedy* .unidentified/* 5.S. Senator Ba'1h <. Farborough* Aovernor John ?onna''y* Vice President $yndon %aines Johnson. &Photo by ?eci' Stoughton* John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary and +useum(

President John F. Kennedy is greeted by an enthusiastic cro)d in front of the 0ote' TeCas in Fort <orth* TeCas on November ;;* !"#. &AP Photo(

President Kennedy reaches out to the cro)d gathered at the 0ote' TeCas Par2ing $ot Ba''y in Fort <orth* TeCas on November ;;* !"#. &Photo by ?eci' Stoughton7John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary and +useum(

President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy arrive at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on $riday, Novem*er 00, 1234. President #ohn $. %ennedy !ould *e assassinated less than an hour a&ter this 9hoto !as taken. -Photogra9h *y Ce il StoughtonHWhite /ouseH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum. Patri k Bouvier %ennedy, the youngest son o& President #ohn $. %ennedy and #a kie %ennedy !as *orn on "ugust 7, 1234 and died on "ugust 2, 1234. #a Fueline Lee Bouvier %ennedy, the daughter o& #ohn Vernou Bouvier 888 and #anet Norton Lee, !as *orn in Southam9ton, Long 8sland, Ne! =ork on #uly 0E, 1202K #a Fueline %ennedy -Dnassis. earned a Ba helor o& "rts degree at +eorge Washington )niversity in 12I1 and married #ohn $it<gerald %ennedy on Se9tem*er 10, 12I4. #a Fueline %ennedy married "ristotle So rates Dnassis on D to*er 0>, 123E. #a Fueline %ennedyPs 9arents divor ed in 12G>K #anet Norton Lee Bouvier married a se ond time on #une 01, 12G0 to /ugh D. "u hin loss -1E27C1270, B.". =ale 120>..

President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy arrive at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234 as +overnor o& 'e(as #ohn Connally and his !i&e Nellie B. Connally are seen standing *ehind President %ennedy.
-Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

#a kie %ennedy greets Lady Bird #ohnson at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234 *e&ore re eiving a *ouFuet o& red roses *y ,rs. ;arle Ca*ell, the !i&e o& the ,ayor o& Dallas. ;arle Ca*ells *rother ).S. "ir $or e +en. Charles P. Ca*ell !as the De9uty C8" Dire tor during the &ailed Bay o& Pigs invasion in "9ril 1231. -White /ouse 9hoto *y Ce il Stoughton. htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH

President #ohn $. %ennedy, $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy, and Se ret Servi e agent Clint /ill greet the ro!d at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. -White /ouse 9hoto *y Ce il Stoughton. htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH

President #ohn $. %ennedy, $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy, and Se ret Servi e agent Clint /ill greet the ro!d at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. -White /ouse 9hoto *y Ce il Stoughton. htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH

President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy greet the ro!d at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC1.html.

President #ohn $. %ennedy, $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy, +overnor o& 'e(as #ohn B. Connally #r., and ,rs. Connally de9art Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC1.html.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and his motor ade make their !ay through the interse tion o& ,ain Street at +ri&&in Street in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234, minutes *e&ore President #ohn $. %ennedy is mortally !ounded. -Photogra9h *y Ce il StoughtonHWhite /ouseH#ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

5.S. President John F. Kennedy and first 'ady JacNue'ine Kennedy are riding in the bac2seat of an o1en 'imousine on +ain Street at Hrvay Street as the 1residentia' motorcade a11roaches Dea'ey P'aEa in do)nto)n Da''as* TeCas* on November ;;* !"#. In'y moments 'ater the ride ends in the 1residentJs assassination. TeCas Aovernor John ?onna''y and his )ife Ne''ie are seated in the 'imousineJs Gum1 seat. &AP Photo(

President #ohn $. %ennedy and $irst Lady #a Fueline %ennedy ride in an o9enCto9 limousine on the !ay to the Dallas 'rade ,art on Novem*er 00, 1234, !here President %ennedy !as to give a s9ee h later in the day. -Photo6 htt96HHlight*o(.time. omH0>14H11H1GHneverC*e&oreCseenC9hotosCo&C:&ksC&inalCminutesCinCdallasHW1.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and $irst Lady #a Fueline %ennedy ride in an o9enCto9 limousine on the !ay to the Dallas 'rade ,art on Novem*er 00, 1234, !here President %ennedy !as to give a s9ee h later in the day. -Photo6 htt96HHlight*o(.time. omH0>14H11H1GHneverC*e&oreCseenC9hotosCo&C:&ksC&inalCminutesCinCdallasHW0.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and $irst Lady #a Fueline %ennedy ride in an o9enCto9 limousine on the !ay to the Dallas 'rade ,art on Novem*er 00, 1234, !here President %ennedy !as to give a s9ee h later in the day. -Photo6 htt96HHlight*o(.time. omH0>14H11H1GHneverC*e&oreCseenC9hotosCo&C:&ksC&inalCminutesCinCdallasHW4.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e #a kie %ennedy, along !ith +overnor o& 'e(as #ohn Connally and his !i&e Nellie B. Connally, ride together in a limousine in Dallas, 'e(as moments *e&ore President %ennedy is mortally !ounded.

The Fatal $hots in Deale# Plaza

Tragedy in Dallas:

Nellie Connally -le&t. and her hus*and #ohn B. Connally #r., the +overnor o& 'e(as, rides !ith President #ohn $. %ennedy and #a Fueline %ennedy :ust *e&ore he !as shot in Dallas on Novem*er 00, 1234. "ohn %+ Connall "r+ serve! as the 3+S+ Secretar of the Nav from "anuar 2*, 1961 until 0ecember 2<, 1961+ #ohn B. Connally #r. served as the +overnor o& 'e(as &rom #anuary 1I, 1234 until #anuary 01, 1232. #ohn B. Connally #r. served as the ).S. Se retary o& the 'reasury &rom $e*ruary 11, 1271 until #une 10, 1270. -"sso iated Press.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e #a kie %ennedy, along !ith +overnor o& 'e(as #ohn Connally and his !i&e Nellie B. Connally, ride together in a limousine in Dallas, 'e(as moments *e&ore President %ennedy is mortally !ounded.

Se ret Servi e agent Don La!ton shrugs his shoulder !hile standing at Love $ield in Dallas, 'e(as as he is allegedly ordered to ?stand do!nB 9rior to the assassination o& President #ohn $. %ennedy minutes later. President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e are seen riding in the limousine in the *a kground.

Se ret servi emen standing on running *oards &ollo! the 9residential limousine arrying President #ohn $. %ennedy, right, rear seat, and &irst lady #a Fueline %ennedy, le&t, as !ell as 'e(as +ov. #ohn Connally and his !i&e, Nellie, in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. ,oments later, President #ohn $. %ennedy !as shot *y an assassin. -"P Photo.

Nellie B. Connally -le&t. and her hus*and #ohn Connally, the +overnor o& 'e(as, rides !ith President #ohn $. %ennedy and #a Fueline %ennedy :ust *e&ore he !as shot in Dallas on Novem*er 00, 1234. -"sso iated Press.

'his is a really rare motor ade 9i ture CC an aerial vie! o& #$%Ps limousine in do!nto!n Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. Note that driver Bill +reer has his door o9en -9ro*a*ly in an e&&ort to kee9 the ro!d *a k, *e ause the 9oli e motor y les on the le&t side o& the ar !ere likely not in their normal 9ositions !hen this 9i ture !as sna99ed, due to the heavy ro!ds on that side o& the street.. "lso *arely visi*le on the &ar right side o& this 9hoto is Se ret Servi e agent Clint /ill, !ho !as riding on the rear *um9er o& the limousine !hen this 9i ture !as taken. /e rode on the *um9er !hen the ro!ds got very thi k, !hi h o urred a99ro(imately &our times during the Dallas motor ade. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC1.html.

"meri an iti<en +eorge #e&&eries took this 9hoto o& President #ohn $. %ennedy and his !i&e on Dealey Pla<a in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234, almost 4 se onds *e&ore President %ennedy !as &irst stru k *y *ullets. -Photo *y +eorge #e&&eries.

President #ohn $. %ennedy and $irst Lady #a kie %ennedy travel through do!nto!n Dallas in an o9en motor ade minutes *e&ore President %ennedy is mortally !ounded. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

This eerie 1hoto de1icts President John F. Kennedy brushing bac2 his hair as his 'imousine rounds the corner from +ain Street to 0ouston Street at Dea'ey P'aEa in Da''as* TeCas on November ;;* !"#. @n the bac2ground is the TeCas Schoo' %oo2 De1ository bui'ding. &Photo, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7;O #7O;71age6 .htm'(

'his is a still &rame &rom the amateur movie taken *y Dealey Pla<a !itness Ro*ert /ughes. 'his image *e omes Fuite eerie !hen reali<ing that it sho!s *oth President %ennedyPs limousine and Lee /arvey Ds!aldPs alleged RSni9erPs NestR !indo! !ithin the same image. 'he alleged ?Sni9ers NestB !indo! is at the very to9 o& the 9i ture, on the &ar rightChand side o& the ?9inkB -le&t. *uilding in the *a kground -'e(as S hool Book De9ository.. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

'his 9hoto, taken *y *ystander Charles Bronson, sho!s President #ohn $. %ennedyPs ar on ;lm Street during the assassination, se onds 9rior to the third and &atal shot that stru k the President in the head. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

The famous 1icture ta2en by Associated Press 1hotogra1her James A'tgens* sna11ed bet)een gunshots Q; and Q#. %oth of the 'imousines victims &President John F. Kennedy and TeCas Aovernor John ?onna''y( can be seen through the cars )indshie'd reacting to their )ounds* )hich )ere sustained Gust seconds ear'ier )hen bu''et -?H#!!3 from a )ea1on 1ierced the bac2s of both men. &Photo, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7(

Seen through the limousinePs !indshield as it 9ro eeds along ;lm Street 9ast the 'e(as S hool Book De9ository, President #ohn $. %ennedy a99ears to raise his hand to!ard his head !ithin se onds o& *eing &atally shot in Dallas, Nov 00, 1234. ,rs. #a Fueline %ennedy holds the PresidentPs &orearm in an e&&ort to aid him. +ov. #ohn Connally o& 'e(as, !ho !as in the &ront seat, !as also shot. -"P PhotoH#ames W. -8ke. "ltgens. htt96HHne!s.yahoo. omH9hotosH:&kCsClastCdayCtheCassassinationCo&CanCameri anC9residentC14EGG7>EI3Cslidesho!H

+a1 of Dea'ey P'aEa in Da''as* TeCas

A rare 1hotogra1h of President Kennedy at the time he )as fata''y )ounded around ;,#O P.+. in Da''as* TeCas. &Photo, Southern +ethodist 5niversity(

+uchmore 1hotogra1h of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. +ary Ann +oorman &'eft( is seen )earing a b'ue coat ta2ing the famous -+oorman 1hotogra1h3.

The red circ'e indicates area )here gunshots may have occurred behind the Arassy Kno''. The b'ac2 arro) indicates )here President John F. Kennedy is seated in the o1en 'imousine. -Rand then after the third shot she .Jac2ie Kennedy/ said* )*he+ ha%e ,illed m+ husband. $ ha%e his brains in m+ hand,and she repeated that se%eral times.- 4 +rs. Ne''ie ?onna''y* during a <arren ?ommission testimony

The +oorman Photo of the Kennedy Assassination. &Photo by +ary +oorman(

President John F. Kennedy s'um1s do)n in the bac2 seat of the Presidentia' 'imousine as it s1eeds a'ong H'm Street to)ard the Stemmons Free)ay over1ass after being fata''y shot in Da''as on November ;;* !"#. +rs. JacNue'ine Kennedy 'eans over the 1resident as Secret Service agent ?'inton 0i'' rides on the bac2 of the car. &AP Photo7@2e &James( A'tgens(

'he haoti s ene on ;lm Street immediately a&ter President #ohn $. %ennedy !as shot. Visi*le on ;lm in this 9hoto are the three R amera arsR that !ere 9art o& the Dallas motor ade. " re9orter makes a !ild dash to!ard the middle ar, as the driver hits the *rakes to allo! him to at h u9. Bystanders an *e seen standing on the over9ass. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

'he ar arrying President #ohn $. %ennedy rushes to the nearest hos9ital a&ter he !as shot in Dallas, 'e(as on Novem*er 00, 1234. -8mage *y Q BettmannHCDRB8S.

'he limousine !ith the &atallyC!ounded President is seen driving !est o& the 'ri9le )nder9ass, Fui kly a99roa hing the ram9 leading to Stemmons $ree!ay. 'his 9hoto, taken *y *ystander ,el , 8ntire, sho!s the Book De9ository in the *a kground. Note the timeCCR1064>RCC *eing dis9layed on the large R/ert<R sign ato9 the 'e(as S hool Book De9ository *uilding. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

'he heavy 9oli e 9resen e at the &ront entran e o& the 'e(as S hool Book De9ository shortly a&ter President #ohn $. %ennedy and 'e(as +overnor #ohn Connally !ere shot. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

First $ady Jac2ie Kennedy 'eaves Par2'and 0os1ita' in Da''as* TeCas on November ;;* !"#.

Da''as Po'ice ?hief Jesse ?urry and re1orter Tom <ic2er &right( )ait outside Par2'and 0os1ita' for ne)s on the PresidentJs condition.

Another vie) of the Par2'and emergency entrance short'y after the assassination. The car that Vice President Johnson rode in during the motorcade is in the foreground.

Dea'ey P'aEa in Da''as* TeCas

(hotos of the ,enne! Funeral

The somber Hast Boom of the <hite 0ouse on November ;#* !"# &Photo, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7;O #7O;71age6 .htm'(

/er sto kings and dress soiled, !ido!ed &irst lady #a Fueline %ennedy rea hes &or the door o& the am*ulan e arrying the *ody o& her slain hus*and at "ndre!s "ir $or e Base, ,aryland on Novem*er 00, 1234. 'he late PresidentPs *rother, "ttorney +eneral Ro*ert $. %ennedy, a om9anies her at right. 'he &irst lady had :ust arrived &rom Dallas !ith her hus*andPs *ody a*oard a 9residential :et. -"P Photo.

#ohn $. %ennedyPs *ody arrives at "ndre!s "ir $or e Base on Novem*er 00, 1234.

The cas2et bearing President KennedyJs body is 1'aced ato1 the catafa'Nue in the Hast Boom of the <hite 0ouse at a11roCimate'y K,#O A+ &HST(* Saturday* November ;#* !"#. JacNue'ine Kennedy* sti'' )earing her b'oodstained 1in2 dress* 'oo2s on. Standing beside Jac2ie is Attorney Aenera' Bobert Kennedy. &Photo, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7;O #7O;71age6 .htm'(

+i'itary guard accom1anies the caisson during the funera' of the 'ate President John F. Kennedy outside the <hite 0ouse on November ;K* !"#. &Photo, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7;O #7O;71age6 .htm'(

,em*ers o& the %ennedy &amily lead the &uneral 9ro ession &or President #ohn $. %ennedy &rom the White /ouse to the Cathedral o& St. ,atthe! the "9ostle in Washington, D.C. on Novem*er 0I, 1234. Le&t to right, &ront ro!6 ).S. "ttorney +eneral Ro*ert $. %ennedyK &ormer $irst Lady #a Fueline %ennedyK ).S. Senator ;d!ard ,. %ennedy o& ,assa husetts. /ead grou9 o& 9ro ession also in ludes Dire tor o& the Pea e Cor9s R. Sargent Shriver and advisor to President %ennedy Ste9hen ;. Smith. 'hose &ollo!ing *ehind in lude President o& $ran e +eneral Charles De +aulleK ;m9eror o& ;thio9ia /aile SelassieK Xueen $rederika o& +ree eK Vi eCChan ellor o& +ermany Lud!ig ;rhardK %ing Baudouin 8 o& BelgiumK White /ouse doorman, Preston Bru eK others. -Photo6 Ro*ert %nudsen, White /ouse Photogra9hs, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum.

,ilitary guard a om9anies the aisson during the &uneral o& the late President #ohn $. %ennedy on Novem*er 0G, 1234. -Photo6 #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary.

,ilitary guard a om9anies the aisson during the &uneral o& the late President #ohn $. %ennedy on Novem*er 0G, 1234. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH0>14H>0H9ageC1.html.

#a Fueline %ennedy, ;d!ard %ennedy and Ro*ert %ennedy stand as the o&&in o& President #ohn $it<gerald %ennedy 9asses them in Washington D.C. on Novem*er 0I, 1234.

'he %ennedy &amily mourns the late President #ohn $. %ennedy in Washington, D.C. on ,onday, Novem*er 0I, 1234 as #ohn $. %ennedy #r. salutes to his late &ather. #ohn $. %ennedy #r., his !i&e Carolyn #eanne Bessette %ennedy, and his sisterCinCla! died in an air9lane rash near ,arthas Vineyard, ,assa husetts on #uly 13, 1222. -Photo6 htt96HHkennedyC9hotos.*logs9ot. omH.

'hreeCyearCold #ohn $. %ennedy #r. salutes his &athers asket in Washington, D.C. on Novem*er 0I, 1234, three days a&ter the 9resident !as assassinated in Dallas, 'e(as. Wido! #a Fueline %ennedy, enter, and daughter Caroline %ennedy are a om9anied *y the late 9residents *rothers ).S. Senator ;d!ard %ennedy -le&t. and ).S. "ttorney +eneral Ro*ert $. %ennedy. -"P Photo.

President of France ?har'es de Aau''e &center( and Hthio1ias Hm1eror 0ai'e Se'assie sa'ute as foreign dignitaries render a fina' tribute to the 'ate President John F. Kennedy at the Ar'ington Nationa' ?emetery in Ar'ington* Virginia* 5.S.A. on November ;"* !"#. Charles de .aulle, who was born in /ille, 0rance on 1o%ember 22, 2!3, celebrated his 43rd birthda+ on 1o%ember 22, !"3. ?har'es de Aau''e served as the President of France from January M* !P! unti' A1ri' ;M* !"!. The !"# %i'derberg +eetings &a 1rivate Huro1ean 1o'itica' and business conference( )as he'd in ?annes* France from ;!6# +arch !"#.

President o& $ran e Charles de +aulle - enter., ;thio9ias ;m9eror /aile Selassie, and President o& South %orea +en. Park ChungChee -right, !earing glasses. salute as &oreign dignitaries render a &inal tri*ute to the late President #ohn $. %ennedy at the "rlington National Cemetery in "rlington, Virginia, ).S.". on Novem*er 03, 1234. -Photo6 Q BettmannHCDRB8S.

With huge ro!d gathered *ehind her, ,rs. #a Fueline %ennedy stands in &ront o& her hus*andPs grave, looking out to!ards the ity o& Washington, a&ter kneeling at the late President %ennedyPs grave at "rlington National Cemetery, "rlington, Virginia on Novem*er 0I, 1234. With ,rs. %ennedy are -le&t to right., #ohn #. , Nally, #r.K Larry DPBrienK Pierre Salinger6 J%enneth DPDonnell, all o& the White /ouse sta&&, and her sister, 9rin ess Rad<i!ll. Dther ivilian and se ret servi e man, CustisCLee ,ansion is in the *a kground. -BettmannHCDRB8S.

Americans mourn the death of President John F. Kennedy at Dea'ey P'aEa in Da''as* TeCas in 'ate November !"#. &Photo, htt1,77'ightboC.time.com7;O #7 7 K7never6before6seen61hotos6of6Gf2s6fina'6minutes6in6da''as7Q"(

Americans mourn the death of President John F. Kennedy at Dea'ey P'aEa in Da''as* TeCas in 'ate November !"#.

"ohn F+ ,enne! = (rofiles in Courage

John FitEgera'd Kennedy &+ay ;!* ! D 4 November ;;* !"#(

-The very )ord -secrecy3 is re1ugnant in a free and o1en societyS and )e are as a 1eo1'e inherent'y and historica''y o11osed to secret societies* to secret oaths and secret 1roceedings. <e decided 'ong ago that the dangers of eCcessive and un)arranted concea'ment of 1ertinent facts far out)eighed the dangers )hich are cited to Gustify it. Hven today* there is 'itt'e va'ue in o11osing the threat of a c'osed society by imitating its arbitrary restrictions. Hven today* there is 'itt'e va'ue in insuring the surviva' of our nation if our traditions do not survive )ith it. And there is very grave danger that an announced need for increased security )i'' be seiEed u1on those anCious to eC1and its meaning to the very 'imits of officia' censorshi1 and concea'ment. That @ do not intend to 1ermit to the eCtent that it is in my contro'. And no officia' of my Administration* )hether his ran2 is high or 'o)* civi'ian or mi'itary* shou'd inter1ret my )ords here tonight as an eCcuse to censor the ne)s* to stif'e dissent* to cover u1 our mista2es or to )ithho'd from the 1ress and the 1ub'ic the facts they deserve to 2no).3 4 President John F. Kennedy* at the <a'dorf6Astoria 0ote' in Ne) For2 ?ity on A1ri' ;D* !" -<hat ought to be unambiguous to any student of mass 1sycho'ogy* is the a'most immediate dec'ine of the American 1eo1'e in the )a2e of this shoc2ing te'evised s'aughter. There are many indicators of the transformation. <ithin a year Americans had 'arge'y s)itched from softer6toned* natura''y co'ored cotton c'othing to garish6co'ored artificia' 1o'yesters. Po1u'ar music became 'ouder* faster and more caco1honous. Drugs a11eared for the first time outside the %ohemian subcu'ture ghettos in the mainstream. HCtremes of every 2ind came into fashion. Bevo'utions in cognition and behavior )ere on the horiEon* from the %eat'es to ?har'es +anson* from Free $ove to $SD. The 2i''ers )ere not caught* .and/ the <arren ?ommission )as a )hite)ash. There )as a sense that the men )ho ordered the assassination )ere grinning some)here over coc2tai's and out of this* a near'y61sychede'ic )onder seiEed the American 1o1u'ation* an a)esome shiver before the rea'iEation that )hoever cou'd 2i'' a 1resident of the 5nited States in broad day'ight and get a)ay )ith it* cou'd get a)ay )ith anything. A hidden government behind the visib'e government of these 5nited States became 1ainfu''y obvious in a 2ind of sub'imina' )ay and 'ent an undercurrent of the ha''ucinogenic to our rea'ity. <e'come to IE than2s to the men behind Is6)a'd and Buby. There )as a transfer of 1o)er in the co''ective grou1 mind of the American masses, from the 1ub'ic 1o)er of the e'ected front6man ?hief HCecutive* to an une'ected invisib'e co''ege ca1ab'e of terminating him )ith im1unity.3 4 Kris +i''egan* Fleshing Out Skull & Bones: Investigations into Americas Most Po er!ul Secret Society * 1. !D6 !M

President John F. Kennedy 'ets f'y )ith the ceremonia' first 1itch on o1ening day of the !"# baseba'' season in <ashington* D.?. on A1ri' M* !"#.

Democratic Party 1residentia' nominee John F. Kennedy &right( and his )ife JacNue'ine Kennedy ride u1 %road)ay in a tic2er6 ta1e 1arade in Ne) For2 ?ity on Ictober !* !"O. &Photo by Fran2 0ur'ey7NF Dai'y Ne)s Archive via Aetty @mages(

President John F. Kennedy and First $ady Jac2ie Kennedy dress fashionab'y on @nauguration Day in a sno)6covered <ashington* D.?. on Friday* January ;O* !" .

@ncoming President John F. Kennedy is being s)orn in by Har' <arren* the ?hief Justice of the 5.S. Su1reme ?ourt* at the 5.S. ?a1ito' in <ashington* D.?. on January ;O* !" . Among the dignitaries )atching President Kennedy ta2ing the oath of office inc'ude &from 'eft to right(, First $ady Jac2ie Kennedy* outgoing President D)ight D. Hisenho)er* 5.S. Secretary of State Dean Bus2* incoming Vice President $yndon %aines Johnson* and outgoing Vice President Bichard +. NiCon. &%ettmann7?IB%@S(

Har' <arren &;nd 'eft(* the ?hief Justice of the 5.S. Su1reme ?ourt* administers oath of office to President of the 5nited States John F. Kennedy at the 5.S. ?a1ito' in <ashington* D.?. on January ;O* !" . $yndon %. Johnson* the ne) Vice President of the 5nited States* is at right. Iutgoing President D)ight D. Hisenho)er is seen standing behind Har' <arren. 0o'ding the %ib'e at center is James B. %ro)ning* c'er2 of the 5.S. Su1reme ?ourt. Iutgoing Vice President Bichard +. NiCon stands at far right. &AP Photo(

5.S. President John F. Kennedy de'ivers his inaugura' address after ta2ing the oath of office at ?a1ito' 0i'' in <ashington* D.?. on Jan. ;O* !" . Kennedy said* L<e sha'' 1ay any 1rice* bear any burden* meet any hardshi1* su11ort any friend* o11ose any foe* to assure the surviva' and success of 'iberty.L Kennedy )as s)orn in as the #Pth 1resident of the 5nited States. &AP Photo(

$a@or Speeches !elivere! b (resi!ent "ohn F+ ,enne!

