Chapter 2:

FUNDAMENTAL OF BUILDING
PHYSICS
CHAPTER CONTENT:
 Introduction
 Basics of heat transfer
 Sources of heat gain/loss in buildings
 Establishing thermal comfort
 Heat transfer in buildings
 (A) INTRODUCTION
Term and definitions

 BUILDING: To control the immediate environment

around people.

 BUILDING ENVELOPE/ENCLOSURE: The physical

barrier between the exterior and interior environments
enclosing a structure to provide shelter for the benefit of
human habitation, work or recreation.

 BUILDING SERVICES: Operates and control

environment within the building by enabling occupants to
live and work comfortably.

 COMFORT: the state of being able to pursue some activity

without experiencing environmental distress.
HEAT TRANSFER In Building

Why do we need to study Building Heat Transfer?

• To ensure the thermally comfort condition can be
achieved inside the building spaces.

• To optimize the energy load for cooling or heating in

building (energy efficient design)

Eg: Building in Hot Climates:

Target
Building envelope Lead to Building services: HVAC Achieving thermal
Less absorbed Less energy for comfort and energy
heat cooling efficient in cooling
 (B) BASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat is a form of energy, appearing as molecular motion in
substances or as radiation in space. Measured in Joule, (J).

 Temperature is considered as the presence of heat in a

substance.

 Unit of temperature is ºC / ºF

 Thermodynamics is the science of the flow of heat.

 The First Law of Thermodynamics/energy:

o The principle of conservation of energy.
o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from
one form to another.

 The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

o Heat (or energy) transfer can take place in one direction
only. i.e. from hotter to a cooler body.
 Mode of Heat Transfer

Heat is transferred from hot to cold in 3 basic

ways:
i) Conduction
ii) Convection
iii) Radiation
 50° C 30° C

Heat transfer by Between solid

conduction materials

45° C
35° C Heat transfer by In fluid, air or gas
35° C convection
50° C

20,000° C
20° C Through
Heat transfer by elecromagnetic
radiation wave

*** If there is a temperature difference between two systems heat will always
find a way to transfer from the higher to lower system
(C) SOURCES OF HEAT GAIN/LOSS IN BUILDINGS
Through ‘Building envelope’
• Building envelope/enclosure/shell is the
part of the building which physically
separates the exterior environment from
the interior environment/s.
o An important parts and a critical
component of any building that
protects building occupants and
regulate indoor environment.
o Prevents air, moisture, heat/cool
from freely flow in/out from a
building.
• The building envelope components include:
• Roof,
• Floor slabs
• Walls
• Windows
• Doors.
Heat Gain in Building: From
Equipment, Air Conditioning
Office
& Lighting building

Typical house
 Thermal Balance in Building: Heat gain & Heat loss

Qi = Internal heat gain, heat from human bodies, lamps, appliances

Qs = Solar heat gain
Qc = Conduction heat gain
Qv = Ventilation heat gain
Qe = Evaporative cooling
Qm = Mechanical cooling
Thermal Balance in Building: Heat gain & Heat loss…cont’d

 Thermal balance exists when the sum of

all heat flow is zero i.e.:

o When this sum is greater than 0(+),

indoor temperature will heat up.

o When this sum is less than 0(-), indoor

temperature will cool down.
Ways of Heat Loss from Building
Sensible Heat & Latent Heat • Appreciating this difference is
fundamental to understanding
why refrigerant is used in cooling
systems.
• It also explains why the terms 'total
capacity' (sensible & latent heat)
and 'sensible capacity' are used to
define a unit's cooling capacity.
• During the cooling cycling,
condensation forms within the unit
due to the removal of latent heat
from the air.
• Sensible capacity is the capacity
required to lower the temperature
and latent capacity is the capacity
to remove the moisture from the
air.

SENSIBLE HEAT
When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The increase in heat is called sensible
heat. Similarly, when heat is removed from an object and its temperature falls, the heat removed is also called
sensible heat. Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object is called sensible heat.

LATENT HEAT
Also called hidden heat, which is the term used for the heat absorbed or given off by a substance while it is
changing its physical state. When this occurs, the heat given off or absorbed does NOT cause a temperature
change in the substance.
 Sources of Sensible Heat & Latent Heat gain

Heat transmittance through the building fabric:

• Conduction of heat through building fabric
• Convection via air movement
• Radiation via electromagnetic wave (Radiant
transmission), typically through glass
(D) ESTABLISHING THERMAL COMFORT
 PHYSICAL & PSYCOLOGICAL COMFORT in building:

 Temperature
- Thermal comfort
 Quality of Air
 Lighting Environment - Visual Comfort
 Acoustic Environment - Aural Comfort

COMFORT CONDITIONS
 What is THERMAL COMFORT?
 ASHRAE STANDARD 55: Thermal comfort is defined as the state of
mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment.

 Humans - Thermal comfort is maintained when heat generated by

human metabolism is allowed to dissipate (maintaining the thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding).

Thermal sensation:
 Physical
Variables (Air
Temperature,
Relative
Humidity, Air
Movement
(Ventilation)

Personal Variables
Metabolism
/Activity Level Parameters
(gender, age),
Clothing Affecting

THERMAL
COMFORT
ADAPTIVE Thermal Comfort….
Establishing Thermal Comfort in context of building:

 High performance Building Envelope must be

able control the heat gain in summer and heat loss in
winter.

 Optimal design of the building envelope/fabric

provides significant reductions in heating and cooling
loads-which in turn allowing downsizing of
mechanical equipment.