Inaugural Address
4anuary 56$ /13/

Vice President Johnson* +r. S1ea2er* +r. ?hief Justice* President Hisenho)er* Vice 1resident NiCon* President Truman* Beverend ?'ergy* fe''o) citiEens, <e observe today not a victory of 1arty but a ce'ebration of freedom66symbo'iEing an end as )e'' as a beginning66signifying rene)a' as )e'' as change. For @ have s)orn before you and A'mighty Aod the same so'emn oath our forebears 1rescribed near'y a century and three Nuarters ago. The )or'd is very different no). For man ho'ds in his morta' hands the 1o)er to abo'ish a'' forms of human 1overty and a'' forms of human 'ife. And yet the same revo'utionary be'iefs for )hich our forebears fought are sti'' at issue around the g'obe6the be'ief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of Aod. <e dare not forget today that )e are the heirs of that first revo'ution. $et the )ord go forth from this time and 1'ace* to friend and foe a'i2e* that the torch has been 1assed to a ne) generation of Americans66born in this century* tem1ered by )ar* disci1'ined by a hard and bitter 1eace* 1roud of our ancient heritage66and un)i''ing to )itness or 1ermit the s'o) undoing of those human rights to )hich this nation has a')ays been committed* and to )hich )e are committed today at home and around the )or'd. /et e%er+ nation ,now, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pa+ an+ price, bear an+ burden, meet an+ hardship, support an+ friend, oppose an+ foe to assure the sur%i%al and the success of libert+. *his much we pledge55and more. *o those old allies whose cultural and spiritual origins we share, we pledge the lo+alt+ of faithful friends. &nited, there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperati%e %entures. 6i%ided, there is little we can do55for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. To those ne) states )hom )e )e'come to the ran2s of the free* )e 1'edge our )ord that one form of co'onia' contro' sha'' not have 1assed a)ay mere'y to be re1'aced by a far more iron tyranny. <e sha'' not a')ays eC1ect to find them su11orting our vie). %ut )e sha'' a')ays ho1e to find them strong'y su11orting their o)n freedom6and to remember that* in the 1ast* those )ho foo'ish'y sought 1o)er by riding the bac2 of the tiger ended u1 inside. To those 1eo1'es in the huts and vi''ages of ha'f the g'obe strugg'ing to brea2 the bonds of mass misery* )e 1'edge our best efforts to he'1 them he'1 themse'ves* for )hatever 1eriod is reNuired66not because the communists may be doing it* not because )e see2 their votes* but because it is right. @f a free society cannot he'1 the many )ho are 1oor* it cannot save the fe) )ho are rich. To our sister re1ub'ics south of our border* )e offer a s1ecia' 1'edge66to convert our good )ords into good deeds66in a ne) a''iance for 1rogress66to assist free men and free governments in casting off the chains of 1overty. %ut this 1eacefu' revo'ution of ho1e cannot become the 1rey of hosti'e 1o)ers. $et a'' our neighbors 2no) that )e sha'' Goin )ith them to o11ose aggression or subversion any)here in the Americas. And 'et every other 1o)er 2no) that this 0emis1here intends to remain the master of its o)n house. To that )or'd assemb'y of sovereign states* the 5nited Nations* our 'ast best ho1e in an age )here the instruments of )ar have far out1aced the instruments of 1eace* )e rene) our 1'edge of su11ort66to 1revent it from becoming mere'y a forum for invective66to strengthen its shie'd of the ne) and the )ea266and to en'arge the area in )hich its )rit may run. Fina''y* to those nations )ho )ou'd ma2e themse'ves our adversary* )e offer not a 1'edge but a reNuest, that both sides begin ane) the Nuest for 1eace* before the dar2 1o)ers of destruction un'eashed by science engu'f a'' humanity in 1'anned or accidenta' se'f6 destruction. <e dare not tem1t them )ith )ea2ness. For on'y )hen our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can )e be certain beyond doubt that they )i'' never be em1'oyed. %ut neither can t)o great and 1o)erfu' grou1s of nations ta2e comfort from our 1resent course66both sides overburdened by the cost of modern )ea1ons* both right'y a'armed by the steady s1read of the dead'y atom* yet both racing to a'ter that uncertain ba'ance of terror that stays the hand of man2indJs fina' )ar.

So 'et us begin ane)66remembering on both sides that civi'ity is not a sign of )ea2ness* and sincerity is a')ays subGect to 1roof. $et us never negotiate out of fear. %ut 'et us never fear to negotiate. $et both sides eC1'ore )hat 1rob'ems unite us instead of be'aboring those 1rob'ems )hich divide us. $et both sides* for the first time* formu'ate serious and 1recise 1ro1osa's for the ins1ection and contro' of arms66and bring the abso'ute 1o)er to destroy other nations under the abso'ute contro' of a'' nations. $et both sides see2 to invo2e the )onders of science instead of its terrors. Together 'et us eC1'ore the stars* conNuer the deserts* eradicate disease* ta1 the ocean de1ths and encourage the arts and commerce. $et both sides unite to heed in a'' corners of the earth the command of @saiah66to Lundo the heavy burdens . . . &and( 'et the o11ressed go free.L And if a beach6head of coo1eration may 1ush bac2 the Gung'e of sus1icion* 'et both sides Goin in creating a ne) endeavor* not a ne) ba'ance of 1o)er* but a ne) )or'd of 'a)* )here the strong are Gust and the )ea2 secure and the 1eace 1reserved. A'' this )i'' not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor )i'' it be finished in the first one thousand days* nor in the 'ife of this Administration* nor even 1erha1s in our 'ifetime on this 1'anet. %ut 'et us begin. @n your hands* my fe''o) citiEens* more than mine* )i'' rest the fina' success or fai'ure of our course. Since this country )as founded* each generation of Americans has been summoned to give testimony to its nationa' 'oya'ty. The graves of young Americans )ho ans)ered the ca'' to service surround the g'obe. No) the trum1et summons us again6not as a ca'' to bear arms* though arms )e need66not as a ca'' to batt'e* though embatt'ed )e are66 but a ca'' to bear the burden of a 'ong t)i'ight strugg'e* year in and year out* LreGoicing in ho1e* 1atient in tribu'ationL66a strugg'e against the common enemies of man, tyranny* 1overty* disease and )ar itse'f. ?an )e forge against these enemies a grand and g'oba' a''iance* North and South* Hast and <est* that can assure a more fruitfu' 'ife for a'' man2ind8 <i'' you Goin in that historic effort8 @n the 'ong history of the )or'd* on'y a fe) generations have been granted the ro'e of defending freedom in its hour of maCimum danger. @ do not shrin2 from this res1onsibi'ity66@ )e'come it. @ do not be'ieve that any of us )ou'd eCchange 1'aces )ith any other 1eo1'e or any other generation. The energy* the faith* the devotion )hich )e bring to this endeavor )i'' 'ight our country and a'' )ho serve it66and the g'o) from that fire can tru'y 'ight the )or'd. 7nd so, m+ fellow 7mericans8 as, not what +our countr+ can do for +ou55as, what +ou can do for +our countr+. 9+ fellow citizens of the world8 as, not what 7merica will do for +ou, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. 0inall+, whether +ou are citizens of 7merica or citizens of the world, as, of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we as, of +ou. With a good conscience our onl+ sure reward, with histor+ the final :udge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we lo%e, as,ing ;is blessing and ;is help, but ,nowing that here on earth .od<s wor, must trul+ be our own.
Note: The President spoke at 12:52 p.m. from a platform erected at the east front of the Capitol. Immediately before the address the oath of office was administered by Chief J stice !arren. The President"s openin# words $%e&erend Cler#y$ referred to 'is (minence %ichard Cardinal C shin#) *rchbishop of +oston, 'is (minence *rchbishop Iako&os) head of the -reek *rchdiocese of North and .o th *merica, the %e&erend /r. John +arclay) pastor of the Central Christian Ch rch) * stin) Te0., and %abbi /r. Nelson -l eck) President of the 'ebrew 1nion Colle#e) Cincinnati) 2hio.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "Inaugural Address," January 20, 1961. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)*0+2.

htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9MO#;QaCEE;GoET$EJd

Address of Senator John F. Kennedy Accepting the Democratic Party Nomination for the Presidency of the nited States ! "emorial #oliseum$ %os Angeles
4uly /7$ /136

Aovernor Stevenson* Senator Johnson* +r. %ut'er* Senator Symington* Senator 0um1hrey* S1ea2er Bayburn* Fe''o) Democrats* @ )ant to eC1ress my than2s to Aovernor Stevenson for his generous and heart6)arming introduction. @t )as my great honor to 1'ace his name in nomination at the !P" Democratic ?onvention* and @ am de'ighted to have his su11ort and his counse' and his advice in the coming months ahead. <ith a dee1 sense of duty and high reso've* @ acce1t your nomination. @ acce1t it )ith a fu'' and gratefu' heart66)ithout reservation66and )ith on'y one ob'igation66the ob'igation to devote every effort of body* mind and s1irit to 'ead our Party bac2 to victory and our Nation bac2 to greatness. @ am gratefu'* too* that you have 1rovided me )ith such an e'oNuent statement of our PartyJs 1'atform. P'edges )hich are made so e'oNuent'y are made to be 2e1t. LThe Bights of +anL66the civi' and economic rights essentia' to the human dignity of a'' men66are indeed our goa' and our first 1rinci1'es. This is a P'atform on )hich @ can run )ith enthusiasm and conviction. And @ am gratefu'* fina''y* that @ can re'y in the coming months on so many others66on a distinguished running6mate )ho brings unity to our tic2et and strength to our P'atform* $yndon Johnson66on one of the most articu'ate statesmen of our time* Ad'ai Stevenson66on a great s1o2esman for our needs as a Nation and a 1eo1'e* Stuart Symington66and on that fighting cam1aigner )hose su11ort @ )e'come* President 0arry S. Truman66 on my trave'ing com1anion in <isconsin and <est Virginia* Senator 0ubert 0um1hrey. In Pau' %ut'er* our devoted and courageous ?hairman. @ fee' a 'ot safer no) that they are on my side again. And @ am 1roud of the contrast )ith our Be1ub'ican com1etitors. For their ran2s are a11arent'y so thin that not one cha''enger has come forth )ith both the com1etence and the courage to ma2e theirs an o1en convention. @ am fu''y a)are of the fact that the Democratic Party* by nominating someone of my faith* has ta2en on )hat many regard as a ne) and haEardous ris266ne)* at 'east since !;M. %ut @ 'oo2 at it this )ay, the Democratic Party has once again 1'aced its confidence in the American 1eo1'e* and in their abi'ity to render a free* fair Gudgment. And you have* at the same time* 1'aced your confidence in me* and in my abi'ity to render a free* fair Gudgment66to u1ho'd the ?onstitution and my oath of office66and to reGect any 2ind of re'igious 1ressure or ob'igation that might direct'y or indirect'y interfere )ith my conduct of the Presidency in the nationa' interest. +y record of fourteen years su11orting 1ub'ic education66su11orting com1'ete se1aration of church and state66and resisting 1ressure from any source on any issue shou'd be c'ear by no) to everyone. @ ho1e that no American* considering the rea''y critica' issues facing this country* )i'' )aste his franchise by voting either for me or against me so'e'y on account of my re'igious affi'iation. @t is not re'evant. @ )ant to stress* )hat some other 1o'itica' or re'igious 'eader may have said on this subGect. @t is not re'evant )hat abuses may have eCisted in other countries or in other times. @t is not re'evant )hat 1ressures* if any* might conceivab'y be brought to bear on me. @ am te''ing you no) )hat you are entit'ed to 2no), that my decisions on any 1ub'ic 1o'icy )i'' be my o)n66as an American* a Democrat and a free man. 5nder any circumstances* ho)ever* the victory )e see2 in November )i'' not be easy. <e a'' 2no) that in our hearts. <e recogniEe the 1o)er of the forces that )i'' be a'igned against us. <e 2no) they )i'' invo2e the name of Abraham $inco'n on beha'f of their candidate66des1ite the fact that the 1o'itica' career of their candidate has often seemed to sho) charity to)ard none and ma'ice for a''. <e 2no) that it )i'' not be easy to cam1aign against a man )ho has s1o2en or voted on every 2no)n side of every 2no)n issue. +r. NiCon may fee' it is his turn no)* after the Ne) Dea' and the Fair Dea'66but before he dea's* someone had better cut the cards. That -someone3 may be the mi''ions of Americans )ho voted for President Hisenho)er but ba'2 at his )ou'd be* se'f6a11ointed successor. For Gust as historians te'' us that Bichard @ )as not fit to fi'' the shoes of bo'd 0enry @@66and that Bichard ?rom)e'' )as not fit to )ear the mant'e of his unc'e66they might add in future years that Bichard NiCon did not measure to the footste1s of D)ight D. Hisenho)er. Perha1s he cou'd carry on the 1arty 1o'icies66the 1o'icies of NiCon* %enson* Dir2sen and Ao'd)ater. %ut this Nation cannot afford such a 'uCury. Perha1s )e cou'd better afford a ?oo'idge fo''o)ing 0arding. And 1erha1s )e cou'd afford a Pierce fo''o)ing Fi''more. %ut after %uchanan this nation needed a $inco'n66after Taft )e needed a <i'son66after 0oover )e needed Fran2'in Booseve't. . . . And after eight years of drugged and fitfu' s'ee1* this nation needs strong* creative Democratic 'eadershi1 in the <hite 0ouse.

=ut we are not merel+ running against 9r. 1i>on. Our tas, is not merel+ one of itemizing ?epublican failures. 1or is that wholl+ necessar+. 0or the families forced from the farm will ,now how to %ote without our telling them. *he unemplo+ed miners and te>tile wor,ers will ,now how to %ote. *he old people without medical care55the families without a decent home55 the parents of children without ade@uate food or schools55the+ all ,now that it<s time for a change. =ut $ thin, the 7merican people e>pect more from us than cries of indignation and attac,. *he times are too gra%e, the challenge too urgent, and the sta,es too high55to permit the customar+ passions of political debate. We are not here to curse the dar,ness, but to light the candle that can guide us through that dar,ness to a safe and sane future. 7s Winston Churchill said on ta,ing office some twent+ +ears ago8 if we open a @uarrel between the present and the past, we shall be in danger of losing the future. *oda+ our concern must be with that future. 0or the world is changing. *he old era is ending. *he old wa+s will not do. 7broad, the balance of power is shifting. *here are new and more terrible weapons55new and uncertain nations55new pressures of population and depri%ation. One5third of the world, it has been said, ma+ be free55but one5third is the %ictim of cruel repression55and the other one5 third is roc,ed b+ the pangs of po%ert+, hunger and en%+. 9ore energ+ is released b+ the awa,ening of these new nations than b+ the fission of the atom itself. +ean)hi'e* ?ommunist inf'uence has 1enetrated further into Asia* stood astride the +idd'e Hast and no) festers some ninety mi'es off the coast of F'orida. Friends have s'i11ed into neutra'ity66and neutra's into hosti'ity. As our 2eynoter reminded us* the President )ho began his career by going to Korea ends it by staying a)ay from Ja1an. *he world has been close to war before55but now man, who has sur%i%ed all pre%ious threats to his e>istence, has ta,en into his mortal hands the power to e>terminate the entire species some se%en times o%er. ;ere at home, the changing face of the future is e@uall+ re%olutionar+. *he 1ew 6eal and the 0air 6eal were bold measures for their generations55but this is a new generation. 7 technological re%olution on the farm has led to an output e>plosion55but we ha%e not +et learned to harness that e>plosion usefull+, while protecting our farmers< right to full parit+ income. 7n urban population e>plosion has o%ercrowded our schools, cluttered up our suburbs, and increased the s@ualor of our slums. 7 peaceful re%olution for human rights55demanding an end to racial discrimination in all parts of our communit+ life55has strained at the leashes imposed b+ timid e>ecuti%e leadership. 7 medical re%olution has e>tended the life of our elder citizens without pro%iding the dignit+ and securit+ those later +ears deser%e. 7nd a re%olution of automation finds machines replacing men in the mines and mills of 7merica, without replacing their incomes or their training or their needs to pa+ the famil+ doctor, grocer and landlord. *here has also been a change55a slippage55in our intellectual and moral strength. Se%en lean +ears of drouth and famine ha%e withered a field of ideas. =light has descended on our regulator+ agencies55and a dr+ rot, beginning in Washington, is seeping into e%er+ corner of 7merica55in the pa+ola mentalit+, the e>pense account wa+ of life, the confusion between what is legal and what is right. *oo man+ 7mericans ha%e lost their wa+, their will and their sense of historic purpose. $t is a time, in short, for a new generation of leadership55new men to cope with new problems and new opportunities. 7ll o%er the world, particularl+ in the newer nations, +oung men are coming to power55men who are not bound b+ the traditions of the past55men who are not blinded b+ the old fears and hates and ri%alries55+oung men who can cast off the old slogans and delusions and suspicions. The Be1ub'ican nominee6to6be* of course* is a'so a young man. %ut his a11roach is as o'd as +cKin'ey. 0is 1arty is the 1arty of the 1ast. 0is s1eeches are genera'ities from Poor BichardJs A'manac. Their 1'atform* made u1 of 'eft6over Democratic 1'an2s* has the courage of our o'd convictions. Their 1'edge is a 1'edge to the status Nuo66and today there can be no status Nuo. 0or $ stand tonight facing west on what was once the last frontier. 0rom the lands that stretch three thousand miles behind me, the pioneers of old ga%e up their safet+, their comfort and sometimes their li%es to build a new world here in the West. *he+ were not the capti%es of their own doubts, the prisoners of their own price tags. *heir motto was not Ae%er+ man for himselfA 55but Aall for the common cause.A *he+ were determined to ma,e that new world strong and free, to o%ercome its hazards and its hardships, to con@uer the enemies that threatened from without and within.

*oda+ some would sa+ that those struggles are all o%er55that all the horizons ha%e been e>plored55that all the battles ha%e been won55 that there is no longer an 7merican frontier. =ut $ trust that no one in this %ast assemblage will agree with those sentiments. 0or the problems are not all sol%ed and the battles are not all won55and we stand toda+ on the edge of a 1ew 0rontier55the frontier of the !"3<s55a frontier of un,nown opportunities and perils55 a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats. Woodrow Wilson<s 1ew 0reedom promised our nation a new political and economic framewor,. 0ran,lin ?oose%elt<s 1ew 6eal promised securit+ and succor to those in need. =ut the 1ew 0rontier of which $ spea, is not a set of promises55it is a set of challenges. $t sums up not what $ intend to offer the 7merican people, but what $ intend to as, of them. $t appeals to their pride, not to their poc,etboo,55it holds out the promise of more sacrifice instead of more securit+. =ut $ tell +ou the 1ew 0rontier is here, whether we see, it or not. =e+ond that frontier are the uncharted areas of science and space, unsol%ed problems of peace and war, uncon@uered poc,ets of ignorance and pre:udice, unanswered @uestions of po%ert+ and surplus. $t would be easier to shrin, bac, from that frontier, to loo, to the safe mediocrit+ of the past, to be lulled b+ good intentions and high rhetoric55and those who prefer that course should not cast their %otes for me, regardless of part+. =ut $ belie%e the times demand new in%ention, inno%ation, imagination, decision. $ am as,ing each of +ou to be pioneers on that 1ew 0rontier. 9+ call is to the +oung in heart, regardless of age55to all who respond to the Scriptural call8 A=e strong and of a good courageB be not afraid, neither be thou disma+ed.A 0or courage55not complacenc+55is our need toda+55leadership55not salesmanship. 7nd the onl+ %alid test of leadership is the abilit+ to lead, and lead %igorousl+. 7 tired nation, said 6a%id /lo+d .eorge, is a *or+ nation55and the &nited States toda+ cannot afford to be either tired or *or+. *here ma+ be those who wish to hear more55more promises to this group or that55more harsh rhetoric about the men in the Cremlin55more assurances of a golden future, where ta>es are alwa+s low and subsidies e%er high. =ut m+ promises are in the platform +ou ha%e adopted55our ends will not be won b+ rhetoric and we can ha%e faith in the future onl+ if we ha%e faith in oursel%es. 0or the harsh facts of the matter are that we stand on this frontier at a turning5point in histor+. We must pro%e all o%er again whether this nation55or an+ nation so concei%ed55can long endure55whether our societ+55with its freedom of choice, its breadth of opportunit+, its range of alternati%es55can compete with the single5minded ad%ance of the Communist s+stem. Can a nation organized and go%erned such as ours endure? *hat is the real @uestion. ;a%e we the ner%e and the will? Can we carr+ through in an age where we will witness not onl+ new brea,throughs in weapons of destruction55but also a race for master+ of the s,+ and the rain, the ocean and the tides, the far side of space and the inside of men<s minds? 7re we up to the tas,55are we e@ual to the challenge? 7re we willing to match the ?ussian sacrifice of the present for the future55or must we sacrifice our future in order to en:o+ the present? *hat is the @uestion of the 1ew 0rontier. *hat is the choice our nation must ma,e55a choice that lies not merel+ between two men or two parties, but between the public interest and pri%ate comfort55between national greatness and national decline55 between the fresh air of progress and the stale, dan, atmosphere of Anormalc+A55between determined dedication and creeping mediocrit+. A'' man2ind )aits u1on our decision. A )ho'e )or'd 'oo2s to see )hat )e )i'' do. <e cannot fai' their trust* )e cannot fai' to try. $t has been a long road from that first snow+ da+ in 1ew ;ampshire to this crowded con%ention cit+. 1ow begins another long :ourne+, ta,ing me into +our cities and homes all o%er 7merica. .i%e me +our help, +our hand, +our %oice, +our %ote. ?ecall with me the words of $saiah8 A*he+ that wait upon the /ord shall renew their strengthB the+ shall mount up with wings as eaglesB the+ shall run and not be wear+.A 7s we face the coming challenge, we too, shall wait upon the /ord, and as, that he renew our strength. *hen shall we be e@ual to the test. *hen we shall not be wear+. 7nd then we shall pre%ail. Than2 you.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "Address o, -ena!or John F. Kennedy A''e$!ing !he .e/o'ra!i' ar!y 0o/ina!ion ,or !he residen'y o, !he 1ni!ed -!a!es 2 3e/orial 4oliseu/, 5os Angeles," July 16, 1960. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)26966.

Source, htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9;P!""QaCEE;GoET$EJd

ACit+ &pon a ;illA Speech D'anuar+ !, !" E John FitEgera'd Kennedy

@ have )e'comed this o11ortunity to address this historic body* and* through you* the 1eo1'e of +assachusetts to )hom @ am so dee1'y indebted for a 'ifetime of friendshi1 and trust. For fourteen years @ have 1'aced my confidence in the citiEens of +assachusettsUand they have generous'y res1onded by 1'acing their confidence in me. No)* on the Friday after neCt* @ am to assume ne) and broader res1onsibi'ities. %ut @ am not here to bid fare)e'' to +assachusetts. For forty6three yearsU)hether @ )as in $ondon* <ashington* the South Pacific* or e'se)hereUthis has been my homeS and* Aod )i''ing* )herever @ serve this sha'' remain my home. @t )as here my grand1arents )ere bornUit is here @ ho1e my grandchi'dren )i'' be born. @ s1ea2 neither from fa'se 1rovincia' 1ride nor artfu' 1o'itica' f'attery. For no man about to enter high office in this country can ever be unmindfu' of the contribution this state has made to our nationa' greatness. @ts 'eaders have sha1ed our destiny 'ong before the great re1ub'ic )as born. @ts 1rinci1'es have guided our footste1s in times of crisis as )e'' as in times of ca'm. @ts democratic institutionsUinc'uding this historic bodyUhave served as beacon 'ights for other nations as )e'' as our sister states. For )hat Peric'es said to the Athenians has 'ong been true of this common)ea'th, L<e do not imitateUfor )e are a mode' to others.L And so it is that @ carry )ith me from this state to that high and 'one'y office to )hich @ no) succeed more than fond memories of firm friendshi1s. The enduring Nua'ities of +assachusettsUthe common threads )oven by the Pi'grim and the Puritan* the fisherman and the farmer* the Fan2ee and the immigrantU)i'' not be and cou'd not be forgotten in this nationJs eCecutive mansion. They are an inde'ib'e 1art of my 'ife* my convictions* my vie) of the 1ast* and my ho1es for the future. A''o) me to i''ustrate, During the 'ast siCty days* @ have been at the tas2 of constructing an administration. @t has been a 'ong and de'iberate 1rocess. Some have counse'ed greater s1eed. Ithers have counse'ed more eC1edient tests. %ut @ have been guided by the standard John <inthro1 set before his shi1mates on the f'agshi1 Arbe''a three hundred and thirty6 one years ago* as they* too* faced the tas2 of bui'ding a ne) government on a 1eri'ous frontier. L<e must a')ays consider*L he said* Lthat )e sha'' be as a city u1on a hi''Uthe eyes of a'' 1eo1'e are u1on us.L Today the eyes of a'' 1eo1'e are tru'y u1on usUand our governments* in every branch* at every 'eve'* nationa'* state and 'oca'* must be as a city u1on a hi''Uconstructed and inhabited by men a)are of their great trust and their great res1onsibi'ities. For )e are setting out u1on a voyage in !" no 'ess haEardous than that underta2en by the Arabe''a in "#O. <e are committing ourse'ves to tas2s of statecraft no 'ess a)esome than that of governing the +assachusetts %ay ?o'ony* beset as it )as then by terror )ithout and disorder )ithin. ;istor+ will not :udge our endea%orsFand a go%ernment cannot be selectedFmerel+ on the basis of color or creed or e%en part+ affiliation. 1either will competence and lo+alt+ and stature, while essential to the utmost, suffice in times such as these. 0or of those to whom much is gi%en, much is re@uired. 7nd when at some future date the high court of histor+ sits in :udgment on each one of usFrecording whether in our brief span of ser%ice we fulfilled our responsibilities to the stateF our success or failure, in whate%er office we ma+ hold, will be measured b+ the answers to four @uestions8 0irst, were we trul+ men of courageFwith the courage to stand up to one<s enemiesFand the courage to stand up, when necessar+, to one<s associatesFthe courage to resist public pressure, as well as pri%ate greed?

Secondl+, were we trul+ men of :udgmentFwith percepti%e :udgment of the future as well as the pastFof our own mista,es as well as the mista,es of othersFwith enough wisdom to ,now that we did not ,now, and enough candor to admit it? *hird, were we trul+ men of integrit+Fmen who ne%er ran out on either the principles in which the+ belie%ed or the people who belie%ed in themFmen who belie%ed in usFmen whom neither financial gain nor political ambition could e%er di%ert from the fulfillment of our sacred trust? 0inall+, were we trul+ men of dedicationFwith an honor mortgaged to no single indi%idual or group, and compromised b+ no pri%ate obligation or aim, but de%oted solel+ to ser%ing the public good and the national interest. CourageF:udgmentFintegrit+Fdedication8 these are the historic @ualities of the =a+ Colon+ and the =a+ StateFthe @ualities which this state has consistentl+ sent to this chamber on =eacon ;ill here in =oston and to Capitol ;ill bac, in Washington. 7nd these are the @ualities which, with .od<s help, this son of 9assachusetts hopes will characterize our go%ernment<s conduct in the four storm+ +ears that lie ahead. ;umbl+ $ as, ;is help in that underta,ingFbut aware that on earth ;is will is wor,ed b+ men. $ as, for +our help and +our pra+ers, as $ embar, on this new and solemn :ourne+. Source, htt1,77mi''ercenter.org71resident7s1eeches7detai'7##"K

Address &The President and the Press& 'efore the American Ne(spaper Pu)lishers Association$ Ne( *or+ #ity.
A-ril 58$ /13/

+r. ?hairman* 'adies and gent'emen, @ a11reciate very much your generous invitation to be here tonight. Fou bear heavy res1onsibi'ities these days and an artic'e @ read some time ago reminded me of ho) 1articu'ar'y heavi'y the burdens of 1resent day events bear u1on your 1rofession. Fou may remember that in MP the Ne) For2 0era'd Tribune* under the s1onsorshi1 and 1ub'ishing of 0orace Aree'ey* em1'oyed as its $ondon corres1ondent an obscure Gourna'ist by the name of Kar' +arC. <e are to'd that foreign corres1ondent +arC* stone bro2e* and )ith a fami'y i'' and undernourished* constant'y a11ea'ed to Aree'ey and +anaging Hditor ?har'es Dana for an increase in his munificent sa'ary of VP 1er insta''ment* a sa'ary )hich he and Hnge's ungratefu''y 'abe'ed as the L'ousiest 1etty bourgeois cheating.L %ut )hen a'' his financia' a11ea's )ere refused* +arC 'oo2ed around for other means of 'ive'ihood and fame* eventua''y terminating his re'ationshi1 )ith the Tribune and devoting his ta'ents fu'' time to the cause that )ou'd beNueath to the )or'd the seeds of $eninism* Sta'inism* revo'ution and the co'd )ar. @f on'y this ca1ita'istic Ne) For2 ne)s1a1er had treated him more 2ind'yS if on'y +arC had remained a foreign corres1ondent* history might have been different. And @ ho1e a'' 1ub'ishers )i'' bear this 'esson in mind the neCt time they receive a 1overty6 stric2en a11ea' for a sma'' increase in the eC1ense account from an obscure ne)s1a1er @ have se'ected as the tit'e of my remar2s tonight LThe President and the Press.L Some may suggest that this )ou'd be more natura''y )orded LThe President Versus the Press.L %ut those are not my sentiments tonight. @t is true* ho)ever* that )hen a )e''62no)n di1'omat from another country demanded recent'y that our State De1artment re1udiate certain ne)s1a1er attac2s on his co''eague it )as unnecessary for us to re1'y that this Administration )as not res1onsib'e for the 1ress* for the 1ress had a'ready made it c'ear that it )as not res1onsib'e for this Administration. Neverthe'ess* my 1ur1ose here tonight is not to de'iver the usua' assau't on the so6ca''ed one61arty 1ress. In the contrary* in recent months @ have rare'y heard any com1'aints about 1o'itica' bias in the 1ress eCce1t from a fe) Be1ub'icans. Nor is it my 1ur1ose tonight to discuss or defend the te'evising of Presidentia' 1ress conferences. @ thin2 it is high'y beneficia' to have some ;O*OOO*OOO Americans regu'ar'y sit in on these conferences to observe* if @ may say so* the incisive* the inte''igent and the courteous Nua'ities dis1'ayed by your <ashington corres1ondents. Nor* fina''y* are these remar2s intended to eCamine the 1ro1er degree of 1rivacy )hich the 1ress shou'd a''o) to any President and his fami'y. @f in the 'ast fe) months your <hite 0ouse re1orters and 1hotogra1hers have been attending church services )ith regu'arity* that has sure'y done them no harm. In the other hand* @ rea'iEe that your staff and )ire service 1hotogra1hers may be com1'aining that they do not enGoy the same green 1rivi'eges at the 'oca' go'f courses )hich they once did. @t is true that my 1redecessor did not obGect as @ do to 1ictures of oneJs go'fing s2i'' in action. %ut neither on the other hand did he ever bean a Secret Service man. +y to1ic tonight is a more sober one of concern to 1ub'ishers as )e'' as editors. @ )ant to ta'2 about our common res1onsibi'ities in the face of a common danger. The events of recent )ee2s may have he'1ed to i''uminate that cha''enge for someS but the dimensions of its threat have 'oomed 'arge on the horiEon for many years. <hatever our ho1es may be for the future66for reducing this threat or 'iving )ith it66there is no esca1ing either the gravity or the tota'ity of its cha''enge to our surviva' and to our security66a cha''enge that confronts us in unaccustomed )ays in every s1here of human activity.

This dead'y cha''enge im1oses u1on our society t)o reNuirements of direct concern both to the 1ress and to the President66t)o reNuirements that may seem a'most contradictory in tone* but )hich must be reconci'ed and fu'fi''ed if )e are to meet this nationa' 1eri'. @ refer* first* to the need for far greater 1ub'ic informationS and* second* to the need for far greater officia' secrecy. @. *he %er+ word Asecrec+A is repugnant in a free and open societ+B and we are as a people inherentl+ and historicall+ opposed to secret societies, to secret oaths and to secret proceedings. We decided long ago that the dangers of e>cessi%e and unwarranted concealment of pertinent facts far outweighed the dangers which are cited to :ustif+ it. (%en toda+, there is little %alue in opposing the threat of a closed societ+ b+ imitating its arbitrar+ restrictions. (%en toda+, there is little %alue in insuring the sur%i%al of our nation if our traditions do not sur%i%e with it. 7nd there is %er+ gra%e danger that an announced need for increased securit+ will be seized upon b+ those an>ious to e>pand its meaning to the %er+ limits of official censorship and concealment. *hat $ do not intend to permit to the e>tent that it is in m+ control. 7nd no official of m+ 7dministration, whether his ran, is high or low, ci%ilian or militar+, should interpret m+ words here tonight as an e>cuse to censor the news, to stifle dissent, to co%er up our mista,es or to withhold from the press and the public the facts the+ deser%e to ,now. %ut @ do as2 every 1ub'isher* every editor* and every ne)sman in the nation to reeCamine his o)n standards* and to recogniEe the nature of our countryJs 1eri'. @n time of )ar* the government and the 1ress have customari'y Goined in an effort* based 'arge'y on se'f6disci1'ine* to 1revent unauthoriEed disc'osures to the enemy. @n time of Lc'ear and 1resent danger*L the courts have he'd that even the 1rivi'eged rights of the First Amendment must yie'd to the 1ub'icJs need for nationa' security. Today no )ar has been dec'ared66and ho)ever fierce the strugg'e may be* it may never be dec'ared in the traditiona' fashion. Iur )ay of 'ife is under attac2. Those )ho ma2e themse'ves our enemy are advancing around the g'obe. The surviva' of our friends is in danger. And yet no )ar has been dec'ared* no borders have been crossed by marching troo1s* no missi'es have been fired. @f the 1ress is a)aiting a dec'aration of )ar before it im1oses the se'f6disci1'ine of combat conditions* then @ can on'y say that no )ar ever 1osed a greater threat to our security. @f you are a)aiting a finding of Lc'ear and 1resent danger*L then @ can on'y say that the danger has never been more c'ear and its 1resence has never been more imminent. @t reNuires a change in out'oo2* a change in tactics* a change in missions66by the government* by the 1eo1'e* by every businessman or 'abor 'eader* and by every ne)s1a1er. For )e are o11osed around the )or'd by a mono'ithic and ruth'ess cons1iracy that re'ies 1rimari'y on covert means for eC1anding its s1here of inf'uence66on infi'tration instead of invasion* on subversion instead of e'ections* on intimidation instead of free choice* on guerri''as by night instead of armies by day. @t is a system )hich has conscri1ted vast human and materia' resources into the bui'ding of a tight'y 2nit* high'y efficient machine that combines mi'itary* di1'omatic* inte''igence* economic* scientific and 1o'itica' o1erations. its 1re1arations are concea'ed* not 1ub'ished. @ts mista2es are buried* not head'ined. @ts dissenters are si'enced* not 1raised. No eC1enditure is Nuestioned* no rumor is 1rinted* no secret is revea'ed. @t conducts the ?o'd <ar* in short* )ith a )ar6time disci1'ine no democracy )ou'd ever ho1e or )ish to match. Neverthe'ess* every democracy recogniEes the necessary restraints of nationa' security6and the Nuestion remains )hether those restraints need to be more strict'y observed if )e are to o11ose this 2ind of attac2 as )e'' as outright invasion. For the facts of the matter are that this nationJs foes have o1en'y boasted of acNuiring through our ne)s1a1ers information they )ou'd other)ise hire agents to acNuire through theft* bribery or es1ionageS that detai's of this nationJs covert 1re1arations to counter the enemyJs covert o1erations have been avai'ab'e to every ne)s1a1er reader* friend and foe a'i2eS that the siEe* the strength* the 'ocation and the nature of our forces and )ea1ons* and our 1'ans and strategy for their use* have a'' been 1in1ointed in the 1ress and other ne)s media to a degree sufficient to satisfy any foreign 1o)erS and that* in at 'east one case* the 1ub'ication of detai's concerning a secret mechanism )hereby sate''ites )ere fo''o)ed reNuired its a'teration at the eC1ense of considerab'e time and money. The ne)s1a1ers )hich 1rinted these stories )ere 'oya'* 1atriotic* res1onsib'e and )e''6meaning. 0ad )e been engaged in o1en )arfare* they undoubted'y )ou'd not have 1ub'ished such items. %ut in the absence of o1en )arfare* they recogniEed on'y the tests of Gourna'ism and not the tests of nationa' security. And my Nuestion tonight is )hether additiona' tests shou'd not no) be ado1ted.

That Nuestion is for you a'one to ans)er. No 1ub'ic officia' shou'd ans)er it for you. No governmenta' 1'an shou'd im1ose its restraints against your )i''. %ut @ )ou'd be fai'ing in my duty to the Nation* in considering a'' of the res1onsibi'ities that )e no) bear and a'' of the means at hand to meet those res1onsibi'ities* if @ did not commend this 1rob'em to your attention* and urge its thoughtfu' consideration. In many ear'ier occasions* @ have said6and your ne)s1a1ers have constant'y said6that these are times that a11ea' to every citiEenJs sense of sacrifice and se'f6disci1'ine. They ca'' out to every citiEen to )eigh his rights and comforts against his ob'igations to the common good. @ cannot no) be'ieve that those citiEens )ho serve in the ne)s1a1er business consider themse'ves eCem1t from that a11ea'. @ have no intention of estab'ishing a ne) Iffice of <ar @nformation to govern the f'o) of ne)s. @ am not suggesting any ne) forms of censorshi1 or ne) ty1es of security c'assifications. @ have no easy ans)er to the di'emma that @ have 1osed* and )ou'd not see2 to im1ose it if @ had one. %ut @ am as2ing the members of the ne)s1a1er 1rofession and the industry in this country to reeCamine their o)n res1onsibi'ities* to consider the degree and the nature of the 1resent danger* and to heed the duty of se'f6 restraint )hich that danger im1oses u1on us a''. Hvery ne)s1a1er no) as2s itse'f* )ith res1ect to every story, L@s it ne)s8L A'' @ suggest is that you add the Nuestion, L@s it in the interest of the nationa' security8L And @ ho1e that every grou1 in America6unions and businessmen and 1ub'ic officia's at every 'eve'66)i'' as2 the same Nuestion of their endeavors* and subGect their actions to this same eCacting test. And shou'd the 1ress of America consider and recommend the vo'untary assum1tion of s1ecific ne) ste1s or machinery* @ can assure you that )e )i'' coo1erate )ho'e6hearted'y )ith those recommendations. Perha1s there )i'' be no recommendations. Perha1s there is no ans)er to the di'emma faced by a free and o1en society in a co'd and secret )ar. @n times of 1eace* any discussion of this subGect* and any action that resu'ts* are both 1ainfu' and )ithout 1recedent. %ut this is a time of 1eace and 1eri' )hich 2no)s no 1recedent in history. @@. @t is the un1recedented nature of this cha''enge that a'so gives rise to your second ob'igation66an ob'igation )hich @ share. And that is our ob'igation to inform and a'ert the American 1eo1'e66to ma2e certain that they 1ossess a'' the facts that they need* and understand them as )e''66the 1eri's* the 1ros1ects* the 1ur1oses of our 1rogram and the choices that )e face. No President shou'd fear 1ub'ic scrutiny of his 1rogram. For from that scrutiny comes understandingS and from that understanding comes su11ort or o11osition. And both are necessary. @ am not as2ing your ne)s1a1ers to su11ort the Administration* but @ .am as2ing your he'1 in the tremendous tas2 of informing and a'erting the American 1eo1'e. For @ have com1'ete confidence in the res1onse and dedication of our citiEens )henever they are fu''y informed. @ not on'y cou'd not stif'e controversy among your readers66@ )e'come it. This Administration intends to be candid about its errorsS for* as a )ise man once said, LAn error doesnJt become a mista2e unti' you refuse to correct it.L <e intend to acce1t fu'' res1onsibi'ity for our errorsS and )e eC1ect you to 1oint them out )hen )e miss them. <ithout debate* )ithout criticism* no Administration and no country can succeed6and no re1ub'ic can survive. That is )hy the Athenian 'a)6ma2er So'on decreed it a crime for any citiEen to shrin2 from controversy. And that is )hy our 1ress )as 1rotected by the First Amendment66the on'y business in America s1ecifica''y 1rotected by the ?onstitution66not 1rimari'y to amuse and entertain* not to em1hasiEe the trivia' and the sentimenta'* not to sim1'y Lgive the 1ub'ic )hat it )antsL66but to inform* to arouse* to ref'ect* to state our dangers and our o11ortunities* to indicate our crises and our choices* to 'ead* mo'd* educate and sometimes even anger 1ub'ic o1inion. This means greater coverage and ana'ysis of internationa' ne)s66for it is no 'onger far a)ay and foreign but c'ose at hand and 'oca'. @t means greater attention to im1roved understanding of the ne)s as )e'' as im1roved transmission. And it means* fina''y* that government at a'' 'eve's* must meet its ob'igation to 1rovide you )ith the fu''est 1ossib'e information outside the narro)est 'imits of nationa' security66and )e intend to do it. @@@.

@t )as ear'y in the Seventeenth ?entury that Francis %acon remar2ed on three recent inventions a'ready transforming the )or'd, the com1ass* gun1o)der and the 1rinting 1ress. No) the 'in2s bet)een the nations first forged by the com1ass have made us a'' citiEens of the )or'd* the ho1es and threats of one becoming the ho1es and threats of us a''. @n that one )or'dJs efforts to 'ive together* the evo'ution of gun1o)der to its u'timate 'imit has )arned man2ind of the terrib'e conseNuences of fai'ure. And so it is to the 1rinting 1ress66to the recorder of manJs deeds* the 2ee1er of his conscience* the courier of his ne)s66that )e 'oo2 for strength and assistance* confident that )ith your he'1 man )i'' be )hat he )as born to be, free and inde1endent.
Note: The President spoke at the ann al dinner of the *ssociation"s + rea of *d&ertisin# held at the !aldorf3*storia 'otel in New 4ork City. 'is openin# words $5r. Chairman$ referred to Palmer 'oyt) (ditor and P blisher of the /en&er Post) who acted as chairman of the dinner.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "Address ""he residen! and !he ress" 7e,ore !he A/eri'an 0e&s$a$er ublishers Asso'ia!ion, 0e& 8or9 4i!y.," A$ril 2:, 1961. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)*09+.

htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9MO!#QaCEE;GoET$EJd

Special "essage to the #ongress on

9ay 57$ /13/

rgent National Needs

Mr" S#eaker$ Mr" Vice Presi%ent$ my co#artners in &overnment$ gentlemen''an% la%ies: The ?onstitution im1oses u1on me the ob'igation to Lfrom time to time give to the ?ongress information of the State of the 5nion.L <hi'e this has traditiona''y been inter1reted as an annua' affair* this tradition has been bro2en in eCtraordinary times. These are eCtraordinary times. And )e face an eCtraordinary cha''enge. Iur strength as )e'' as our convictions have im1osed u1on this nation the ro'e of 'eader in freedomJs cause. 1o role in histor+ could be more difficult or more important. We stand for freedom. *hat is our con%iction for oursel%es55that is our onl+ commitment to others. 1o friend, no neutral and no ad%ersar+ should thin, otherwise. We are not against an+ man55or an+ nation55or an+ s+stem55e>cept as it is hostile to freedom. 1or am $ here to present a new militar+ doctrine, bearing an+ one name or aimed at an+ one area. $ am here to promote the freedom doctrine. The great batt'eground for the defense and eC1ansion of freedom today is the )ho'e southern ha'f of the g'obe66Asia* $atin America* Africa and the +idd'e Hast66the 'ands of the rising 1eo1'es. Their revo'ution is the greatest in human history. They see2 an end to inGustice* tyranny* and eC1'oitation. +ore than an end* they see2 a beginning. And theirs is a revo'ution )hich )e )ou'd su11ort regard'ess of the ?o'd <ar* and regard'ess of )hich 1o'itica' or economic route they shou'd choose to freedom. For the adversaries of freedom did not create the revo'utionS nor did they create the conditions )hich com1e' it. %ut they are see2ing to ride the crest of its )ave66to ca1ture it for themse'ves. Fet their aggression is more often concea'ed than o1en. They have fired no missi'esS and their troo1s are se'dom seen. They send arms* agitators* aid* technicians and 1ro1aganda to every troub'ed area. %ut )here fighting is reNuired* it is usua''y done by others66by guerri''as stri2ing at night* by assassins stri2ing a'one66assassins )ho have ta2en the 'ives of four thousand civi' officers in the 'ast t)e've months in Vietnam a'one66by subversives and saboteurs and insurrectionists* )ho in some cases contro' )ho'e areas inside of inde1endent nations. At this 1oint the fo''o)ing 1aragra1h* )hich a11ears in fine teCt as signed and transmitted to the Senate and 0ouse of Be1resentatives* )as omitted in the reading of the message, They 1ossess a 1o)erfu' intercontinenta' stri2ing force* 'arge forces for conventiona' )ar* a )e''6trained underground in near'y every country* the 1o)er to conscri1t ta'ent and man1o)er for any 1ur1ose* the ca1acity for Nuic2 decisions* a c'osed society )ithout dissent or free information* and 'ong eC1erience in the techniNues of vio'ence and subversion. They ma2e the most of their scientific successes* *their economic 1rogress and their 1ose as a foe of co'onia'ism and friend of 1o1u'ar revo'ution. They 1rey on unstab'e or un1o1u'ar governments* unsea'ed* or un2no)n boundaries* unfi''ed ho1es* convu'sive change* massive 1overty* i''iteracy* unrest and frustration. <ith these formidab'e )ea1ons* the adversaries of freedom 1'an to conso'idate their territory66to eC1'oit* to contro'* and fina''y to destroy the ho1es of the )or'dJs ne)est nationsS and they have ambition to do it before the end of this decade. @t is a contest of )i'' and 1ur1ose as )e'' as force and vio'ence66a batt'e for minds and sou's as )e'' as 'ives and territory. And in that contest* )e cannot stand aside. <e stand* as )e have a')ays stood from our ear'iest beginnings* for the inde1endence and eNua'ity of a'' nations. This nation )as born of revo'ution and raised in freedom. And )e do not intend to 'eave an o1en road for des1otism. There is no sing'e sim1'e 1o'icy )hich meets this cha''enge. HC1erience has taught us that no one nation has the 1o)er or the )isdom to so've a'' the 1rob'ems of the )or'd or manage its revo'utionary tides6that eCtending our commitments does not a')ays increase our security66that any initiative carries )ith it the ris2 of a tem1orary defeat66that nuc'ear )ea1ons cannot 1revent subversion66that no free 1eo1'e can be 2e1t free )ithout )i'' and energy of their o)n66 and that no t)o nations or situations are eCact'y a'i2e. Fet there is much )e can do66and must do. The 1ro1osa's @ bring before you are numerous and varied. They arise from the host of s1ecia' o11ortunities and dangers )hich have become increasing'y c'ear in recent months. Ta2en together* @ be'ieve that they can mar2 another ste1 for)ard in our effort as a 1eo1'e. @ am here to as2 the he'1 of this ?ongress and the nation in a11roving these necessary measures.

@@. H?INI+@? AND SI?@A$ PBIABHSS AT 0I+H The first and basic tas2 confronting this nation this year )as to turn recession into recovery. An affirmative anti6recession 1rogram* initiated )ith your coo1eration* su11orted the natura' forces in the 1rivate sectorS and our economy is no) enGoying rene)ed confidence and energy. The recession has been ha'ted. Becovery is under )ay. %ut the tas2 of abating unem1'oyment and achieving a fu'' use of our resources does remain a serious cha''enge for us a''. $arge6sca'e unem1'oyment during a recession is bad enough* but 'arge6sca'e unem1'oyment during a 1eriod of 1ros1erity )ou'd be into'erab'e. @ am therefore transmitting to the ?ongress a ne) +an1o)er Deve'o1ment and Training 1rogram* to train or retrain severa' hundred thousand )or2ers* 1articu'ar'y in those areas )here )e have seen chronic unem1'oyment as a resu't of techno'ogica' factors in ne) occu1ationa' s2i''s over a four6year 1eriod* in order to re1'ace those s2i''s made obso'ete by automation and industria' change )ith the ne) s2i''s )hich the ne) 1rocesses demand. @t shou'd be a satisfaction to us a'' that )e have made great strides in restoring )or'd confidence in the do''ar* ha'ting the outf'o) of go'd and im1roving our ba'ance of 1ayments. During the 'ast t)o months* our go'd stoc2s actua''y increased by seventeen mi''ion do''ars* com1ared to a 'oss of "#P mi''ion do''ars during the 'ast t)o months of !"O. <e must maintain this 1rogress66and this )i'' reNuire the coo1eration and restraint of everyone. As recovery 1rogresses* there )i'' be tem1tations to see2 unGustified 1rice and )age increases. These )e cannot afford. They )i'' on'y handica1 our efforts to com1ete abroad and to achieve fu'' recovery here at home. $abor and management must66and @ am confident that they )i''661ursue res1onsib'e )age and 1rice 1o'icies in these critica' times. @ 'oo2 to the PresidentJs Advisory ?ommittee on $abor6+anagement Po'icy to give a strong 'ead in this direction. +oreover* if the budget deficit no) increased by the needs of our security is to be he'd )ithin manageab'e 1ro1ortions* it )i'' be necessary to ho'd tight'y to 1rudent fisca' standardsS and @ reNuest the coo1eration of the ?ongress in this regard66to refrain from adding funds or 1rograms* desirab'e as they may be* to the %udget66to end the 1osta' deficit* as my 1redecessor a'so recommended* through increased rates66a deficit incidenta''y* this year* )hich eCceeds the fisca' !"; cost of a'' the s1ace and defense measures that @ am submitting today66to 1rovide fu'' 1ay6as6you6go high)ay financing66and to c'ose those taC 'oo1ho'es ear'ier s1ecified. Iur security and 1rogress cannot be chea1'y 1urchasedS and their 1rice must be found in )hat )e a'' forego as )e'' as )hat )e a'' must 1ay. @@@. H?INI+@? AND SI?@A$ PBIABHSS A%BIAD @ stress the strength of our economy because it is essentia' to the strength of our nation. And )hat is true in our case is true in the case of other countries. Their strength in the strugg'e for freedom de1ends on the strength of their economic and their socia' 1rogress. <e )ou'd be bad'y mista2en to consider their 1rob'ems in mi'itary terms a'one. 0or no amount of arms and armies can help stabilize those go%ernments which are unable or unwilling to achie%e social and economic reform and de%elopment. 9ilitar+ pacts cannot help nations whose social in:ustice and economic chaos in%ite insurgenc+ and penetration and sub%ersion. *he most s,illful counter5guerrilla efforts cannot succeed where the local population is too caught up in its own miser+ to be concerned about the ad%ance of communism. %ut for those )ho share this vie)* )e stand ready no)* as )e have in the 1ast* to 1rovide generous'y of our s2i''s* and our ca1ita'* and our food to assist the 1eo1'es of the 'ess6deve'o1ed nations to reach their goa's in freedom66to he'1 them before they are engu'fed in crisis. This is a'so our great o11ortunity in !" . @f )e gras1 it* then subversion to 1revent its success is eC1osed as an unGustifiab'e attem1t to 2ee1 these nations from either being free or eNua'. %ut if )e do not 1ursue it* and if they do not 1ursue it* the ban2ru1tcy of unstab'e governments* one by one* and of unfi''ed ho1es )i'' sure'y 'ead to a series of tota'itarian receivershi1s. Har'ier in the year* @ out'ined to the ?ongress a ne) 1rogram for aiding emerging nationsS and it is my intention to transmit short'y draft 'egis'ation to im1'ement this 1rogram* to estab'ish a ne) Act for @nternationa' Deve'o1ment* and to add to the figures 1revious'y reNuested* in vie) of the s)ift 1ace of critica' events* an additiona' ;PO mi''ion do''ars for a Presidentia' ?ontingency Fund* to be used on'y u1on a Presidentia' determination in each case* )ith regu'ar and com1'ete re1orts to the ?ongress in each case* )hen there is a sudden and eCtraordinary drain u1on our regu'ar funds )hich )e cannot foresee66as i''ustrated by recent events in Southeast Asia66and it ma2es necessary the use of this emergency reserve. The tota' amount reNuested66no) raised to ;."P bi''ion do''ars66is both minima' and crucia'. @ do not see ho) anyone )ho is concerned66as )e a'' are66about the gro)ing threats to freedom around the g'obe66and )ho is as2ing )hat more )e can do as a 1eo1'e66can )ea2en or o11ose the sing'e most im1ortant 1rogram avai'ab'e for bui'ding the frontiers of freedom. @V.

A'' that @ have said ma2es it c'ear that )e are engaged in a )or'd6)ide strugg'e in )hich )e bear a heavy burden to 1reserve and 1romote the idea's that )e share )ith a'' man2ind* or have a'ien idea's forced u1on them. That strugg'e has high'ighted the ro'e of our @nformation Agency. @t is essentia' that the funds 1revious'y reNuested for this effort be not on'y a11roved in fu''* but increased by ; mi''ion* KOO thousand do''ars* to a tota' of ; mi''ion do''ars. This ne) reNuest is for additiona' radio and te'evision to $atin America and Southeast Asia. These too's are 1articu'ar'y effective and essentia' in the cities and vi''ages of those great continents as a means of reaching mi''ions of uncertain 1eo1'es to te'' them of our interest in their fight for freedom. @n $atin America* )e are 1ro1osing to increase our S1anish and Portuguese broadcasts to a tota' of PK hours a )ee2* com1ared to K; hours today* none of )hich is in Portuguese* the 'anguage of about one6third of the 1eo1'e of South America. The Soviets* Bed ?hinese and sate''ites a'ready broadcast into $atin America more than #K hours a )ee2 in S1anish and Portuguese. ?ommunist ?hina a'one does more 1ub'ic information broadcasting in our o)n hemis1here than )e do. +oreover* 1o)erfu' 1ro1aganda broadcasts from 0avana no) are heard throughout $atin America* encouraging ne) revo'utions in severa' countries. Simi'ar'y* in $aos* Vietnam* ?ambodia* and Thai'and* )e must communicate our determination and su11ort to those u1on )hom our ho1es for resisting the communist tide in that continent u'timate'y de1end. Iur interest is in the truth. V. I5B PABTNHBS0@P FIB SH$F6DHFHNSH %ut )hi'e )e ta'2 of sharing and bui'ding and the com1etition of ideas* others ta'2 of arms and threaten )ar. So )e have 'earned to 2ee1 our defenses strong66and to coo1erate )ith others in a 1artnershi1 of se'f6defense. The events of recent )ee2s have caused us to 'oo2 ane) at these efforts. The center of freedomJs defense is our net)or2 of )or'd a''iances* eCtending from NATI* recommended by a Democratic President and a11roved by a Be1ub'ican ?ongress* to SHATI* recommended by a Be1ub'ican President and a11roved by a Democratic ?ongress. These a''iances )ere constructed in the !KOJs and !POJs66it is our tas2 and res1onsibi'ity in the !"OJs to strengthen them. To meet the changing conditions of 1o)er66and 1o)er re'ationshi1s have changed66)e have endorsed an increased em1hasis on NATIJs conventiona' strength. At the same time )e are affirming our conviction that the NATI nuc'ear deterrent must a'so be 2e1t strong. @ have made c'ear our intention to commit to the NATI command* for this 1ur1ose* the P Po'aris submarines origina''y suggested by President Hisenho)er* )ith the 1ossibi'ity* if needed* of more to come. Second* a maGor 1art of our 1artnershi1 for se'f6defense is the +i'itary Assistance Program. The main burden of 'oca' defense against 'oca' attac2* subversion* insurrection or guerri''a )arfare must of necessity rest )ith 'oca' forces. <here these forces have the necessary )i'' and ca1acity to co1e )ith such threats* our intervention is rare'y necessary or he'1fu'. <here the )i'' is 1resent and on'y ca1acity is 'ac2ing* our +i'itary Assistance Program can be of he'1. %ut this 1rogram* 'i2e economic assistance* needs a ne) em1hasis. @t cannot be eCtended )ithout regard to the socia'* 1o'itica' and mi'itary reforms essentia' to interna' res1ect and stabi'ity. The eNui1ment and training 1rovided must be tai'ored to 'egitimate 'oca' needs and to our o)n foreign and mi'itary 1o'icies* not to our su11'y of mi'itary stoc2s or a 'oca' 'eaderJs desire for mi'itary dis1'ay. And mi'itary assistance can* in addition to its mi'itary 1ur1oses* ma2e a contribution to economic 1rogress* as do our o)n Army Hngineers. @n an ear'ier message* @ reNuested ." bi''ion do''ars for +i'itary Assistance* stating that this )ou'd maintain eCisting force 'eve's* but that @ cou'd not foresee ho) much more might be reNuired. @t is no) c'ear that this is not enough. The 1resent crisis in Southeast Asia* on )hich the Vice President has made a va'uab'e re1ort66the rising threat of communism in $atin America6the increased arms traffic in Africa66and a'' the ne) 1ressures on every nation found on the ma1 by tracing your fingers a'ong the borders of the ?ommunist b'oc in Asia and the +idd'e Hast66a'' ma2e c'ear the dimension of our needs. @ therefore reNuest the ?ongress to 1rovide a tota' of .MMP bi''ion do''ars for +i'itary Assistance in the coming fisca' year66an amount 'ess than that reNuested a year ago6but a minimum )hich must be assured if )e are to he'1 those nations ma2e secure their inde1endence. This must be 1rudent'y and )ise'y s1ent66and that )i'' be our common endeavor. +i'itary and economic assistance has been a heavy burden on our citiEens for a 'ong time* and @ recogniEe the strong 1ressures against itS but this batt'e is far from over* it is reaching a crucia' stage* and @ be'ieve )e shou'd 1artici1ate in it. <e cannot mere'y state our o11osition to tota'itarian advance )ithout 1aying the 1rice of he'1ing those no) under the greatest 1ressure. V@. I5B I<N +@$@TABF AND @NTH$$@AHN?H S0@H$D

@n 'ine )ith these deve'o1ments* @ have directed a further reinforcement of our o)n ca1acity to deter or resist non6nuc'ear aggression. @n the conventiona' fie'd* )ith one eCce1tion* @ find no 1resent need for 'arge ne) 'evies of men. <hat is needed is rather a change of 1osition to give us sti'' further increases in f'eCibi'ity. Therefore* @ am directing the Secretary of Defense to underta2e a reorganiEation and moderniEation of the ArmyJs divisiona' structure* to increase its non6nuc'ear fire1o)er* to im1rove its tactica' mobi'ity in any environment* to insure its f'eCibi'ity to meet any direct or indirect threat* to faci'itate its coordination )ith our maGor a''ies* and to 1rovide more modern mechaniEed divisions in Huro1e and bring their eNui1ment u1 to date* and ne) airborne brigades in both the Pacific and Huro1e. And second'y* @ am as2ing the ?ongress for an additiona' OO mi''ion do''ars to begin the 1rocurement tas2 necessary to re6eNui1 this ne) Army structure )ith the most modern materia'. Ne) he'ico1ters* ne) armored 1ersonne' carriers* and ne) ho)itEers* for eCam1'e* must be obtained no). Third* @ am directing the Secretary of Defense to eC1and ra1id'y and substantia''y* in coo1eration )ith our A''ies* the orientation of eCisting forces for the conduct of nonnuc'ear )ar* 1ara6mi'itary o1erations and sub6'imited or unconventiona' )ars. @n addition* our s1ecia' forces and unconventiona' )arfare units )i'' be increased and reoriented. Throughout the services ne) em1hasis must be 1'aced on the s1ecia' s2i''s and 'anguages )hich are reNuired to )or2 )ith 'oca' 1o1u'ations. Fourth* the Army is deve'o1ing 1'ans to ma2e 1ossib'e a much more ra1id de1'oyment of a maGor 1ortion of its high'y trained reserve forces. <hen these 1'ans are com1'eted and the reserve is strengthened* t)o combat6eNui11ed divisions* 1'us their su11orting forces* a tota' of M!*OOO men* cou'd be ready in an emergency for o1erations )ith but # )ee2sJ notice66; more divisions )ith but P )ee2sJ notice66and siC additiona' divisions and their su11orting forces* ma2ing a tota' of O divisions* cou'd be de1'oyab'e )ith 'ess than M )ee2sJ notice. @n short* these ne) 1'ans )i'' a''o) us to a'most doub'e the combat 1o)er of the Army in 'ess than t)o months* com1ared to the near'y nine months heretofore reNuired. Fifth* to enhance the a'ready formidab'e abi'ity of the +arine ?or1s to res1ond to 'imited )ar emergencies* @ am as2ing the ?ongress for "O mi''ion do''ars to increase the +arine ?or1s strength to !O*OOO men. This )i'' increase the initia' im1act and staying 1o)er of our three +arine divisions and three air )ings* and 1rovide a trained nuc'eus for further eC1ansion* if necessary for se'f6defense. Fina''y* to cite one other area of activities that are both 'egitimate and necessary as a means of se'f6defense in an age of hidden 1eri's* our )ho'e inte''igence effort must be revie)ed* and its coordination )ith other e'ements of 1o'icy assured. The ?ongress and the American 1eo1'e are entit'ed to 2no) that )e )i'' institute )hatever ne) organiEation* 1o'icies* and contro' are necessary. V@@. ?@V@$ DHFHNSH Ine maGor e'ement of the nationa' security 1rogram )hich this nation has never sNuare'y faced u1 to is civi' defense. This 1rob'em arises not from 1resent trends but from nationa' inaction in )hich most of us have 1artici1ated. @n the 1ast decade )e have intermittent'y considered a variety of 1rograms* but )e have never ado1ted a consistent 1o'icy. Pub'ic considerations have been 'arge'y characteriEed by a1athy* indifference and s2e1ticismS )hi'e* at the same time* many of the civi' defense 1'ans have been so far6 reaching and unrea'istic that they have not gained essentia' su11ort. This Administration has been 'oo2ing hard at eCact'y )hat civi' defense can and cannot do. @t cannot be obtained chea1'y. @t cannot give an assurance of b'ast 1rotection that )i'' be 1roof against sur1rise attac2 or guaranteed against obso'escence or destruction. And it cannot deter a nuc'ear attac2. <e )i'' deter an enemy from ma2ing a nuc'ear attac2 on'y if our reta'iatory 1o)er is so strong and so invu'nerab'e that he 2no)s he )ou'd be destroyed by our res1onse. @f )e have that strength* civi' defense is not needed to deter an attac2. @f )e shou'd ever 'ac2 it* civi' defense )ou'd not be an adeNuate substitute. %ut this deterrent conce1t assumes rationa' ca'cu'ations by rationa' men. And the history of this 1'anet* and 1articu'ar'y the history of the ;Oth century* is sufficient to remind us of the 1ossibi'ities of an irrationa' attac2* a misca'cu'ation* an accidenta' )ar* for a )ar of esca'ation in )hich the sta2es by each side gradua''y increase to the 1oint of maCimum danger/ )hich cannot be either foreseen or deterred. @t is on this basis that civi' defense can be readi'y Gustifiab'e66as insurance for the civi'ian 1o1u'ation in case of an enemy misca'cu'ation. @t is insurance )e trust )i'' never be needed66but insurance )hich )e cou'd never forgive ourse'ves for foregoing in the event of catastro1he. Ince the va'idity of this conce1t is recogniEed* there is no 1oint in de'aying the initiation of a nation6)ide 'ong6range 1rogram of identifying 1resent fa''out she'ter ca1acity and 1roviding she'ter in ne) and eCisting structures. Such a 1rogram )ou'd 1rotect mi''ions

of 1eo1'e against the haEards of radioactive fa''out in the event of 'arge6sca'e nuc'ear attac2. Hffective 1erformance of the entire 1rogram not on'y reNuires ne) 'egis'ative authority and more funds* but a'so sound organiEationa' arrangements. Therefore* under the authority vested in me by BeorganiEation P'an No. of !PM* @ am assigning res1onsibi'ity for this 1rogram to the to1 civi'ian authority a'ready res1onsib'e for continenta' defense* the Secretary of Defense. @t is im1ortant that this function remain civi'ian* in nature and 'eadershi1S and this feature )i'' not be changed. The Iffice of ?ivi' and Defense +obi'iEation )i'' be reconstituted as a sma'' staff agency to assist in the coordination of these functions. To more accurate'y describe its ro'e* its tit'e shou'd be changed to the Iffice of Hmergency P'anning. As soon as those ne)'y charged )ith these res1onsibi'ities have 1re1ared ne) authoriEation and a11ro1riation reNuests* such reNuests )i'' be transmitted to the ?ongress for a much strengthened Federa'6State civi' defense 1rogram. Such a 1rogram )i'' 1rovide Federa' funds for identifying fa''out she'ter ca1acity in eCisting structures* and it )i'' inc'ude* )here a11ro1riate* incor1oration of she'ter in Federa' bui'dings* ne) reNuirements for she'ter in bui'dings constructed )ith Federa' assistance* and matching grants and other incentives for constructing she'ter in State and 'oca' and 1rivate bui'dings. Federa' a11ro1riations for civi' defense in fisca' !"; under this 1rogram )i'' in a'' 'i2e'ihood be more than tri1'e the 1ending budget reNuestsS and they )i'' increase shar1'y in subseNuent years. Financia' 1artici1ation )i'' a'so be reNuired from State and 'oca' governments and from 1rivate citiEens. %ut no insurance is cost6freeS and every American citiEen and his community must decide for themse'ves )hether this form of surviva' insurance Gustifies the eC1enditure of effort* time and money. For myse'f* @ am convinced that it does. V@@@. D@SAB+A+HNT @ cannot end this discussion of defense and armaments )ithout em1hasiEing our strongest ho1e, the creation of an order'y )or'd )here disarmament )i'' be 1ossib'e. Iur aims do not 1re1are for )ar66they are efforts to discourage and resist the adventures of others that cou'd end in )ar. That is )hy it is consistent )ith these efforts that )e continue to 1ress for 1ro1er'y safeguarded disarmament measures. At Aeneva* in coo1eration )ith the 5nited Kingdom* )e have 1ut for)ard concrete 1ro1osa's to ma2e c'ear our )ish to meet the Soviets ha'f )ay in an effective nuc'ear test ban treaty66the first significant but essentia' ste1 on the road to)ards disarmament. 51 to no)* their res1onse has not been )hat )e ho1ed* but +r. Dean returned 'ast night to Aeneva* and )e intend to go the 'ast mi'e in 1atience to secure this gain if )e can. +ean)hi'e* )e are determined to 2ee1 disarmament high on our agenda66to ma2e an intensified effort to deve'o1 acce1tab'e 1o'itica' and technica' a'ternatives to the 1resent arms race. To this end @ sha'' send to the ?ongress a measure to estab'ish a strengthened and en'arged Disarmament Agency. @W. SPA?H Fina''y* if )e are to )in the batt'e that is no) going on around the )or'd bet)een freedom and tyranny* the dramatic achievements in s1ace )hich occurred in recent )ee2s shou'd have made c'ear to us a''* as did the S1utni2 in !PD* the im1act of this adventure on the minds of men every)here* )ho are attem1ting to ma2e a determination of )hich road they shou'd ta2e. Since ear'y in my term* our efforts in s1ace have been under revie). <ith the advice of the Vice President* )ho is ?hairman of the Nationa' S1ace ?ounci'* )e have eCamined )here )e are strong and )here )e are not* )here )e may succeed and )here )e may not. No) it is time to ta2e 'onger strides66time for a great ne) American enter1rise66time for this nation to ta2e a c'ear'y 'eading ro'e in s1ace achievement* )hich in many )ays may ho'd the 2ey to our future on earth. @ be'ieve )e 1ossess a'' the resources and ta'ents necessary. %ut the facts of the matter are that )e have never made the nationa' decisions or marsha'ed the nationa' resources reNuired for such 'eadershi1. <e have never s1ecified 'ong6range goa's on an urgent time schedu'e* or managed our resources and our time so as to insure theft fu'fi''ment. BecogniEing the head start obtained by the Soviets )ith their 'arge roc2et engines* )hich gives them many months of 'ead6time* and recogniEing the 'i2e'ihood that they )i'' eC1'oit this 'ead for some time to come in sti'' more im1ressive successes* )e neverthe'ess are reNuired to ma2e ne) efforts on our o)n. For )hi'e )e cannot guarantee that )e sha'' one day be first* )e can guarantee that any fai'ure to ma2e this effort )i'' ma2e us 'ast. <e ta2e an additiona' ris2 by ma2ing it in fu'' vie) of the )or'd* but as sho)n by the feat of astronaut She1ard* this very ris2 enhances our stature )hen )e are successfu'. %ut this is not mere'y a race. S1ace is o1en to us no)S and our eagerness to share its meaning is not governed by the efforts of others. <e go into s1ace because )hatever man2ind must underta2e* free men must fu''y share.

@ therefore as2 the ?ongress* above and beyond the increases @ have ear'ier reNuested for s1ace activities* to 1rovide the funds )hich are needed to meet the fo''o)ing nationa' goa's, 0irst, $ belie%e that this nation should commit itself to achie%ing the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safel+ to the earth. No sing'e s1ace 1roGect in this 1eriod )i'' be more im1ressive to man2ind* or more im1ortant for the 'ong6range eC1'oration of s1aceS and none )i'' be so difficu't or eC1ensive to accom1'ish. <e 1ro1ose to acce'erate the deve'o1ment of the a11ro1riate 'unar s1ace craft. <e 1ro1ose to deve'o1 a'ternate 'iNuid and so'id fue' boosters* much 'arger than any no) being deve'o1ed* unti' certain )hich is su1erior. <e 1ro1ose additiona' funds for other engine deve'o1ment and for unmanned eC1'orations66eC1'orations )hich are 1articu'ar'y im1ortant for one 1ur1ose )hich this nation )i'' never over'oo2, the surviva' of the man )ho first ma2es this daring f'ight. %ut in a very rea' sense* it )i'' not be one man going to the moon66if )e ma2e this Gudgment affirmative'y* it )i'' be an entire nation. For a'' of us must )or2 to 1ut him there. Second'y* an additiona' ;# mi''ion do''ars* together )ith D mi''ion do''ars a'ready avai'ab'e* )i'' acce'erate deve'o1ment of the Bover nuc'ear roc2et. This gives 1romise of some day 1roviding a means for even more eCciting and ambitious eC1'oration of s1ace* 1erha1s beyond the moon* 1erha1s to the very end of the so'ar system itse'f. Third* an additiona' PO mi''ion do''ars )i'' ma2e the most of our 1resent 'eadershi1* by acce'erating the use of s1ace sate''ites for )or'd6)ide communications. Fourth* an additiona' DP mi''ion do''ars6of )hich P# mi''ion do''ars is for the <eather %ureau66)i'' he'1 give us at the ear'iest 1ossib'e time a sate''ite system for )or'd6)ide )eather observation. $et it be c'ear66and this is a Gudgment )hich the +embers of the ?ongress must fina''y ma2e66'et it be c'ear that @ am as2ing the ?ongress and the country to acce1t a firm commitment to a ne) course of action6a course )hich )i'' 'ast for many years and carry very heavy costs, P# mi''ion do''ars in fisca' J";66an estimated seven to nine bi''ion do''ars additiona' over the neCt five years. @f )e are to go on'y ha'f )ay* or reduce our sights in the face of difficu'ty* in my Gudgment it )ou'd be better not to go at a''. No) this is a choice )hich this country must ma2e* and @ am confident that under the 'eadershi1 of the S1ace ?ommittees of the ?ongress* and the A11ro1riating ?ommittees* that you )i'' consider the matter carefu''y. @t is a most im1ortant decision that )e ma2e as a nation. %ut a'' of you have 'ived through the 'ast four years and have seen the significance of s1ace and the adventures in s1ace* and no one can 1redict )ith certainty )hat the u'timate meaning )i'' be of mastery of s1ace. @ be'ieve )e shou'd go to the moon. %ut @ thin2 every citiEen of this country as )e'' as the +embers of the ?ongress shou'd consider the matter carefu''y in ma2ing their Gudgment* to )hich )e have given attention over many )ee2s and months* because it is a heavy burden* and there is no sense in agreeing or desiring that the 5nited States ta2e an affirmative 1osition in outer s1ace* un'ess )e are 1re1ared to do the )or2 and bear the burdens to ma2e it successfu'. @f )e are not* )e shou'd decide today and this year. This decision demands a maGor nationa' commitment of scientific and technica' man1o)er* materie' and faci'ities* and the 1ossibi'ity of their diversion from other im1ortant activities )here they are a'ready thin'y s1read. @t means a degree of dedication* organiEation and disci1'ine )hich have not a')ays characteriEed our research and deve'o1ment efforts. @t means )e cannot afford undue )or2 sto11ages* inf'ated costs of materia' or ta'ent* )astefu' interagency riva'ries* or a high turnover of 2ey 1ersonne'. Ne) obGectives and ne) money cannot so've these 1rob'ems. They cou'd in fact* aggravate them further66un'ess every scientist* every engineer* every serviceman* every technician* contractor* and civi' servant gives his 1ersona' 1'edge that this nation )i'' move for)ard* )ith the fu'' s1eed of freedom* in the eCciting adventure of s1ace. W. ?IN?$5S@IN @n conc'usion* 'et me em1hasiEe one 1oint. @t is not a 1'easure for any President of the 5nited States* as @ am sure it )as not a 1'easure for my 1redecessors* to come before the ?ongress and as2 for ne) a11ro1riations )hich 1'ace burdens on our 1eo1'e. @ came to this conc'usion )ith some re'uctance. %ut in my Gudgment* this is a most serious time in the 'ife of our country and in the 'ife of freedom around the g'obe* and it is the ob'igation* @ be'ieve* of the President of the 5nited States to at 'east ma2e his recommendations to the +embers of the ?ongress* so that they can reach their o)n conc'usions )ith that Gudgment before them. Fou must decide yourse'ves* as @ have decided* and @ am confident that )hether you fina''y decide in the )ay that @ have decided or not* that your Gudgment66as my Gudgment66is reached on )hat is in the best interests of our country.

@n conc'usion* 'et me em1hasiEe one 1oint, that )e are determined* as a nation in !" that freedom sha'' survive and succeed66and )hatever the 1eri' and set6bac2s* )e have some very 'arge advantages. The first is the sim1'e fact that )e are on the side of 'iberty66and since the beginning of history* and 1articu'ar'y since the end of the Second <or'd <ar* 'iberty has been )inning out a'' over the g'obe. A second great asset is that )e are not a'one. <e have friends and a''ies a'' over the )or'd )ho share our devotion to freedom. +ay @ cite as a symbo' of traditiona' and effective friendshi1 the great a''y @ am about to visit66France. @ 'oo2 for)ard to my visit to France* and to my discussion )ith a great ?a1tain of the <estern <or'd* President de Aau''e* as a meeting of 1articu'ar significance* 1ermitting the 2ind of c'ose and ranging consu'tation that )i'' strengthen both our countries and serve the common 1ur1oses of )or'd6 )ide 1eace and 'iberty. Such serious conversations do not reNuire a 1a'e unanimity66they are rather the instruments of trust and understanding over a 'ong road. A third asset is our desire for 1eace. @t is sincere* and @ be'ieve the )or'd 2no)s it. <e are 1roving it in our 1atience at the test6ban tab'e* and )e are 1roving it in the 5N )here our efforts have been directed to maintaining that organiEationJs usefu'ness as a 1rotector of the inde1endence of sma'' nations. @n these and other instances* the res1onse of our o11onents has not been encouraging. Fet it is im1ortant to 2no) that our 1atience at the bargaining tab'e is near'y ineChaustib'e* though our credu'ity is 'imited6that our ho1es for 1eace are unfai'ing* )hi'e our determination to 1rotect our security is reso'ute. For these reasons @ have 'ong thought it )ise to meet )ith the Soviet Premier for a 1ersona' eCchange of vie)s. A meeting in Vienna turned out to be convenient for us bothS and the Austrian government has 2ind'y made us )e'come. No forma' agenda is 1'anned and no negotiations )i'' be underta2enS but )e )i'' ma2e dear AmericaJs enduring concern is for both 1eace and freedom66that )e are anCious to 'ive in harmony )ith the Bussian 1eo1'e6that )e see2 no conNuests* no sate''ites* no riches66that )e see2 on'y the day )hen Lnation sha'' not 'ift u1 s)ord against nation* neither sha'' they 'earn )ar any more.L Fina''y* our greatest asset in this strugg'e is the American 1eo1'e66their )i''ingness to 1ay the 1rice for these 1rograms66to understand and acce1t a 'ong strugg'e66to share their resources )ith other 'ess fortunate 1eo1'e6to meet the taC 'eve's and c'ose the taC 'oo1ho'es @ have reNuested66to eCercise se'f6restraint instead of 1ushing u1 )ages or 1rices* or over61roducing certain cro1s* or s1reading mi'itary secrets* or urging unessentia' eC1enditures or im1ro1er mono1o'ies or harmfu' )or2 sto11ages66to serve in the Peace ?or1s or the Armed Services or the Federa' ?ivi' Service or the ?ongress66to strive for eCce''ence in their schoo's* in their cities and in their 1hysica' fitness and that of their chi'dren66to ta2e 1art in ?ivi' Defense6to 1ay higher 1osta' rates* and higher 1ayro'' taCes and higher teachersJ sa'aries* in order to strengthen our society66to sho) friendshi1 to students and visitors from other 'ands )ho visit us and go bac2 in many cases to be the future 'eaders* )ith an image of America66and @ )ant that image* and @ 2no) you do* to be affirmative and 1ositive6and* fina''y* to 1ractice democracy at home* in a'' States* )ith a'' races* to res1ect each other and to 1rotect the ?onstitutiona' rights of a'' citiEens. @ have not as2ed for a sing'e 1rogram )hich did not cause one or a'' Americans some inconvenience* or some hardshi1* or some sacrifice. %ut they have res1onded6and you in the ?ongress have res1onded to your duty66and @ fee' confident in as2ing today for a simi'ar res1onse to these ne) and 'arger demands. @t is heartening to 2no)* as @ Gourney abroad* that our country is united in its commitment to freedom6and is ready to do its duty.
/eli&ered in person before a 6oint session
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "-$e'ial 3essage !o !he 4ongress on 1rgen! 0a!ional 0eeds," 3ay 26, 1961. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)*161.

Source, htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9M P QaCEE;GoET$EJd

7ddress b+ Gresident 'ohn 0. Cenned+ to the &1 .eneral 7ssembl+ Se1tember ;P* !"
A%%ress to the () &eneral Assem*ly +r. President* honored de'egates* 'adies and gent'emen, <e meet in an hour of grief and cha''enge. Dag 0ammars2Go'd is dead. %ut the 5nited Nations 'ives. 0is tragedy is dee1 in our hearts* but the tas2 for )hich he died is at the to1 of our agenda. A nob'e servant of 1eace is gone. %ut the Nuest for 1eace 'ies before us. *he problem is not the death of one man55the problem is the life of this organization. $t will either grow to meet the challenges of our age, or it will be gone with the wind, without influence, without force, without respect. Were we to let it die, to enfeeble its %igor, to cripple its powers, we would condemn our future. For in the deve'o1ment of this organiEation rests the on'y true a'ternative to )ar66and )ar a11ea's no 'onger as a rationa' a'ternative. &nconditional war can no longer lead to unconditional %ictor+. $t can no longer ser%e to settle disputes. $t can no longer concern the great powers alone. 0or a nuclear disaster, spread b+ wind and water and fear, could well engulf the great and the small, the rich and the poor, the committed and the uncommitted ali,e. 9an,ind must put an end to war55or war will put an end to man,ind. So 'et us here reso've that Dag 0ammars2Go'd did not 'ive* or die* in vain. $et us ca'' a truce to terror. $et us invo2e the b'essings of 1eace. And* as )e bui'd an internationa' ca1acity to 2ee1 1eace* 'et us Goin in dismant'ing the nationa' ca1acity to )age )ar. This )i'' reNuire ne) strength and ne) ro'es for the 5nited Nations. For disarmament )ithout chec2s is but a shado)6and a community )ithout 'a) is but a she''. A'ready the 5nited Nations has become both the measure and the vehic'e of manJs most generous im1u'ses. A'ready it has 1rovided66in the +idd'e Hast* in Asia* in Africa this year in the ?ongo66a means of ho'ding manJs vio'ence )ithin bounds. %ut the great Nuestion )hich confronted this body in !KP is sti'' before us, )hether manJs cherished ho1es for 1rogress and 1eace are to be destroyed by terror and disru1tion* )hether the Lfou' )inds of )arL can be tamed in time to free the coo'ing )inds of reason* and )hether the 1'edges of our ?harter are to be fu'fi''ed or defied61'edges to secure 1eace* 1rogress* human rights and )or'd 'a). @n this 0a''* there are not three forces* but t)o. Ine is com1osed of those )ho are trying to bui'd the 2ind of )or'd described in Artic'es @ and @@ of the ?harter. The other* see2ing a far different )or'd* )ou'd undermine this organiEation in the 1rocess. Today of a'' days our dedication to the ?harter must be maintained. @t must be strengthened first of a'' by the se'ection of an outstanding civi' servant to carry for)ard the res1onsibi'ities of the Secretary Aenera'66a man endo)ed )ith both the )isdom and the 1o)er to ma2e meaningfu' the mora' force of the )or'd community. The 'ate Secretary Aenera' nurtured and shar1ened the 5nited NationsJ ob'igation to act. %ut he did not invent it. @t )as there in the ?harter. @t is sti'' there in the ?harter. 0o)ever difficu't it may be to fi'' +r. 0ammars2Go'dJs 1'ace* it can better be fi''ed by one man rather than by three. Hven the three horses of the Troi2a did not have three drivers* a'' going in different directions. They had on'y one66and so must the 5nited Nations eCecutive. To insta'' a triumvirate* or any 1ane'* or any rotating authority* in the 5nited Nations administrative offices )ou'd re1'ace order )ith anarchy* action )ith 1ara'ysis* confidence )ith confusion. The Secretary Aenera'* in a very rea' sense* is the servant of the Aenera' Assemb'y. Diminish his authority and you diminish the authority of the on'y body )here a'' nations* regard'ess of 1o)er* are eNua' and sovereign. 5nti' a'' the 1o)erfu' are Gust* the )ea2 )i'' be secure on'y in the strength of this Assemb'y. Hffective and inde1endent eCecutive action is not the same Nuestion as ba'anced re1resentation. @n vie) of the enormous change in membershi1 in this body since its founding* the American de'egation )i'' Goin in any effort for the 1rom1t revie) and revision of the com1osition of 5nited Nations bodies. %ut to give this organiEation three drivers6to 1ermit each great 1o)er to decide its o)n case* )ou'd entrench the ?o'd <ar in the headNuarters of 1eace. <hatever advantages such a 1'an may ho'd out to my o)n country* as one of the great 1o)ers* )e reGect it. For )e far 1refer )or'd 'a)* in the age of se'f6determination* to )or'd )ar* in the age of mass eCtermination. Today* every inhabitant of this 1'anet must contem1'ate the day )hen this 1'anet may no 'onger be habitab'e. Hvery man* )oman and chi'd 'ives under a nuc'ear s)ord of Damoc'es* hanging by the s'enderest of threads* ca1ab'e of being cut at any moment by accident or misca'cu'ation or by madness. The )ea1ons of )ar must be abo'ished before they abo'ish us.

9en no longer debate whether armaments are a s+mptom or a cause of tension. *he mere e>istence of modern weapons55ten million times more powerful than an+ that the world has e%er seen, and onl+ minutes awa+ from an+ target on earth55is a source of horror, and discord and distrust. 9en no longer maintain that disarmament must await the settlement of all disputes55for disarmament must be a part of an+ permanent settlement. 7nd men ma+ no longer pretend that the @uest for disarmament is a sign of wea,ness55for in a spiraling arms race, a nation<s securit+ ma+ well be shrin,ing e%en as its arms increase. 0or H +ears this organization has sought the reduction and destruction of arms. 1ow that goal is no longer a dream55it is a practical matter of life or death. *he ris,s inherent in disarmament pale in comparison to the ris,s inherent in an unlimited arms race. @t is in this s1irit that the recent %e'grade ?onference66recogniEing that this is no 'onger a Soviet 1rob'em or an American 1rob'em* but a human 1rob'em66endorsed a 1rogram of Lgenera'* com1'ete and strict'y an internationa''y contro''ed disarmament.L @t is in this same s1irit that )e in the 5nited States have 'abored this year* )ith a ne) urgency* and )ith a ne)* no) statutory agency fu''y endorsed by the ?ongress* to find an a11roach to disarmament )hich )ou'd be so far6reaching yet rea'istic* so mutua''y ba'anced and beneficia'* that it cou'd be acce1ted by every nation. And it is in this s1irit that )e have 1resented )ith the agreement of the Soviet 5nion66under the 'abe' both nations no) acce1t of Lgenera' and com1'ete disarmamentL66a ne) statement of ne)'y6agreed 1rinci1'es for negotiation. %ut )e are )e'' a)are that a'' issues of 1rinci1'e are not sett'ed* and that 1rinci1'es a'one are not enough. @t is therefore our intention to cha''enge the Soviet 5nion* not to an arms race* but to a 1eace race66to advance together ste1 by ste1* stage by stage* unti' genera' and com1'ete disarmament has been achieved. <e invite them no) to go beyond agreement in 1rinci1'e to reach agreement on actua' 1'ans. The 1rogram to be 1resented to this assemb'y66for genera' and com1'ete disarmament under effective internationa' contro'6moves to bridge the ga1 bet)een those )ho insist on a gradua' a11roach and those )ho ta'2 on'y of the fina' and tota' achievement. @t )ou'd create machinery to 2ee1 the 1eace as it destroys the machinery of )ar. @t )ou'd 1roceed through ba'anced and safeguarded stages designed to give no state a mi'itary advantage over another. @t )ou'd 1'ace the fina' res1onsibi'ity for verification and contro' )here it be'ongs* not )ith the big 1o)ers a'one* not )ith oneJs adversary or oneJs se'f* but in an internationa' organiEation )ithin the frame)or2 of the 5nited Nations. @t )ou'd assure that indis1ensab'e condition of disarmament6true ins1ection66and a11'y it in stages 1ro1ortionate to the stage of disarmament. @t )ou'd cover de'ivery systems as )e'' as )ea1ons. @t )ou'd u'timate'y ha't their 1roduction as )e'' as their testing* Jtheir transfer as )e'' as their 1ossession. @t )ou'd achieve* under the eyes of an internationa' disarmament organiEation* a steady reduction in force* both nuc'ear and conventiona'* unti' it has abo'ished a'' armies and a'' )ea1ons eCce1t those needed for interna' order and a ne) 5nited Nations Peace Force. And it starts that 1rocess no)* today* even as the ta'2s begin. $n short, general and complete disarmament must no longer be a slogan, used to resist the first steps. $t is no longer to be a goal without means of achie%ing it, without means of %erif+ing its progress, without means of ,eeping the peace. $t is now a realistic plan, and a test55a test of those onl+ willing to tal, and a test of those willing to act. Such a plan would not bring a world free from conflict and greed55but it would bring a world free from the terrors of mass destruction. $t would not usher in the era of the super state55but it would usher in an era in which no state could annihilate or be annihilated b+ another. @n !KP* this Nation 1ro1osed the %aruch P'an to internationa'iEe the atom before other nations even 1ossessed the bomb or demi'itariEed their troo1s. <e 1ro1osed )ith our a''ies the Disarmament P'an of !P )hi'e sti'' at )ar in Korea. And )e ma2e our 1ro1osa's today* )hi'e bui'ding u1 our defenses over %er'in* not because )e are inconsistent or insincere or intimidated* but because )e 2no) the rights of free men )i'' 1revai'66because )hi'e )e are com1e''ed against our )i'' to rearm* )e 'oo2 confident'y beyond %er'in to the 2ind of disarmed )or'd )e a'' 1refer. @ therefore 1ro1ose* on the basis of this P'an* that disarmament negotiations resume 1rom1t'y* and continue )ithout interru1tion unti' an entire 1rogram for genera' and com1'ete disarmament has not on'y been agreed but has been actua''y achieved. The 'ogica' 1'ace to begin is a treaty assuring the end of nuc'ear tests of a'' 2inds* in every environment* under )or2ab'e contro's. The 5nited States and the 5nited Kingdom have 1ro1osed such a treaty that is both reasonab'e* effective and ready for signature. <e are sti'' 1re1ared to sign that treaty today. <e a'so 1ro1osed a mutua' ban on atmos1heric testing* )ithout ins1ection or contro's* in order to save the human race from the 1oison of radioactive fa''out. <e regret that that offer has not been acce1ted. For P years )e have sought to ma2e the atom an instrument of 1eacefu' gro)th rather than of )ar. %ut for P years our concessions have been matched by obstruction* our 1atience by intransigence. And the 1'eas of man2ind for 1eace have met )ith disregard.

Fina''y* as the eC1'osions of others bec'ouded the s2ies* my country )as 'eft )ith no a'ternative but to act in the interests of its o)n and the free )or'dJs security. <e cannot endanger that security by refraining from testing )hi'e others im1rove their arsena's. Nor can )e endanger it by another 'ong* un6ins1ected ban on testing. For three years )e acce1ted those ris2s in our o1en society )hi'e see2ing agreement on ins1ection. %ut this year* )hi'e )e )ere negotiating in good faith in Aeneva* others )ere secret'y 1re1aring ne) eC1eriments in destruction. Iur tests are not 1o''uting the atmos1here. Iur deterrent )ea1ons are guarded against accidenta' eC1'osion or use. Iur doctors and scientists stand ready to he'1 any nation measure and meet the haEards to hea'th )hich inevitab'y resu't from the tests in the atmos1here. %ut to ha't the s1read of these terrib'e )ea1ons* to ha't the contamination of the air* to ha't the s1ira'ing nuc'ear arms race* )e remain ready to see2 ne) avenues of agreement* our ne) Disarmament Program thus inc'udes the fo''o)ing 1ro1osa's, First* signing the test6ban treaty by a'' nations. This can be done no). Test ban negotiations need not and shou'd not a)ait genera' disarmament. Second* sto11ing the 1roduction of fissionab'e materia's for use in )ea1ons* and 1reventing their transfer to any nation no) 'ac2ing in nuc'ear )ea1ons. Third* 1rohibiting the transfer of contro' over nuc'ear )ea1ons to states that do not o)n them. Fourth* 2ee1ing nuc'ear )ea1ons from seeding ne) batt'egrounds in outer s1ace. Fifth* gradua''y destroying eCisting nuc'ear )ea1ons and converting their materia's to 1eacefu' usesS and Fina''y* ha'ting the un'imited testing and 1roduction of strategic nuc'ear de'ivery vehic'es* and gradua''y destroying them as )e''.

To destroy arms* ho)ever* is not enough. <e must create even as )e destroy66creating )or'd)ide 'a) and 'a) enforcement as )e out'a) )or'd)ide )ar and )ea1ons. @n the )or'd )e see2* the 5nited Nations Hmergency Forces )hich have been hasti'y assemb'ed* uncertain'y su11'ied* and inadeNuate'y financed* )i'' never be enough. Therefore* the 5nited States recommends the Presidents that a'' member nations earmar2 s1ecia' 1eace62ee1ing units in their armed forces6to be on ca'' of the 5nited Nations* to be s1ecia''y trained and Nuic2'y avai'ab'e* and )ith advance 1rovision for financia' and 'ogistic su11ort. @n addition* the American de'egation )i'' suggest a series of ste1s to im1rove the 5nited NationsJ machinery for the 1eacefu' sett'ement of dis1utes66for on6the6s1ot fact6finding* mediation and adGudication66for eCtending the ru'e of internationa' 'a). For 1eace is not so'e'y a matter of mi'itary or technica' 1rob'ems66it is 1rimari'y a 1rob'em of 1o'itics and 1eo1'e. And un'ess man can match his strides in )ea1onry and techno'ogy )ith eNua' strides in socia' and 1o'itica' deve'o1ment* our great strength* 'i2e that of the dinosaur* )i'' become inca1ab'e of 1ro1er contro'66and 'i2e the dinosaur vanish from the earth. As )e eCtend the ru'e of 'a) on earth* so must )e a'so eCtend it to manJs ne) domain66outer s1ace. A'' of us sa'ute the brave cosmonauts of the Soviet 5nion. The ne) horiEons of outer s1ace must not be driven by the o'd bitter conce1ts of im1eria'ism and sovereign c'aims. The co'd reaches of the universe must not become the ne) arena of an even co'der )ar. To this end* )e sha'' urge 1ro1osa's eCtending the 5nited Nations ?harter to the 'imits of manJs eC1'oration in the universe* reserving outer s1ace for 1eacefu' use* 1rohibiting )ea1ons of mass destruction in s1ace or on ce'estia' bodies* and o1ening the mysteries and benefits of s1ace to every nation. <e sha'' 1ro1ose further coo1erative efforts bet)een a'' nations in )eather 1rediction and eventua''y in )eather contro'. <e sha'' 1ro1ose* fina''y* a g'oba' system of communications sate''ites 'in2ing the )ho'e )or'd in te'egra1h and te'e1hone and radio and te'evision. The day need not be fat a)ay )hen such a system )i'' te'evise the 1roceedings of this body to every corner of the )or'd for the benefit of 1eace. %ut the mysteries of outer s1ace must not divert our eyes or our energies from the harsh rea'ities that face our fe''o) men. Po'itica' sovereignty is but a moc2ery )ithout the means of meeting 1overty and 'iteracy and disease. Se'f6determination is but a s'ogan if the future ho'ds no ho1e. That is )hy my Nation* )hich has free'y shared its ca1ita' and its techno'ogy to he'1 others he'1 themse'ves* no) 1ro1oses officia''y designating this decade of the !"OJs as the 5nited Nations Decade of Deve'o1ment. 5nder the frame)or2 of that Beso'ution* the 5nited NationsJ eCisting efforts in 1romoting economic gro)th can be eC1anded and coordinated. Begiona' surveys and training institutes can no) 1oo' the ta'ents of many. Ne) research* technica' assistance and 1i'ot 1roGects can un'oc2 the )ea'th of 'ess deve'o1ed 'ands and unta11ed )aters. And deve'o1ment can become a coo1erative and not a com1etitive enter1rise6to enab'e a'' nations* ho)ever diverse in their systems and be'iefs* to become in fact as )e'' as in 'a) free and eNua' nations.

+y ?ountry favors a )or'd of free and eNua' states. <e agree )ith those )ho say that co'onia'ism is a 2ey issue in this Assemb'y. %ut 'et the fu'' facts of that issue be discussed in fu''. In the one hand is the fact that* since the c'ose of <or'd <ar @@* a )or'd)ide dec'aration of inde1endence has transformed near'y bi''ion 1eo1'e and ! mi''ion sNuare mi'es into K; free and inde1endent states. $ess than ; 1ercent of the )or'dJs 1o1u'ation no) 'ives in Lde1endentL territories. @ do not ignore the remaining 1rob'ems of traditiona' co'onia'ism )hich sti'' confront this body. Those 1rob'ems )i'' be so'ved* )ith 1atience* good )i''* and determination. <ithin the 'imits of our res1onsibi'ity in such matters* my ?ountry intends to be a 1artici1ant and not mere'y an observer* in the 1eacefu'* eC1editious movement of nations from the status of co'onies to the 1artnershi1 of eNua's. That continuing tide of se'f6determination* )hich runs so strong* has our sym1athy and our su11ort. =ut colonialism in its harshest forms is not onl+ the e>ploitation of new nations b+ old, of dar, s,ins b+ light, or the sub:ugation of the poor b+ the rich. 9+ 1ation was once a colon+, and we ,now what colonialism meansB the e>ploitation and sub:ugation of the wea, b+ the powerful, of the man+ b+ the few, of the go%erned who ha%e gi%en no consent to be go%erned, whate%er their continent, their class, or their color. And that is )hy there is no ignoring the fact that the tide of se'f6determination has not reached the ?ommunist em1ire )here a 1o1u'ation far 'arger than that officia''y termed Lde1endentL 'ives under governments insta''ed by foreign troo1s instead of free institutions66under a system )hich 2no)s on'y one 1arty and one be'ief66)hich su11resses free debate* and free e'ections* and free ne)s1a1ers* and free boo2s and free trade unions66and )hich bui'ds a )a'' to 2ee1 truth a stranger and its o)n citiEens 1risoners. $et us debate co'onia'ism in fu''66and a11'y the 1rinci1'e of free choice and the 1ractice of free 1'ebiscites in every corner of the g'obe. Fina''y* as President of the 5nited States* @ consider it my duty to re1ort to this Assemb'y on t)o threats to the 1eace )hich are not on your cro)ded agenda* but )hich causes us* and most of you* the dee1est concern. The first threat on )hich @ )ish to re1ort is )ide'y misunderstood, the smo'dering coa's of )ar in Southeast Asia. South Viet6Nam is a'ready under attac266sometimes by a sing'e assassin* sometimes by a band of guerri''as* recent'y by fu'' batta'ions. The 1eacefu' borders of %urma* ?ambodia* and @ndia have been re1eated'y vio'ated. And the 1eacefu' 1eo1'e of $aos are in danger of 'osing the inde1endence they gained not so 'ong ago. No one can ca'' these L)ars of 'iberation.L For these are free countries 'iving under their o)n governments. Nor are these aggressions any 'ess rea' because men are 2nifed in their homes and not shot in the fie'ds of batt'e. The very sim1'e Nuestion confronting the )or'd community is )hether measures can be devised to 1rotect the sma'' and the )ea2 from such tactics. For if they are successfu' in $aos and South Viet6Nam* the gates )i'' be o1ened )ide. The 5nited States see2s for itse'f no base* no territory* no s1ecia' 1osition in this area of any 2ind. <e su11ort a tru'y neutra' and inde1endent $aos* its 1eo1'e free from outside interference* 'iving at 1eace )ith themse'ves and )ith their neighbors* assured that their territory )i'' not be used for attac2s on others* and under a government com1arab'e &as +r. Khrushchev and @ agreed at Vienna( to ?ambodia and %urma. %ut no) the negotiations over $aos are reaching a crucia' stage. The cease6fire is at best 1recarious. The rainy season is coming to an end. $aotian territory is being used to infi'trate South Viet6Nam. The )or'd community must recogniEe66and a'' those )ho are invo'ved66that this 1otent threat to $aotian 1eace and freedom is indivisib'e from a'' other threats to their o)n. Second'y* @ )ish to re1ort to you on the crisis over Aermany and %er'in. This is not the time or the 1'ace for immoderate tones* but the )or'd community is entit'ed to 2no) the very sim1'e issues as )e see them. @f there is a crisisJ it is because an eCisting 1eace is under threat* because an eCisting is'and of free 1eo1'e is under 1ressure* because so'emn agreements are being treated )ith indifference. Hstab'ished internationa' rights are being threatened )ith uni'atera' usur1ation. Peacefu' circu'ation has been interru1ted by barbed )ire and concrete b'oc2s. Ine reca''s the order of the ?Ear in Push2inJs L%oris AodunovL, LTa2e ste1s at this very hour that our frontiers be fenced in by barriers .... That not a sing'e sou' 1ass oJer the border* that not a hare be ab'e to run or a cro) to f'y.L @t is absurd to a''ege that )e are threatening a )ar mere'y to 1revent the Soviet 5nion and Hast Aermany from signing a so6ca''ed LtreatyL of 1eace. The <estern A''ies are not concerned )ith any 1a1er arrangement the Soviets may )ish to ma2e )ith a regime of their o)n creation* on territory occu1ied by their o)n troo1s and governed by their o)n agents. No such action can affect either our rights or our res1onsibi'ities.

@f there is a dangerous crisis in %er'in6and there is66it is because of threats against the vita' interests and the dee1 commitments of the <estern Po)ers* and the freedom of <est %er'in. <e cannot yie'd these interests. <e cannot fai' these commitments. <e cannot surrender the freedom of these 1eo1'e for )hom )e are res1onsib'e. 7 Apeace treat+A which carried with it the pro%isions which destro+ the peace would be a fraud. A Lfree cityL )hich )as not genuine'y free )ou'd suffocate freedom and )ou'd be an infamy. 0or a cit+ or a people to be trul+ free, the+ must ha%e the secure right, without economic, political or police pressure, to ma,e their own choice and to li%e their own li%es. And as @ have said before* if anyone doubts the eCtent to )hich our 1resence is desired by the 1eo1'e of <est %er'in* )e are ready to have that Nuestion submitted to a free vote in a'' %er'in and* if 1ossib'e* among a'' the Aerman 1eo1'e. The e'ementary fact about this crisis is that it is unnecessary. The e'ementary too's for a 1eacefu' sett'ement are to be found in the charter. 5nder its 'a)* agreements are to be 2e1t* un'ess changed by a'' those )ho made them. Hstab'ished rights are to be res1ected. The 1o'itica' dis1osition of 1eo1'es shou'd rest u1on their o)n )ishes* free'y eC1ressed in 1'ebiscites or free e'ections. @f there are 'ega' 1rob'ems* they can be so'ved by 'ega' means. @f there is a threat of force* it must be reGected. @f there is desire for change* it must be a subGect for negotiation and if there is negotiation* it must be rooted in mutua' res1ect and concern for the rights of others. The <estern Po)ers have ca'm'y reso'ved to defend* by )hatever means are forced u1on them* their ob'igations and their access to the free citiEens of <est %er'in and the se'f6determination of those citiEens. This generation 'earned from bitter eC1erience that either brandishing or yie'ding to threats can on'y 'ead to )ar. %ut firmness and reason can 'ead to the 2ind of 1eacefu' so'ution in )hich my country 1rofound'y be'ieves. <e are committed to no rigid formu'a. <e see no 1erfect so'ution. We recognize that troops and tan,s can, for a time, ,eep a nation di%ided against its will, howe%er unwise that polic+ ma+ seem to us. =ut we belie%e a peaceful agreement is possible which protects the freedom of West =erlin and allied presence and access, while recognizing the historic and legitimate interests of others in assuring (uropean securit+. The 1ossibi'ities of negotiation are no) being eC1'oredS it is too ear'y to re1ort )hat the 1ros1ects may be. For our 1art* )e )ou'd be g'ad to re1ort at the a11ro1riate time that a so'ution has been found. For there is no need for a crisis over %er'in* threatening the 1eace66and if those )ho created this crisis desire 1eace* there )i'' be 1eace and freedom in %er'in. *he e%ents and decisions of the ne>t ten months ma+ well decide the fate of man for the ne>t ten thousand +ears. *here will be no a%oiding those e%ents. *here will be no appeal from these decisions. 7nd we in this hall shall be remembered either as part of the generation that turned this planet into a flaming funeral p+re or the generation that met its %ow Ato sa%e succeeding generations from the scourge of war.A $n the endea%or to meet that %ow, $ pledge +ou e%er+ effort this 1ation possesses. $ pledge +ou that we shall neither commit nor pro%o,e aggression, that we shall neither flee nor in%o,e the threat of force, that we shall ne%er negotiate out of fear, we shall ne%er fear to negotiate. *error is not a new weapon. *hroughout histor+ it has been used b+ those who could not pre%ail, either b+ persuasion or e>ample. =ut ine%itabl+ the+ fail, either because men are not afraid to die for a life worth li%ing, or because the terrorists themsel%es came to realize that free men cannot be frightened b+ threats, and that aggression would meet its own response. 7nd it is in the light of that histor+ that e%er+ nation toda+ should ,now, be he friend or foe, that the &nited States has both the will and the weapons to :oin free men in standing up to their responsibilities. =ut $ come here toda+ to loo, across this world of threats to a world of peace. $n that search we cannot e>pect an+ final triumph5for new problems will alwa+s arise. We cannot e>pect that all nations will adopt li,e s+stems55for conformit+ is the :ailer of freedom, and the enem+ of growth. 1or can we e>pect to reach our goal b+ contri%ance, b+ fiat or e%en b+ the wishes of all. =ut howe%er close we sometimes seem to that dar, and final ab+ss, let no man of peace and freedom despair. 0or he does not stand alone. $f we all can perse%ere, if we can in e%er+ land and office loo, be+ond our own shores and ambitions, then surel+ the age will dawn in which the strong are :ust and the wea, secure and the peace preser%ed. /adies and gentlemen of this 7ssembl+, the decision is ours. 1e%er ha%e the nations of the world had so much to lose, or so much to gain. *ogether we shall sa%e our planet, or together we shall perish in its flames. Sa%e it we can55and sa%e it we must55 and then shall we earn the eternal than,s of man,ind and, as peacema,ers, the eternal blessing of .od. Source, htt1,77))).state.gov717io71otusunga7;OD;K .htm

Address at Independence ,all$ Philadelphia.

4uly :$ /135

Aovernor Po)e''* Four HCce''ency the Archbisho1* Aovernor $a)rence* +ayor Tate* Senator ?'ar2* ?ongressman Areen* distinguished Aovernors* 'adies and gent'emen* citiEens of Phi'ade'1hia, @t is a high honor for any citiEen of our great Be1ub'ic to s1ea2 at this 0a'' of @nde1endence on this day of @nde1endence. To s1ea2 as President of the 5nited States to the ?hief HCecutives of our PO States is both an o11ortunity and an ob'igation. The necessity for comity bet)een the Nationa' Aovernment and the severa' States is an inde'ib'e 'esson of our 'ong history. =ecause our s+stem is designed to encourage both differences and dissent, because its chec,s and balances are designed to preser%e the rights of the indi%idual and the localit+ against preeminent central authorit+, +ou and $, .o%ernors, recognize how dependent we both are, one upon the other, for the successful operation of our uni@ue and happ+ form of go%ernment. Our s+stem and our freedom permit the legislati%e to be pitted against the e>ecuti%e, the State against the 0ederal .o%ernment, the cit+ against the countr+side, part+ against part+, interest against interest, all in competition or in contention one with another. Our tas,55+our tas, in the State ;ouse and m+ tas, in the White ;ouse55is to wea%e from all these tangled threads a fabric of law and progress. We are not permitted the lu>ur+ of irresolution. Others ma+ confine themsel%es to debate, discussion, and that ultimate lu>ur+5free ad%ice. Our responsibilit+ is one of decision55for to go%ern is to choose. *hus, in a %er+ real sense, +ou and $ are the e>ecutors of the testament handed down b+ those who gathered in this historic hall 2" +ears ago toda+. 0or the+ gathered to affi> their names to a document which was, abo%e all else, a document not of rhetoric but of bold decision. $t was, it is true, a document of protest55but protests had been made before. $t set forth their grie%ances with elo@uence55but such elo@uence had been heard before. =ut what distinguished this paper from all the others was the final irre%ocable decision that it too,55to assert the independence of free States in place of colonies, and to commit to that goal their li%es, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. Today* M" years 'ater* that Dec'aration )hose ye''o)ing 1archment and fading* a'most i''egib'e 'ines @ sa) in the 1ast )ee2 in the Nationa' Archives in <ashington is sti'' a revo'utionary document. *o read it toda+ is to hear a trumpet call. 0or that 6eclaration unleashed not merel+ a re%olution against the =ritish, but a re%olution in human affairs. $ts authors were highl+ conscious of its worldwide implications. 7nd .eorge Washington declared that libert+ and self5go%ernment e%er+where were, in his words, Afinall+ sta,ed on the e>periment entrusted to the hands of the 7merican people.A *his prophec+ has been borne out. 0or 2" +ears this doctrine of national independence has sha,en the globe55and it remains the most powerful force an+where in the world toda+. *here are those struggling to e,e out a bare e>istence in a barren land who ha%e ne%er heard of free enterprise, but who cherish the idea of independence. *here are those who are grappling with o%erpowering problems of illiterac+ and ill5health and who are ill5e@uipped to hold free elections. =ut the+ are determined to hold fast to their national independence. (%en those unwilling or unable to ta,e part in an+ struggle between (ast and West are strongl+ on the side of their own national independence. @f there is a sing'e issue that divides the )or'd today* it is inde1endence66the inde1endence of %er'in or $aos or Viet6NamS the 'onging for inde1endence behind the @ron ?urtainS the 1eacefu' transition to inde1endence in those ne)'y emerging areas )hose troub'es some 6 ho1e to eC1'oit. *he theor+ of independence is as old as man himself, and it was not in%ented in this hall. =ut it was in this hall that the theor+ became a practiceB that the word went out to all, in *homas 'efferson<s phrase, that Athe .od who ga%e us life, ga%e us libert+ at the same time.A 7nd toda+ this 1ation55concei%ed in re%olution, nurtured in libert+, maturing in independence55has no intention of abdicating its leadership in that worldwide mo%ement for independence to an+ nation or societ+ committed to s+stematic human oppression. 7s apt and applicable as the 6eclaration of $ndependence is toda+, we would do well to honor that other historic document drafted in this hall55the Constitution of the &nited States. 0or it stressed not independence but interdependence55not the indi%idual libert+ of one but the indi%isible libert+ of all. @n most of the o'd co'onia' )or'd* the strugg'e for inde1endence is coming to an end. Hven in areas behind the ?urtain* that )hich Jefferson ca''ed Lthe disease of 'ibertyL sti'' a11ears to be infectious. <ith the 1assing of ancient em1ires* today 'ess than ; 1ercent of the )or'dJs 1o1u'ation 'ives in territories officia''y termed Lde1endent.L As this effort for inde1endence* ins1ired by the American Dec'aration of @nde1endence* no) a11roaches a successfu' c'ose* a great ne) effort66for interde1endence66is transforming the )or'd about us. And the s1irit of that ne) effort is the same s1irit )hich gave birth to the American ?onstitution.

That s1irit is today most c'ear'y seen across the At'antic Icean. The nations of <estern Huro1e* 'ong divided by feuds far more bitter than any )hich eCisted among the # co'onies* are today Goining together* see2ing* as our forefathers sought* to find freedom in diversity and in unity* strength. The 5nited States 'oo2s on this vast ne) enter1rise )ith ho1e and admiration. <e do not regard a strong and united Huro1e as a riva' but as a 1artner. To aid its 1rogress has been the basic obGect of our foreign 1o'icy for D years. <e be'ieve that a united Huro1e )i'' be ca1ab'e of 1'aying a greater ro'e in the common defense* of res1onding more generous'y to the needs of 1oorer nations* of Goining )ith the 5nited States and others in 'o)ering trade barriers* reso'ving 1rob'ems of commerce* commodities* and currency* and deve'o1ing coordinated 1o'icies in a'' economic* 1o'itica'* and di1'omatic areas. <e see in such a Huro1e a 1artner )ith )hom )e can dea' on a basis of fu'' eNua'ity in a'' the great and burdensome tas2s of bui'ding and defending a community of free nations. @t )ou'd be 1remature at this time to do more than indicate the high regard )ith )hich )e vie) the formation of this 1artnershi1. The first order of business is for our Huro1ean friends to go for)ard in forming the more 1erfect union )hich )i'' someday ma2e this 1artnershi1 1ossib'e. A great ne) edifice is not bui't overnight. @t )as years from the Dec'aration of @nde1endence to the )riting of the ?onstitution. The construction of )or2ab'e Federa' institutions reNuired sti'' another generation. The greatest )or2s of our NationJs founders 'ay not in documents and in dec'arations* but in creative* determined action. The bui'ding of the ne) house of Huro1e has fo''o)ed the same 1ractica'* 1ur1osefu' course. %ui'ding the At'antic 1artnershi1 no) )i'' not be easi'y or chea1'y finished. %ut @ )i'' say here and no)* on this Day of @nde1endence* that the 5nited States )i'' be ready for a Dec'aration of @nterde1endence* that )e )i'' be 1re1ared to discuss )ith a united Huro1e the )ays and means of forming a concrete At'antic 1artnershi1* a mutua''y beneficia' 1artnershi1 bet)een the ne) union no) emerging in Huro1e and the o'd American 5nion founded here DP years ago. A'' this )i'' not be com1'eted in a year* but 'et the )or'd 2no) it is our goa'. @n urging the ado1tion of the 5nited States ?onstitution* A'eCander 0ami'ton to'd his fe''o) Ne) For2ers Lto thin2 continenta''y.L Today Americans must 'earn to thin2 inter6continenta''y. Acting on our o)n* by ourse'ves* )e cannot estab'ish Gustice throughout the )or'dS )e cannot insure its domestic tranNui'ity* or 1rovide for its common defense* or 1romote its genera' )e'fare* or secure the b'essings of 'iberty to ourse'ves and our 1osterity. %ut Goined )ith other free nations* )e can do a'' this and more. <e can assist the deve'o1ing nations to thro) off the yo2e of 1overty. <e can ba'ance our )or'd)ide trade and 1ayments at the highest 1ossib'e 'eve' of gro)th. <e can mount a deterrent 1o)erfu' enough to deter any aggression. And u'timate'y )e can he'1 to achieve a )or'd of 'a) and free choice* banishing the )or'd of )ar and coercion. For the At'antic 1artnershi1 of )hich @ s1ea2 )ou'd not 'oo2 in)ard on'y* 1reoccu1ied )ith its o)n )e'fare and advancement. @t must 'oo2 out)ard to coo1erate )ith a'' nations in meeting their common concern. @t )ou'd serve as a nuc'eus for the eventua' union of a'' free men66those )ho are no) free and those )ho are vo)ing that some day they )i'' be free. On Washington<s birthda+ in 2" , standing right there, Gresident5elect 7braham /incoln spo,e in this hall on his wa+ to the 1ation<s Capital. 7nd he paid a brief but elo@uent tribute to the men who wrote, who fought for, and who died for the 6eclaration of $ndependence. $ts essence, he said, was its promise not onl+ of libert+ Ato the people of this countr+, but hope to the world . . . IhopeJ that in due time the weights should be lifted from the shoulders of all men, and that all should ha%e an e@ual chance.A In this fourth day of Ju'y* !";* )e )ho are gathered at this same ha''* entrusted )ith the fate and future of our States and Nation* dec'are no) our vo) to do our 1art to 'ift the )eights from the shou'ders of a''* to Goin other men and nations in 1reserving both J1eace and freedom* and to regard any threat to the 1eace or freedom of one as a threat to the 1eace and freedom of a''. LAnd for the su11ort of this Dec'aration* )ith a firm re'iance on the 1rotection of Divine Providence* )e mutua''y 1'edge to each other our $ives* our fortunes and our sacred 0onor.L
Note: The President spoke at 11:78 a.m. in Independence .9 are in Philadelphia. In his openin# words he referred to -o&ernor !esley Powell of New 'ampshire) chairman of the -o&ernors" Conference) the 5ost %e&erend John :rol) *rchbishop of Philadelphia) -o&ernor /a&id ;. ;awrence of Pennsyl&ania) 5ayor James '. J. Tate of Philadelphia) and 1... .enator Joseph .. Clark and 1... %epresentati&e !illiam J. -reen) Jr.) of Pennsyl&ania. Incl ded in the a dience were members of the 57th National -o&ernors Conference.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "Address a! Inde$enden'e ;all, hiladel$hia.," July <, 1962. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)*:66.

Source, htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9MDP"QaCEE;GoET$EJd

-emar+s in Nash.ille at the /0th Anni.ersary #on.ocation of 1ander)ilt

9ay /0$ /13;

ni.ersity.

+r. ?hance''or* +r. Vanderbi't* Senator Kefauver* Senator Aore* ?ongressman Fu'ton* ?ongressman Hvins* ?ongressman %ass* ?ongressman Hverett* Tom +urray* distinguished guests* members of the Gudiciary* the Army ?or1s of Hngineers of the Tennessee Va''ey, @ first of a'' )ant to eC1ress my )arm a11reciation to the Aovernor and to the +ayor of this State and city and to the 1eo1'e for a very generous )e'come* and 1articu'ar'y to a'' those young men and )omen )ho 'ined the street and 1'ayed music for us as )e drove into this stadium. <e are g'ad they are here )ith us* and )e fee' the musica' future of this city and State is assured. +any things bring us together today. <e are sa'uting the !Oth anniversary of Vanderbi't 5niversity* )hich has gro)n from a sma'' Tennessee university and institution to one of our NationJs greatest* )ith D different co''eges* and )ith more than ha'f of its K;OO students from outside of the State of Tennessee. And )e are sa'uting the #Oth anniversary of the Tennessee Va''ey Authority* )hich transformed a 1arched* de1ressed* and f'ood6 ravaged region into a ferti'e* 1roductive center of industry* science* and agricu'ture. <e are sa'uting66by initiating construction of a dam in his name66a great Tennessee statesman* ?orde'' 0u''* the father of reci1roca' trade* the grandfather of the 5nited Nations* the Secretary of State )ho 1resided over the transformation of this Nation from a 'ife of iso'ation and a'most indifference to a state of res1onsib'e )or'd 'eadershi1. And fina''y* )e are sa'uting66by the recognition of a forthcoming dam in his name6J. Percy Priest* a former co''eague of mine in the 0ouse of Be1resentatives* )ho re1resented this district* this State* and this Nation in the ?ongress for " turbu'ent years66years )hich )itnessed the crumb'ing of em1ires* the s1'itting of the atom* the conNuest of one threat to freedom* and the emergence of sti'' another. @f there is one unchanging theme that runs throughout these se1arate stories* it is that everything changes but change itse'f. <e 'ive in an age of movement and change* both evo'utionary and revo'utionary* both good and evi'66and in such an age a university has a s1ecia' ob'igation to ho'd fast to the best of the 1ast and move fast to the best of the future. Near'y OO years ago Prince %ismarc2 said that one6third of the students of Aerman universities bro2e do)n from over)or2* another third bro2e do)n from dissi1ation* and the other third ru'ed Aermany. @ do not 2no) )hich third of the student body of Vanderbi't is here today* but @ am confident )e are ta'2ing to the future ru'ers of Tennessee and America in the s1irit of this university. *he essence of Kanderbilt is still learning, the essence of its outloo, is still libert+, and libert+ and learning will be and must be the touchstones of Kanderbilt &ni%ersit+ and of an+ free uni%ersit+ in this countr+ or the world. $ sa+ two touchstones, +et the+ are almost inseparable, inseparable if not indistinguishable, for libert+ without learning is alwa+s in peril, and learning without libert+ is alwa+s in %ain. *his State, this cit+, this campus, ha%e stood long for both human rights and human enlightenment55and let that fore%er be true. *his 1ation is now engaged in a continuing debate about the rights of a portion of its citizens. *hat will go on, and those rights will e>pand until the standard first forged b+ the 1ation<s founders has been reached, and all 7mericans en:o+ e@ual opportunit+ and libert+ under law. =ut this 1ation was not founded solel+ on the principle of citizens< rights. (@uall+ important, though too often not discussed, is the citizen<s responsibilit+. 0or our pri%ileges can be no greater than our obligations. *he protection of our rights can endure no longer than the performance of our responsibilities. (ach can be neglected onl+ at the peril of the other. $ spea, to +ou toda+, therefore, not of +our rights as 7mericans, but of +our responsibilities. *he+ are man+ in number and different in nature. *he+ do not rest with e@ual weight upon the shoulders of all. (@ualit+ of opportunit+ does not mean e@ualit+ of responsibilit+. 7ll 7mericans must be responsible citizens, but some must be more responsible than others, b+ %irtue of their public or their pri%ate position, their role in the famil+ or communit+, their prospects for the future, or their legac+ from the past. $ncreased responsibilit+ goes with increased abilit+, for Aof those to whom much is gi%en, much is re@uired.A Commodore Kanderbilt recognized this responsibilit+ and his recognition made possible the establishment of a great institution of learning for which he will be long remembered after his steamboats and railroads ha%e been forgotten. $ spea, in particular, therefore, of the responsibilit+ of the educated citizen, including the students, the facult+, and the alumni of this great institution. *he creation and maintenance of Kanderbilt &ni%ersit+, li,e that of all great uni%ersities, has re@uired considerable effort and e>penditure, and $ cannot belie%e that all of this was underta,en merel+ to gi%e this school<s graduates

an economic ad%antage in the life struggle. A(%er+ man sent out from a uni%ersit+,A said Grofessor Woodrow Wilson, A(%er+ man sent out from a uni%ersit+ should be a man of his 1ation, as well as a man of his time.A Lou ha%e responsibilities, in short, to use +our talents for the benefit of the societ+ which helped de%elop those talents. Lou must decide, as .oethe put it, whether +ou will be an an%il or a hammer, whether +ou will gi%e to the world in which +ou were reared and educated the broadest possible benefits of that education. Of the man+ special obligations incumbent upon an educated citizen, $ would cite three as outstanding8 +our obligation to the pursuit of learning, +our obligation to ser%e the public, +our obligation to uphold the law. $f the pursuit of learning is not defended b+ the educated citizen, it will not be defended at all. 0or there will alwa+s be those who scoff at intellectuals, who cr+ out against research, who see, to limit our educational s+stem. 9odern c+nics and s,eptics see no more reason for landing a man on the moon, which we shall do, than the c+nics and s,eptics of half a millennium ago saw for the disco%er+ of this countr+. *he+ see no harm in pa+ing those to whom the+ entrust the minds of their children a smaller wage than is paid to those to whom the+ entrust the care of their plumbing. =ut the educated citizen ,nows how much more there is to ,now. ;e ,nows that A,nowledge is power,A more so toda+ than e%er before. ;e ,nows that onl+ an educated and informed people will be a free people, that the ignorance of one %oter in a democrac+ impairs the securit+ of all, and that if we can, as 'efferson put it, Aenlighten the people generall+ ... t+rann+ and the oppressions of mind and bod+ will %anish, li,e e%il spirits at the dawn of da+.A 7nd, therefore, the educated citizen has a special obligation to encourage the pursuit of learning, to promote e>ploration of the un,nown, to preser%e the freedom of in@uir+, to support the ad%ancement of research, and to assist at e%er+ le%el of go%ernment the impro%ement of education for all 7mericans, from grade school to graduate school. Secondl+, the educated citizen has an obligation to ser%e the public. ;e ma+ be a precinct wor,er or Gresident. ;e ma+ gi%e his talents at the courthouse, the State house, the White ;ouse. ;e ma+ be a ci%il ser%ant or a Senator, a candidate or a campaign wor,er, a winner or a loser. =ut he must be a participant and not a spectator. LAt the I'ym1ic games*L Aristot'e )rote* Lit is not the finest and strongest men )ho are cro)ned* but they )ho enter the 'ists6for out of these the 1riEe6men are e'ected. So* too* in 'ife* of the honorab'e and the good* it is they )ho act )ho right'y )in the 1riEes.L @ urge a'' of you today* es1ecia''y those )ho are students* to act* to enter the 'ists of 1ub'ic service and right'y )in or 'ose the 1riEe. For )e can have on'y one form of aristocracy in this country* as Jefferson )rote 'ong ago in reGecting John AdamsJ suggestion of an artificia' aristocracy of )ea'th and birth. @t is* he )rote* the natura' aristocracy of character and ta'ent* and the best form of government* he added* )as that )hich se'ected these men for 1ositions of res1onsibi'ity. @ )ou'd ho1e that a'' educated citiEens )ou'd fu'fi'' this ob'igation66in 1o'itics* in Aovernment* here in Nashvi''e* here in this State* in the Peace ?or1s* in the Foreign Service* in the Aovernment Service* in the Tennessee Va''ey* in the )or'd. Fou )i'' find the 1ressures greater than the 1ay. Fou may endure more 1ub'ic attac2s than su11ort. %ut you )i'' have the uneNua'ed satisfaction of 2no)ing that your character and ta'ent are contributing to the direction and success of this free society. *hird, and finall+, the educated citizen has an obligation to uphold the law. *his is the obligation of e%er+ citizen in a free and peaceful societ+55but the educated citizen has a special responsibilit+ b+ the %irtue of his greater understanding. 0or whether he has e%er studied histor+ or current e%ents, ethics or ci%ics, the rules of a profession or the tools of a trade, he ,nows that onl+ a respect for the law ma,es it possible for free men to dwell together in peace and progress. ;e ,nows that law is the adhesi%e force in the cement of societ+, creating order out of chaos and coherence in place of anarch+. ;e ,nows that for one man to def+ a law or court order he does not li,e is to in%ite others to def+ those which the+ do not li,e, leading to a brea,down of all :ustice and all order. ;e ,nows, too, that e%er+ fellowman is entitled to be regarded with decenc+ and treated with dignit+. 7n+ educated citizen who see,s to sub%ert the law, to suppress freedom, or to sub:ect other human beings to acts that are less than human, degrades his heritage, ignores his learning, and betra+s his obligation. Certain other societies ma+ respect the rule of force55we respect the rule of law. *he 1ation, indeed the whole world, has watched recent e%ents in the &nited States with alarm and disma+. 1o one can den+ the comple>it+ of the problems in%ol%ed in assuring to all of our citizens their full fights as 7mericans. =ut no one can gainsa+ the fact that the determination to secure these rights is in the highest traditions of 7merican freedom. $n these moments of tragic disorder, a special burden rests on the educated men and women of our countr+ to re:ect the temptations of pre:udice and %iolence, and to reaffirm the %alues of freedom and law on which our free societ+ depends.

When =ishop 9c*+eire, !3 +ears ago, proposed it to Commodore Kanderbilt, he said, ACommodore, our countr+ has been torn to pieces b+ a ci%il war .... We want to repair this damage.A 7nd Commodore Kanderbilt reportedl+ replied, A$ want to unite this countr+, and all sections of it, so that all our people will be one.A 0is res1onse* his recognition of his ob'igation and o11ortunity gave Vanderbi't 5niversity not on'y an endo)ment but a'so a mission. No)* !O years 'ater* in a time of tension* it is more im1ortant than ever to unite this country and strengthen these ties so that a'' of our 1eo1'e )i'' be one. 1inet+ +ears from now $ ha%e no doubt that Kanderbilt &ni%ersit+ will still be fulfilling this mission. $t will still uphold learning, encourage public ser%ice, and teach respect for the law. $t will neither turn its bac, on pro%en wisdom or turn its face from newborn challenge. $t will still pass on to the +outh of our land the full meaning of their rights and their responsibilities. 7nd it will still be teaching the truth55the truth that ma,es us free and will ,eep us free. Than2 you.
Note: The President spoke at 11:18 a.m. in the stadi m at <anderbilt 1ni&ersity) Nash&ille) Tenn. 'is openin# words referred to *le0ander 'eard) chancellor of the ni&ersity, !illiam '. <anderbilt) #reat3#randson of Commodore Corneli s <anderbilt) the ni&ersity"s fo nder, and 1... .enators (stes :efa &er and *lbert -ore and 1... %epresentati&es %ichard %. = lton) Joe ;. (&ins) %oss +ass) %obert *. (&erett) and Tom 5 rray33all of Tennessee. 'e later referred to =rank -. Clement) -o&ernor of Tennessee) and +e&erly +riley) 5ayor of Nash&ille.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "=e/ar9s in 0ash>ille a! !he 90!h Anni>ersary 4on>o'a!ion o, ?anderbil! 1ni>ersi!y.," 3ay 1*, 196+. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)921*.

Source, htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9!; MQaCEE;GoET$EJd

#ommencement Address at American

4une /6$ /13;

ni.ersity in 2ashington

President Anderson* members of the facu'ty* board of trustees* distinguished guests* my o'd co''eague* Senator %ob %yrd* )ho has earned his degree through many years of attending night 'a) schoo' )hi'e @ am earning mine in the neCt #O minutes* 'adies and gent'emen, @t is )ith great 1ride that @ 1artici1ate in this ceremony of the American 5niversity* s1onsored by the +ethodist ?hurch* founded by %isho1 John F'etcher 0urst* and first o1ened by President <oodro) <i'son in ! K. This is a young and gro)ing university* but it has a'ready fu'fi''ed %isho1 0urstJs en'ightened ho1e for the study of history and 1ub'ic affairs in a city devoted to the ma2ing of history and to the conduct of the 1ub'icJs business. %y s1onsoring this institution of higher 'earning for a'' )ho )ish to 'earn* )hatever their co'or or their creed* the +ethodists of this area and the Nation deserve the NationJs than2s* and @ commend a'' those )ho are today graduating. Professor <oodro) <i'son once said that every man sent out from a university shou'd be a man of his nation as )e'' as a man of his time* and @ am confident that the men and )omen )ho carry the honor of graduating from this institution )i'' continue to give from their 'ives* from their ta'ents* a high measure of 1ub'ic service and 1ub'ic su11ort. LThere are fe) earth'y things more beautifu' than a university*L )rote John +asefie'd* in his tribute to Hng'ish universities66and his )ords are eNua''y true today. 0e did not refer to s1ires and to)ers* to cam1us greens and ivied )a''s. 0e admired the s1'endid beauty of the university* he said* because it )as La 1'ace )here those )ho hate ignorance may strive to 2no)* )here those )ho 1erceive truth may strive to ma2e others see.L $ ha%e, therefore, chosen this time and this place to discuss a topic on which ignorance too often abounds and the truth is too rarel+ percei%ed55+et it is the most important topic on earth8 world peace. What ,ind of peace do $ mean? What ,ind of peace do we see,? 1ot a Ga> 7mericana enforced on the world b+ 7merican weapons of war. 1ot the peace of the gra%e or the securit+ of the sla%e. $ am tal,ing about genuine peace, the ,ind of peace that ma,es life on earth worth li%ing, the ,ind that enables men and nations to grow and to hope and to build a better life for their children55not merel+ peace for 7mericans but peace for all men and women55not merel+ peace in our time but peace for all time. $ spea, of peace because of the new face of war. *otal war ma,es no sense in an age when great powers can maintain large and relati%el+ in%ulnerable nuclear forces and refuse to surrender without resort to those forces. $t ma,es no sense in an age when a single nuclear weapon contains almost ten times the e>plosi%e force deli%ered b+ all of the allied air forces in the Second World War. $t ma,es no sense in an age when the deadl+ poisons produced b+ a nuclear e>change would be carried b+ wind and water and soil and seed to the far corners of the globe and to generations +et unborn. Today the eC1enditure of bi''ions of do''ars every year on )ea1ons acNuired for the 1ur1ose of ma2ing sure )e never need to use them is essentia' to 2ee1ing the 1eace. %ut sure'y the acNuisition of such id'e stoc21i'es66)hich can on'y destroy and never create66is not the on'y* much 'ess the most efficient* means of assuring 1eace. $ spea, of peace, therefore, as the necessar+ rational end of rational men. $ realize that the pursuit of peace is not as dramatic as the pursuit of war55and fre@uentl+ the words of the pursuer fall on deaf ears. =ut we ha%e no more urgent tas,. Some say that it is use'ess to s1ea2 of )or'd 1eace or )or'd 'a) or )or'd disarmament6and that it )i'' be use'ess unti' the 'eaders of the Soviet 5nion ado1t a more en'ightened attitude. @ ho1e they do. @ be'ieve )e can he'1 them do it. %ut @ a'so be'ieve that )e must reeCamine our o)n attitude66as individua's and as a Nation66for our attitude is as essentia' as theirs. And every graduate of this schoo'* every thoughtfu' citiEen )ho des1airs of )ar and )ishes to bring 1eace* shou'd begin by 'oo2ing in)ard66by eCamining his o)n attitude to)ard the 1ossibi'ities of 1eace* to)ard the Soviet 5nion* to)ard the course of the co'd )ar and to)ard freedom and 1eace here at home. 0irst8 /et us e>amine our attitude toward peace itself. *oo man+ of us thin, it is impossible. *oo man+ thin, it unreal. =ut that is a dangerous, defeatist belief. $t leads to the conclusion that war is ine%itable55that man,ind is doomed55that we are gripped b+ forces we cannot control. We need not accept that %iew. Our problems are manmade55therefore, the+ can be sol%ed b+ man. 7nd man can be as big as he wants. 1o problem of human destin+ is be+ond human beings. 9an<s reason and spirit ha%e often sol%ed the seemingl+ unsol%able55and we belie%e the+ can do it again.

@ am not referring to the abso'ute* infinite conce1t of universa' 1eace and good )i'' of )hich some fantasies and fanatics dream. @ do not deny the va'ue of ho1es and dreams but )e mere'y invite discouragement and incredu'ity by ma2ing that our on'y and immediate goa'. $et us focus instead on a more 1ractica'* more attainab'e 1eace66based not on a sudden revo'ution in human nature but on a gradua' evo'ution in human institutions66on a series of concrete actions and effective agreements )hich are in the interest of a'' concerned. There is no sing'e* sim1'e 2ey to this 1eace66no grand or magic formu'a to be ado1ted by one or t)o 1o)ers. Aenuine 1eace must be the 1roduct of many nations* the sum of many acts. @t must be dynamic* not static* changing to meet the cha''enge of each ne) generation. For 1eace is a 1rocess66a )ay of so'ving 1rob'ems. <ith such a 1eace* there )i'' sti'' be Nuarre's and conf'icting interests* as there are )ithin fami'ies and nations. <or'd 1eace* 'i2e community 1eace* does not reNuire that each man 'ove his neighbor66it reNuires on'y that they 'ive together in mutua' to'erance* submitting their dis1utes to a Gust and 1eacefu' sett'ement. And history teaches us that enmities bet)een nations* as bet)een individua's* do not 'ast forever. 0o)ever fiCed our 'i2es and dis'i2es may seem* the tide of time and events )i'' often bring sur1rising changes in the re'ations bet)een nations and neighbors. So let us perse%ere. Geace need not be impracticable, and war need not be ine%itable. =+ defining our goal more clearl+, b+ ma,ing it seem more manageable and less remote, we can help all peoples to see it, to draw hope from it, and to mo%e irresistibl+ toward it. Second, $et us reeCamine our attitude to)ard the Soviet 5nion. @t is discouraging to thin2 that their 'eaders may actua''y be'ieve )hat their 1ro1agandists )rite. @t is discouraging to read a recent authoritative Soviet teCt on +i'itary Strategy and find* on 1age after 1age* )ho''y base'ess and incredib'e c'aims66such as the a''egation that LAmerican im1eria'ist circ'es are 1re1aring to un'eash different ty1es of )ars ... that there is a very rea' threat of a 1reventive )ar being un'eashed by American im1eria'ists against the Soviet 5nion ... .and that/ the 1o'itica' aims of the American im1eria'ists are to ens'ave economica''y and 1o'itica''y the Huro1ean and other ca1ita'ist countries... .and/ to achieve )or'd domination ... by means of aggressive )ars.L *rul+, as it was written long ago8 A*he wic,ed flee when no man pursueth.A Let it is sad to read these So%iet statements55to realize the e>tent of the gulf between us. =ut it is also a warning55a warning to the 7merican people not to fall into the same trap as the So%iets, not to see onl+ a distorted and desperate %iew of the other side, not to see conflict as ine%itable, accommodation as impossible, and communication as nothing more than an e>change of threats. 1o go%ernment or social s+stem is so e%il that its people must be considered as lac,ing in %irtue. 7s 7mericans, we find communism profoundl+ repugnant as a negation of personal freedom and dignit+. =ut we can still hail the ?ussian people for their man+ achie%ements55in science and space, in economic and industrial growth, in culture and in acts of courage. 7mong the man+ traits the peoples of our two countries ha%e in common, none is stronger than our mutual abhorrence of war. 7lmost uni@ue, among the ma:or world powers, we ha%e ne%er been at war with each other. 7nd no nation in the histor+ of battle e%er suffered more than the So%iet &nion suffered in the course of the Second World War. 7t least 23 million lost their li%es. Countless millions of homes and farms were burned or sac,ed. 7 third of the nation<s territor+, including nearl+ two thirds of its industrial base, was turned into a wasteland55a loss e@ui%alent to the de%astation of this countr+ east of Chicago. *oda+, should total war e%er brea, out again55no matter how55our two countries would become the primar+ targets. $t is an ironic but accurate fact that the two strongest powers are the two in the most danger of de%astation. 7ll we ha%e built, all we ha%e wor,ed for, would be destro+ed in the first 2# hours. 7nd e%en in the cold war, which brings burdens and dangers to so man+ countries, including this 1ation<s closest allies55our two countries bear the hea%iest burdens. 0or we are both de%oting massi%e sums of mone+ to weapons that could be better de%oted to combating ignorance, po%ert+, and disease. We are both caught up in a %icious and dangerous c+cle in which suspicion on one side breeds suspicion on the other, and new weapons beget counter5weapons. $n short, both the &nited States and its allies, and the So%iet &nion and its allies, ha%e a mutuall+ deep interest in a :ust and genuine peace and in halting the arms race. 7greements to this end are in the interests of the So%iet &nion as well as ours55and e%en the most hostile nations can be relied upon to accept and ,eep those treat+ obligations, and onl+ those treat+ obligations, which are in their own interest. So* 'et us not be b'ind to our differences6but 'et us a'so direct attention to our common interests and to the means by )hich those differences can be reso'ved. And if )e cannot end no) our differences* at 'east )e can he'1 ma2e the )or'd safe for diversity. For* in the fina' ana'ysis* our most basic common 'in2 is that )e a'' inhabit this sma'' 1'anet. <e a'' breathe the same air. <e a'' cherish our chi'drenJs future. And )e are a'' morta'.

Third, $et us reeCamine our attitude to)ard the co'd )ar* remembering that )e are not engaged in a debate* see2ing to 1i'e u1 debating 1oints. <e are not here distributing b'ame or 1ointing the finger of Gudgment. <e must dea' )ith the )or'd as it is* and not as it might have been had the history of the 'ast M years been different. We must, therefore, perse%ere in the search for peace in the hope that constructi%e changes within the Communist bloc might bring within reach solutions which now seem be+ond us. We must conduct our affairs in such a wa+ that it becomes in the Communists< interest to agree on a genuine peace. 7bo%e all, while defending our own %ital interests, nuclear powers must a%ert those confrontations which bring an ad%ersar+ to a choice of either a humiliating retreat or a nuclear war. *o adopt that ,ind of course in the nuclear age would be e%idence onl+ of the ban,ruptc+ of our polic+5or of a collecti%e death5wish for the world. *o secure these ends, 7merica<s weapons are nonpro%ocati%e, carefull+ controlled, designed to deter, and capable of selecti%e use. Our militar+ forces are committed to peace and disciplined in self5restraint. Our diplomats are instructed to a%oid unnecessar+ irritants and purel+ rhetorical hostilit+. 0or we can see, a rela>ation of tensions without rela>ing our guard. 7nd, for our part, we do not need to use threats to pro%e that we are resolute. We do not need to :am foreign broadcasts out of fear our faith will be eroded. We are unwilling to impose our s+stem on an+ unwilling people55but we are willing and able to engage in peaceful competition with an+ people on earth. +ean)hi'e* )e see2 to strengthen the 5nited Nations* to he'1 so've its financia' 1rob'ems* to ma2e it a more effective instrument for 1eace* to deve'o1 it into a genuine )or'd security system66a system ca1ab'e of reso'ving dis1utes on the basis of 'a)* of insuring the security of the 'arge and the sma''* and of creating conditions under )hich arms can fina''y be abo'ished. 7t the same time we see, to ,eep peace inside the non5Communist world, where man+ nations, all of them our friends, are di%ided o%er issues which wea,en Western unit+, which in%ite Communist inter%ention or which threaten to erupt into war. Our efforts in West 1ew .uinea, in the Congo, in the 9iddle (ast, and in the $ndian subcontinent, ha%e been persistent and patient despite criticism from both sides. We ha%e also tried to set an e>ample for others55b+ see,ing to ad:ust small but significant differences with our own closest neighbors in 9e>ico and in Canada. Spea,ing of other nations, $ wish to ma,e one point clear. We are bound to man+ nations b+ alliances. *hose alliances e>ist because our concern and theirs substantiall+ o%erlap. Our commitment to defend Western (urope and West =erlin, for e>ample, stands undiminished because of the identit+ of our %ital interests. *he &nited States will ma,e no deal with the So%iet &nion at the e>pense of other nations and other peoples, not merel+ because the+ are our partners, but also because their interests and ours con%erge. Our interests con%erge, howe%er, not onl+ in defending the frontiers of freedom, but in pursuing the paths of peace. $t is our hope55and the purpose of allied policies55to con%ince the So%iet &nion that she, too, should let each nation choose its own future, so long as that choice does not interfere with the choices of others. *he Communist dri%e to impose their political and economic s+stem on others is the primar+ cause of world tension toda+. 0or there can be no doubt that, if all nations could refrain from interfering in the self5determination of others, the peace would be much more assured. This )i'' reNuire a ne) effort to achieve )or'd 'a)66a ne) conteCt for )or'd discussions. @t )i'' reNuire increased understanding bet)een the Soviets and ourse'ves. And increased understanding )i'' reNuire increased contact and communication. Ine ste1 in this direction is the 1ro1osed arrangement for a direct 'ine bet)een +osco) and <ashington* to avoid on each side the dangerous de'ays* misunderstandings* and misreadings of the otherJs actions )hich might occur at a time of crisis. <e have a'so been ta'2ing in Aeneva about other first6ste1 measures of arms contro'* designed to 'imit the intensity of the arms race and to reduce the ris2s of accidenta' )ar. Iur 1rimary 'ong6range interest in Aeneva* ho)ever* is genera' and com1'ete disarmament66 designed to ta2e 1'ace by stages* 1ermitting 1ara''e' 1o'itica' deve'o1ments to bui'd the ne) institutions of 1eace )hich )ou'd ta2e the 1'ace of arms. The 1ursuit of disarmament has been an effort of this Aovernment since the !;OJs. @t has been urgent'y sought by the 1ast three ado ministrations. And ho)ever dim the 1ros1ects may be today* )e intend to continue this effort66to continue it in order that a'' countries* inc'uding our o)n* can better gras1 )hat the 1rob'ems and 1ossibi'ities of disarmament are. The one maGor area of these negotiations )here the end is in sight* yet )here a fresh start is bad'y needed* is in a treaty to out'a) nuc'ear tests. The conc'usion of such a treaty* so near and yet so far* )ou'd chec2 the s1ira'ing arms race in one of its most dangerous areas. @t )ou'd 1'ace the nuc'ear 1o)ers in a 1osition to dea' more effective'y )ith one of the greatest haEards )hich man faces in !"#* the further s1read of nuc'ear arms. @t )ou'd increase our security66it )ou'd decrease the 1ros1ects of )ar. Sure'y this goa' is sufficient'y im1ortant to reNuire our steady 1ursuit* yie'ding neither to the tem1tation to give u1 the )ho'e effort nor the tem1tation to give u1 our insistence on vita' and res1onsib'e safeguards.

@ am ta2ing this o11ortunity* therefore* to announce t)o im1ortant decisions in this regard. First, ?hairman Khrushchev* Prime +inister +acmi''an* and @ have agreed that high6'eve' discussions )i'' short'y begin in +osco) 'oo2ing to)ard ear'y agreement on a com1rehensive test ban treaty. Iur ho1es must be tem1ered )ith the caution of history66but )ith our ho1es go the ho1es of a'' man2ind. Second, To ma2e c'ear our good faith and so'emn convictions on the matter* @ no) dec'are that the 5nited States does not 1ro1ose to conduct nuc'ear tests in the atmos1here so 'ong as other states do not do so. <e )i'' not be the first to resume. Such a dec'aration is no substitute for a forma' binding treaty* but @ ho1e it )i'' he'1 us achieve one. Nor )ou'd such a treaty be a substitute for disarmament* but @ ho1e it )i'' he'1 us achieve it. 0inall+, m+ fellow 7mericans, let us e>amine our attitude toward peace and freedom here at home. *he @ualit+ and spirit of our own societ+ must :ustif+ and support our efforts abroad. We must show it in the dedication of our own li%es55as man+ of +ou who are graduating toda+ will ha%e a uni@ue opportunit+ to do, b+ ser%ing without pa+ in the Geace Corps abroad or in the proposed 1ational Ser%ice Corps here at home. =ut where%er we are, we must all, in our dail+ li%es, li%e up to the age5old faith that peace and freedom wal, together. $n too man+ of our cities toda+, the peace is not secure because freedom is incomplete. $t is the responsibilit+ of the e>ecuti%e branch at all le%els of go%ernment55local, State, and 1ational55to pro%ide and protect that freedom for all of our citizens b+ all means within their authorit+. $t is the responsibilit+ of the legislati%e branch at all le%els, where%er that authorit+ is not now ade@uate, to ma,e it ade@uate. 7nd it is the responsibilit+ of all citizens in all sections of this countr+ to respect the rights of all others and to respect the law of the land. 7ll this is not unrelated to world peace. AWhen a man<s wa+s please the /ord,A the Scriptures tell us, Ahe ma,eth e%en his enemies to be at peace with him.A 7nd is not peace, in the last anal+sis, basicall+ a matter of human rights55the right to li%e out our li%es without fear of de%astation5the right to breathe air as nature pro%ided it55the right of future generations to a health+ e>istence? While we proceed to safeguard our national interests, let us also safeguard human interests. 7nd the elimination of war and arms is clearl+ in the interest of both. 1o treat+, howe%er much it ma+ be to the ad%antage of all, howe%er tightl+ it ma+ be worded, can pro%ide absolute securit+ against the ris,s of deception and e%asion. =ut it can55if it is sufficientl+ effecti%e in its enforcement and if it is sufficientl+ in the interests of its signers55offer far more securit+ and far fewer ris,s than an unabated, uncontrolled, unpredictable arms race. *he &nited States, as the world ,nows, will ne%er start a war. We do not want a war. We do not now e>pect a war. *his generation of 7mericans has alread+ had enough55more than enough55of war and hate and oppression. We shall be prepared if others wish it. We shall be alert to tr+ to stop it. =ut we shall also do our part to build a world of peace where the wea, are safe and the strong are :ust. We are not helpless before that tas, or hopeless of its success. Confident and unafraid, we labor on55 not toward a strateg+ of annihilation but toward a strateg+ of peace.
Note: The President spoke at the John 5. %ee&es *thletic =ield on the camp s of *merican 1ni&ersity after bein# awarded an honorary de#ree of doctor of laws. In his openin# words he referred to ' rst %. *nderson) president of the ni&ersity) and %obert C. +yrd) 1... .enator from !est <ir#inia.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "4o//en'e/en! Address a! A/eri'an 1ni>ersi!y in #ashing!on," June 10, 196+. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)9266.

htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9!;""QaCEE;GoET$EJd

-adio and Tele.ision -eport to the American People on #i.il -ights

4une //$ /13;

&oo% evening$ my !ello citi+ens: This afternoon* fo''o)ing a series of threats and defiant statements* the 1resence of A'abama Nationa' Auardsmen )as reNuired on the 5niversity of A'abama to carry out the fina' and uneNuivoca' order of the 5nited States District ?ourt of the Northern District of A'abama. That order ca''ed for the admission of t)o c'ear'y Nua'ified young A'abama residents )ho ha11ened to have been born Negro. That they )ere admitted 1eacefu''y on the cam1us is due in good measure to the conduct of the students of the 5niversity of A'abama* )ho met their res1onsibi'ities in a constructive )ay. $ hope that e%er+ 7merican, regardless of where he li%es, will stop and e>amine his conscience about this and other related incidents. *his 1ation was founded b+ men of man+ nations and bac,grounds. $t was founded on the principle that all men are created e@ual, and that the rights of e%er+ man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened. *oda+ we are committed to a worldwide struggle to promote and protect the rights of all who wish to be free. 7nd when 7mericans are sent to Kiet51am or West =erlin, we do not as, for whites onl+. $t ought to be possible, therefore, for 7merican students of an+ color to attend an+ public institution the+ select without ha%ing to be bac,ed up b+ troops. $t ought to be possible for 7merican consumers of an+ color to recei%e e@ual ser%ice in places of public accommodation, such as hotels and restaurants and theaters and retail stores, without being forced to resort to demonstrations in the street, and it ought to be possible for 7merican citizens of an+ color to register and to %ote in a free election without interference or fear of reprisal. $t ought to be possible, in short, for e%er+ 7merican to en:o+ the pri%ileges of being 7merican without regard to his race or his color. $n short, e%er+ 7merican ought to ha%e the right to be treated as he would wish to be treated, as one would wish his children to be treated. =ut this is not the case. The Negro baby born in America today* regard'ess of the section of the Nation in )hich he is born* has about one6ha'f as much chance of com1'eting a high schoo' as a )hite baby born in the same 1'ace on the same day* one6third as much chance of com1'eting co''ege* one6third as much chance of becoming a 1rofessiona' man* t)ice as much chance of becoming unem1'oyed* about one6seventh as much chance of earning V O*OOO a year* a 'ife eC1ectancy )hich is D years shorter* and the 1ros1ects of earning on'y ha'f as much. This is not a sectiona' issue. 6ifficulties o%er segregation and discrimination e>ist in e%er+ cit+, in e%er+ State of the &nion, producing in man+ cities a rising tide of discontent that threatens the public safet+. 1or is this a partisan issue. $n a time of domestic crisis men of good will and generosit+ should be able to unite regardless of part+ or politics. *his is not e%en a legal or legislati%e issue alone. $t is better to settle these matters in the courts than on the streets, and new laws are needed at e%er+ le%el, but law alone cannot ma,e men see right. We are confronted primaril+ with a moral issue. $t is as old as the scriptures and is as clear as the 7merican Constitution. *he heart of the @uestion is whether all 7mericans are to be afforded e@ual rights and e@ual opportunities, whether we are going to treat our fellow 7mericans as we want to be treated. $f an 7merican, because his s,in is dar,, cannot eat lunch in a restaurant open to the public, if he cannot send his children to the best public school a%ailable, if he cannot %ote for the public officials who represent him, if, in short, he cannot en:o+ the full and free life which all of us want, then who among us would be content to ha%e the color of his s,in changed and stand in his place? Who among us would then be content with the counsels of patience and dela+? One hundred +ears of dela+ ha%e passed since Gresident /incoln freed the sla%es, +et their heirs, their grandsons, are not full+ free. *he+ are not +et freed from the bonds of in:ustice. *he+ are not +et freed from social and economic oppression. 7nd this 1ation, for all its hopes and all its boasts, will not be full+ free until all its citizens are free.

We preach freedom around the world, and we mean it, and we cherish our freedom here at home, but are we to sa+ to the world, and much more importantl+, to each other that this is a land of the free e>cept for the 1egroesB that we ha%e no second5class citizens e>cept 1egroesB that we ha%e no class or cast s+stem, no ghettoes, no master race e>cept with respect to 1egroes? 1ow the time has come for this 1ation to fulfill its promise. The events in %irmingham and e'se)here have so increased the cries for eNua'ity that no city or State or 'egis'ative body can 1rudent'y choose to ignore them. The fires of frustration and discord are burning in every city* North and South* )here 'ega' remedies are not at hand. Bedress is sought in the streets* in demonstrations* 1arades* and 1rotests )hich create tensions and threaten vio'ence and threaten 'ives. We face, therefore, a moral crisis as a countr+ and as a people. $t cannot be met b+ repressi%e police action. $t cannot be left to increased demonstrations in the streets. $t cannot be @uieted b+ to,en mo%es or tal,. $t is a time to act in the Congress, in +our State and local legislati%e bod+ and, abo%e all, in all of our dail+ li%es. $t is not enough to pin the blame on others, to sa+ this is a problem of one section of the countr+ or another, or deplore the fact that we face. 7 great change is at hand, and our tas,, our obligation, is to ma,e that re%olution, that change, peaceful and constructi%e for all. *hose who do nothing are in%iting shame as well as %iolence. *hose who act boldl+ are recognizing right as well as realit+. NeCt )ee2 @ sha'' as2 the ?ongress of the 5nited States to act* to ma2e a commitment it has not fu''y made in this century to the 1ro1osition that race has no 1'ace in American 'ife or 'a). The Federa' Gudiciary has u1he'd that 1ro1osition in a series of forthright cases. The eCecutive branch has ado1ted that 1ro1osition in the conduct of its affairs* inc'uding the em1'oyment of Federa' 1ersonne'* the use of Federa' faci'ities* and the sa'e of federa''y financed housing. =ut there are other necessar+ measures which onl+ the Congress can pro%ide, and the+ must be pro%ided at this session. *he old code of e@uit+ law under which we li%e commands for e%er+ wrong a remed+, but in too man+ communities, in too man+ parts of the countr+, wrongs are inflicted on 1egro citizens and there are no remedies at law. &nless the Congress acts, their onl+ remed+ is in the street. $ am, therefore, as,ing the Congress to enact legislation gi%ing all 7mericans the right to be ser%ed in facilities which are open to the public55hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments. *his seems to me to be an elementar+ right. $ts denial is an arbitrar+ indignit+ that no 7merican in !"3 should ha%e to endure, but man+ do. @ have recent'y met )ith scores of business 'eaders urging them to ta2e vo'untary action to end this discrimination and @ have been encouraged by their res1onse* and in the 'ast ; )ee2s over DP cities have seen 1rogress made in desegregating these 2inds of faci'ities. %ut many are un)i''ing to act a'one* and for this reason* nation)ide 'egis'ation is needed if )e are to move this 1rob'em from the streets to the courts. @ am a'so as2ing ?ongress to authoriEe the Federa' Aovernment to 1artici1ate more fu''y in 'a)suits designed to end segregation in 1ub'ic education. <e have succeeded in 1ersuading many districts to de6segregate vo'untari'y. DoEens have admitted Negroes )ithout vio'ence. Today a Negro is attending a State6su11orted institution in every one of our PO States* but the 1ace is very s'o). Too many Negro chi'dren entering segregated grade schoo's at the time of the Su1reme ?ourtJs decision ! years ago )i'' enter segregated high schoo's this fa''* having suffered a 'oss )hich can never be restored. The 'ac2 of an adeNuate education denies the Negro a chance to get a decent Gob. The order'y im1'ementation of the Su1reme ?ourt decision* therefore* cannot be 'eft so'e'y to those )ho may not have the economic resources to carry the 'ega' action or )ho may be subGect to harassment. Ither features )i'' be a'so reNuested* inc'uding greater 1rotection for the right to vote. =ut legislation, $ repeat, cannot sol%e this problem alone. $t must be sol%ed in the homes of e%er+ 7merican in e%er+ communit+ across our countr+.

$n this respect, $ want to pa+ tribute to those citizens 1orth and South who ha%e been wor,ing in their communities to ma,e life better for all. *he+ are acting not out of a sense of legal dut+ but out of a sense of human decenc+. /i,e our soldiers and sailors in all parts of the world the+ are meeting freedom<s challenge on the firing line, and $ salute them for their honor and their courage. 9+ fellow 7mericans, this is a problem which faces us all55in e%er+ cit+ of the 1orth as well as the South. *oda+ there are 1egroes unemplo+ed, two or three times as man+ compared to whites, inade@uate in education, mo%ing into the large cities, unable to find wor,, +oung people particularl+ out of wor, without hope, denied e@ual rights, denied the opportunit+ to eat at a restaurant or lunch counter or go to a mo%ie theater, denied the right to a decent education, denied almost toda+ the right to attend a State uni%ersit+ e%en though @ualified. $t seems to me that these are matters which concern us all, not merel+ Gresidents or Congressmen or .o%ernors, but e%er+ citizen of the &nited States. *his is one countr+. $t has become one countr+ because all of us and all the people who came here had an e@ual chance to de%elop their talents. We cannot sa+ to 3 percent of the population that +ou can<t ha%e that rightB that +our children can<t ha%e the chance to de%elop whate%er talents the+ ha%eB that the onl+ wa+ that the+ are going to get their rights is to go into the streets and demonstrate. $ thin, we owe them and we owe oursel%es a better countr+ than that. *herefore, $ am as,ing for +our help in ma,ing it easier for us to mo%e ahead and to pro%ide the ,ind of e@ualit+ of treatment which we would want oursel%esB to gi%e a chance for e%er+ child to be educated to the limit of his talents. 7s $ ha%e said before, not e%er+ child has an e@ual talent or an e@ual abilit+ or an e@ual moti%ation, but the+ should ha%e the e@ual right to de%elop their talent and their abilit+ and their moti%ation, to ma,e something of themsel%es. We ha%e a right to e>pect that the 1egro communit+ will be responsible, will uphold the law, but the+ ha%e a right to e>pect that the law will be fair, that the Constitution will be color blind, as 'ustice ;arlan said at the turn of the centur+. *his is what we are tal,ing about and this is a matter which concerns this countr+ and what it stands for, and in meeting it $ as, the support of all our citizens. Than2 you very much.
/eli&ered from the President"s office at > p.m.
Citation: John F. Kennedy: "=adio and "ele>ision =e$or! !o !he A/eri'an eo$le on 4i>il =igh!s," June 11, 196+. Online by Gerhard e!ers and John ". #oolley, The American Presidency Project. h!!$:%%&&&.$residen'y.u'sb.edu%&s%($id)92:1.

htt1,77))).1residency.ucsb.edu7)s781id9!;D QaCEE;GoET$EJd

Trans%ri&t: F"'s $&ee%h on His (eligion

+n Se-t. /5$ /136$ -residential candidate 4ohn ,. ennedy *a)e a ma<or s-eech to the =reater Houston 9inisterial Association$ a *rou- of Protestant ministers$ on the issue of his reli*ion. At the time$ many Protestants questioned whether ennedy>s 'oman Catholic faith would allow him to ma(e im-ortant national decisions as -resident inde-endent of the church. ennedy addressed those concerns ?efore a s(e-tical audience of Protestant cler*y. The followin* is a transcri-t of ennedy>s s-eech: ,enne! = Rev. ,e<a, Rev. Re k, 8Pm grate&ul &or your generous invitation to s9eak my vie!s. While the soC alled religious issue is ne essarily and 9ro9erly the hie& to9i here tonight, 8 !ant to em9hasi<e &rom the outset that !e have &ar more riti al issues to &a e in the 123> ele tion6 the s9read o& Communist in&luen e, until it no! &esters 2> miles o&& the oast o& $loridaK the humiliating treatment o& our 9resident and vi e 9resident *y those !ho no longer res9e t our 9o!erK the hungry hildren 8 sa! in West VirginiaK the old 9eo9le !ho annot 9ay their do tor *illsK the &amilies &or ed to give u9 their &armsK an "meri a !ith too many slums, !ith too &e! s hools, and too late to the moon and outer s9a e. 'hese are the real issues !hi h should de ide this am9aign. "nd they are not religious issues Y &or !ar and hunger and ignoran e and des9air kno! no religious *arriers. But *e ause 8 am a Catholi , and no Catholi has ever *een ele ted 9resident, the real issues in this am9aign have *een o*s ured Y 9erha9s deli*erately, in some Fuarters less res9onsi*le than this. So it is a99arently ne essary &or me to state on e again not !hat kind o& hur h 8 *elieve in Y &or that should *e im9ortant only to me Y *ut !hat kind o& "meri a 8 *elieve in. 8 *elieve in an "meri a !here the se9aration o& hur h and state is a*solute, !here no Catholi 9relate !ould tell the 9resident -should he *e Catholi . ho! to a t, and no Protestant minister !ould tell his 9arishioners &or !hom to voteK !here no hur h or hur h s hool is granted any 9u*li &unds or 9oliti al 9re&eren eK and !here no man is denied 9u*li o&&i e merely *e ause his religion di&&ers &rom the 9resident !ho might a99oint him or the 9eo9le !ho might ele t him. 8 *elieve in an "meri a that is o&&i ially neither Catholi , Protestant nor #e!ishK !here no 9u*li o&&i ial either reFuests or a e9ts instru tions on 9u*li 9oli y &rom the Po9e, the National Coun il o& Chur hes or any other e lesiasti al sour eK !here no religious *ody seeks to im9ose its !ill dire tly or indire tly u9on the general 9o9ula e or the 9u*li a ts o& its o&&i ialsK and !here religious li*erty is so indivisi*le that an a t against one hur h is treated as an a t against all. $or !hile this year it may *e a Catholi against !hom the &inger o& sus9i ion is 9ointed, in other years it has *een, and may someday *e again, a #e!Y or a Xuaker or a )nitarian or a Ba9tist. 8t !as VirginiaPs harassment o& Ba9tist 9rea hers, &or e(am9le, that hel9ed lead to #e&&ersonPs statute o& religious &reedom. 'oday 8 may *e the vi tim, *ut tomorro! it may *e you Y until the !hole &a*ri o& our harmonious so iety is ri99ed at a time o& great national 9eril. $inally, 8 *elieve in an "meri a !here religious intoleran e !ill someday endK !here all men and all hur hes are treated as eFualK !here every man has the same right to attend or not attend the hur h o& his hoi eK !here there is no Catholi vote, no antiCCatholi vote, no *lo voting o& any kindK and !here Catholi s, Protestants and #e!s, at *oth the lay and 9astoral level, !ill re&rain &rom those attitudes o& disdain and division !hi h have so o&ten marred their !orks in the 9ast, and 9romote instead the "meri an ideal o& *rotherhood. 'hat is the kind o& "meri a in !hi h 8 *elieve. "nd it re9resents the kind o& 9residen y in !hi h 8 *elieve Y a great o&&i e that must neither *e hum*led *y making it the instrument o& any one religious grou9, nor tarnished *y ar*itrarily !ithholding its o u9an y &rom the mem*ers o& any one religious grou9. 8 *elieve in a 9resident !hose religious vie!s are his o!n 9rivate a&&air, neither im9osed *y him u9on the nation, or im9osed *y the nation u9on him as a ondition to holding that o&&i e. 8 !ould not look !ith &avor u9on a 9resident !orking to su*vert the $irst "mendmentPs guarantees o& religious li*erty. Nor !ould our system o& he ks and *alan es 9ermit him to do so. "nd neither do 8 look !ith &avor u9on those !ho !ould !ork to su*vert "rti le V8 o& the Constitution *y reFuiring a religious test Y even *y indire tion Y &or it. 8& they disagree !ith that sa&eguard, they should *e out o9enly !orking to re9eal it. 8 !ant a hie& e(e utive !hose 9u*li a ts are res9onsi*le to all grou9s and o*ligated to noneK !ho an attend any eremony, servi e or dinner his o&&i e may a99ro9riately reFuire o& himK and !hose &ul&illment o& his 9residential oath is not limited or onditioned *y any religious oath, ritual or o*ligation. 'his is the kind o& "meri a 8 *elieve in, and this is the kind 8 &ought &or in the South Pa i&i , and the kind my *rother died &or in ;uro9e. No one suggested then that !e may have a Rdivided loyalty,R that !e did Rnot *elieve in li*erty,R or that !e *elonged to a disloyal grou9 that threatened the R&reedoms &or !hi h our &ore&athers died.R "nd in &a t, this is the kind o& "meri a &or !hi h our &ore&athers died, !hen they &led here to es a9e religious test oaths that denied o&&i e to mem*ers o& less &avored hur hesK !hen they &ought &or the Constitution, the Bill o& Rights and the Virginia Statute o& Religious $reedomK and !hen they &ought at the shrine 8 visited today, the "lamo. $or side *y side !ith Bo!ie and

Cro kett died , Ca&&erty and Bailey and Carey. But no one kno!s !hether they !ere Catholi or not, &or there !as no religious test at the "lamo. 8 ask you tonight to &ollo! in that tradition, to :udge me on the *asis o& my re ord o& 1G years in Congress, on my de lared stands against an am*assador to the Vati an, against un onstitutional aid to 9aro hial s hools, and against any *oy ott o& the 9u*li s hools -!hi h 8 have attended mysel&.Y instead o& :udging me on the *asis o& these 9am9hlets and 9u*li ations !e all have seen that are&ully sele t Fuotations out o& onte(t &rom the statements o& Catholi hur h leaders, usually in other ountries, &reFuently in other enturies, and al!ays omitting, o& ourse, the statement o& the "meri an Bisho9s in 12GE, !hi h strongly endorsed hur hCstate se9aration, and !hi h more nearly re&le ts the vie!s o& almost every "meri an Catholi . 8 do not onsider these other Fuotations *inding u9on my 9u*li a ts. Why should you5 But let me say, !ith res9e t to other ountries, that 8 am !holly o99osed to the state *eing used *y any religious grou9, Catholi or Protestant, to om9el, 9rohi*it, or 9erse ute the &ree e(er ise o& any other religion. "nd 8 ho9e that you and 8 ondemn !ith eFual &ervor those nations !hi h deny their 9residen y to Protestants, and those !hi h deny it to Catholi s. "nd rather than ite the misdeeds o& those !ho di&&er, 8 !ould ite the re ord o& the Catholi Chur h in su h nations as 8reland and $ran e, and the inde9enden e o& su h statesmen as "denauer and De +aulle. But let me stress again that these are my vie!s. $or ontrary to ommon ne!s9a9er usage, 8 am not the Catholi andidate &or 9resident. 8 am the Demo rati PartyPs andidate &or 9resident, !ho ha99ens also to *e a Catholi . 8 do not s9eak &or my hur h on 9u*li matters, and the hur h does not s9eak &or me. Whatever issue may ome *e&ore me as 9resident Y on *irth ontrol, divor e, ensorshi9, gam*ling or any other su*:e t Y 8 !ill make my de ision in a ordan e !ith these vie!s, in a ordan e !ith !hat my ons ien e tells me to *e the national interest, and !ithout regard to outside religious 9ressures or di tates. "nd no 9o!er or threat o& 9unishment ould ause me to de ide other!ise. But i& the time should ever ome Y and 8 do not on ede any on&li t to *e even remotely 9ossi*le Y !hen my o&&i e !ould reFuire me to either violate my ons ien e or violate the national interest, then 8 !ould resign the o&&i eK and 8 ho9e any ons ientious 9u*li servant !ould do the same. But 8 do not intend to a9ologi<e &or these vie!s to my riti s o& either Catholi or Protestant &aith, nor do 8 intend to disavo! either my vie!s or my hur h in order to !in this ele tion. 8& 8 should lose on the real issues, 8 shall return to my seat in the Senate, satis&ied that 8 had tried my *est and !as &airly :udged. But i& this ele tion is de ided on the *asis that G> million "meri ans lost their han e o& *eing 9resident on the day they !ere *a9ti<ed, then it is the !hole nation that !ill *e the loser Y in the eyes o& Catholi s and nonCCatholi s around the !orld, in the eyes o& history, and in the eyes o& our o!n 9eo9le. But i&, on the other hand, 8 should !in the ele tion, then 8 shall devote every e&&ort o& mind and s9irit to &ul&illing the oath o& the 9residen y Y 9ra ti ally identi al, 8 might add, to the oath 8 have taken &or 1G years in the Congress. $or !ithout reservation, 8 an Rsolemnly s!ear that 8 !ill &aith&ully e(e ute the o&&i e o& 9resident o& the )nited States, and !ill to the *est o& my a*ility 9reserve, 9rote t, and de&end the Constitution, so hel9 me +od. Transcript courtesy of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.

Source, htt1,77))).n1r.org7tem1'ates7story7story.1h18story@d9 "!;O"OO

5.S. President John F. Kennedy smi'es as he stands )ith his )ife* First $ady JacNue'ine %ouvier Kennedy and their daughter* ?aro'ine* in front of a door)ay at the <hite 0ouse* <ashington* D.?. on February K* !" . JacNue'ine Kennedy ho'ds John Kennedy Jr. in her arms. &John F. Kennedy $ibrary7Aetty @mages(

Jo hn F. Kennedy and 0arry S. Truman on January ; * !" .

Hvange'ist %i''y Araham &'eft( a11ears )ith President John F. Kennedy on February !* !" .

President John F. Kennedy &right( and his )ife* First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy &second 'eft(* 1ose )ith =ueen H'iEabeth @@ of Areat %ritain &second right( and her husband* Prince Phi'i1* Du2e of Hdinburgh* during a banNuet he'd in his honor at the %uc2ingham Pa'ace in $ondon* 5nited Kingdom on June P* !" . +rs. KennedyJs dress )as designed by ?heE Ninon )hi'e the =ueen )ore a 0artne'' go)n. &PhotoNuest7Aetty @mages(

President John F. Kennedy &'eft( 1oses )ith 0aro'd +acmi''an* Prime +inister of Areat %ritain. This 1hoto )as ta2en in %ermuda on December ; * !" .

5.S. President John F. Kennedy a11ears )ith his )ife Jac2ie Kennedy* Prime +inister of @ndia Ja)ahar'a' Nehru* and Nehrus daughter @ndira Aandhi in January !" . &Photo by 0u'ton Archive7Aetty @mages(

President of @vory ?oast FX'iC 0ou1houYt6%oigny &'eft(* +arie6ThXrZse 0ou1houYt6%oigny &; nd 'eft* First $ady of @vory ?oast(* First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy* and President John F. Kennedy 1re1are to attend a state dinner at the <hite 0ouse on +ay ;;* !";.

President John F. Kennedy &;nd right( and First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy &center* )earing a ye''o) dress( attend a <hite 0ouse dinner honoring the President of Peru +anue' Prado 5garteche &'eft( on Se1tember !* !" .

President John F. Kennedy* First $ady Jac2ie Kennedy* and President Ado'fo $o1eE +ateos of +eCico attend a ba''et in +eCico ?ity* +eCico on June ;!* !";.

?hiang ?hing62uo visits President John F. Kennedy at the <hite 0ouse in !"#. &Source, ,he &eneralissimos Son: -hiang -hing'kuo an% the .evolutions in -hina an% ,ai an by Jay Tay'or(

$irst Lady #a Fueline %ennedy -right. a e9ts a hest o& handmade lothes sent *y &emale students in %orea and 9resented *y +eneral Park ChungChee -le&t., Chairman o& the Su9reme Coun il &or National Re onstru tion o& the Re9u*li o& %orea, as President #ohn $. %ennedy looks on during a meeting inside the =ello! Dval Room at the White /ouse in Washington, D.C. on Novem*er 1G, 1231. -Photo6 Ce il Stoughton, White /ouse Photogra9hs, #ohn $. %ennedy Presidential Li*rary and ,useum. htt96HH!!!.:&kli*rary.orgH"ssetCVie!erH"r hivesH#$%W/PC1231C11C1GCC.as9(

President John F. Kennedy stands )ith First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy* Vice President $yndon %aines Johnson* and $ady %ird Johnson 1re1are to attend a state dinner at the <hite 0ouse on January ; * !"#. &%ettmann7?IB%@S(

Preside nt John F. Kennedy and First $ady JacNue'ine Kennedy greet the Shah of @ran on A1ri' * !";.

Pr esident Kennedy addresses de'egates of the 5nited Nations in Ne) For2 ?ity on Se1tember ;P* !" .

President John F. Kennedy meets )ith retired 5.S. Army Aenera' Doug'as +acArthur &'eft( inside the Iva' Iffice of the <hite 0ouse on Ju'y ;O* !" . &Photo, Bobert Knudsen* <hite 0ouse Photogra1hs* John F. Kennedy Presidentia' $ibrary and +useum* %oston(

P resident John F. Kennedy visits former President D)ight D. Hisenho)er &'eft( in Pa'm S1rings* ?a'ifornia on +arch ;K* !";.

The KennedysJ ne) home* as seen on A1ri' #* !" .

(>tra8 &.S. Senator 'ohn 0. Cenned+s September !"3 *rip to 6allas, *e>as

Bare 1ictures of 5.S. Senator John F. KennedyJs cam1aign tri1 to TeCas in Se1tember !"O* inc'uding Kennedys motorcade through the very cro)ded streets of Da''as* TeCas.

.Photo ?redit, ,he /allas Morning )e s/ Source, htt1,772ennedy61hotos.b'ogs1ot.com7;O #7O;71age6;.htm'