 Good insulation reduces the flow of heat into a

building when there are differences of outside and
inside air temperature.
Factors to be considered when determining the appropriate
insulation solution:
1. Effect on building design - impact of external wall thickness
on layouts.

2. Net sources of heat gain in buildings floor area and light

penetration through window.

3. Balance between heavyweight and lightweight

construction, including considerations related to exposed
thermal mass.

4. Performance in use and longevity.

5. Buildability and the risk of on-site work not meeting the

required design standards.

6. Sustainability implications of the production process

including sourcing of raw materials, ozone depletion,
embodied energy and eventual disposal.
 (E) HEAT TRANSFER IN BUILDING
Thermal Conductivity (λ value or k value) and Resistivity (r)
 The measure of the rate at which heat is conducted through a
particular material under specified conditions
 Property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat.
 Measured as the heat flow in watts across a thickness of 1 m of
material for a temperature difference of 1 degree K and a surface
area of 1 m²
 Unit :W/m K
λ= thermal conductivity (W/moC, Btu in/hr ft2 oF)

Thermal resistivity (r) = 1/λ m.K/W

r = thermal resistivity (moC/W, hr ft2 oF/Btu)
k or 
 Conductive Heat Transfer

 Happens if there exist a  Fourier’s Law for Conductive Heat

temperature gradient. Transfer:

 Conductive heat flow

q  kA∆T / d
occurs in direction of
the decreasing q - Heat transferred per unit time
temperature (higher (W, Btu/hr)
temperature=higher k or -Thermal conductivity of the
molecule energy)
material (W/m.K or W/m °C,
Btu/(hr °F ft2/ft))
A - Heat transfer area (m2, ft2)
∆T - Temperature difference across
the material (K or °C, °F)
d - Material thickness (m,ft)
 Thermal conductivity for a material is calculated using:

Q A( 1   2 )

d

t d Heat supply
insulation Measured
heat flow
Sample

1 material 2
insulation
A
 - Coefficient of thermal conductivity from the sample
material (W/m K)
Q - Heat flux (rate of heat flow) between the faces (J/s=W)
t
A - Cross sectional area of the sample (m2)
(  1   2 ) - Temperature difference between the faces (°C or °K)
d - Distance between the faces (m)
 Example:
A plane wall constructed of solid with thermal conductivity
70 W/m°C, thickness 50mm and with surface area 1m by
1m, temperature 150 °C on one side and 80 °C on the other.

Conductive heat transfer can be calculated as:

q  kAdT / d
q = (70 W/m°C)(1m)(1m)[(150°C) - (80°C)]/(0.05m)
= 98,000 W
= 98 kW
  or e is the relative
power of material surface Surface coefficients for building materials
to emit heat by radiation.
Surface Emissivity Absorptivity
 Rough black surfaces
Aluminum 0.05 0.2
absorb most heat and
emit least heat. Asphalt 0.95 0.9
Brick-dark 0.9 0.6
 Colour of most building Brick-black 0.9 0.9
materials has an
Paint 0.9 0.3
important effect on the
heat absorbed by the Slate 0.9 0.0
building from the sun.
Thermal Resistance (R-Value) & ThermalTransmittance (U-value)

 Thermal transmittance (U-value) and thermal resistance

(R-value) indicate the design thermal performance of a
building material or assembly.

 R-value; resistance of heat flow through a building material

(m2 K/W)
o bigger the R-value means greater resistance (better insulation).

 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of heat

that flows through a unit area of a building section under
steady-state conditions.
Material Resistance
 Thermal resistance of each layer of material depends on the rate at
which the material conduct heat and thickness of the material;

d
R

Alternatively;
R  rd

R - Thermal resistance of that component (mK/W)

d - Thickness of the material (m)
 - Thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)

r - resistivity of material = 1/λ (mK/W)

Example of Thermal Resistance of construction layers
 Example:
Find the thermal resistance of a 100mm thickness of
lightweight concrete block.

Solution:

Value for  given = 0.19W/m K

d for the block = 100mm @ 0.1m
0.1
Therefore; R m 2 K /W
0.19

 0.526m2 K /W
Surface Resistances
 Depends on conduction,
convection and radiation of
the surface.
 Factors affect surface
resistance are:
o Direction of heat
flow; upward and
downward
o Climatic affects;
sheltered or exposed
o Surface properties;
high or low emissivity
Airspace Resistances
 Depends on the nature of
any conduction, convection
and radiation within the
cavity.
 Factors affect airspace
resistances are:
o Thickness or airspace
o Flow of air in airspace;
ventilated or unventilated
o surfaces of reflective
surfaces of low
emissivity
Total thermal Resistance
(RT) is the sum of thermal resistances of all the components of
the structure elements

Example of brickwall resistances;

RT = Rsi + R1 + R2 + Rso
 Thermal Transmittance (U-value)

 U-value of a construction is defined as the quantity of heat

that flows through a unit area of a building section under
steady-state conditions.

 Unit: W/m2 K

1
U
RT
RT - Total thermal resistance.
 Average U-values
 When a wall is composed of different construction
materials with different U-value.

 Overall insulation of the wall depends upon the relative

areas of constructions;

A1U1  A2U2  ..  ..AnUn

U (average) 
A1  A2 ..An
Exercise
A portion of wall which is facing west in direction. Composition of the wall
includes 20 mm glass window (R=1.1 m2 oC/W) and 150 mm of brick wall
(λ=0.77 W/m oC) covered with 15mm thick cement plaster (λ = 0.18 W/ m
oC) finishes on both sides. Determine the average U-value for the wall.

3.0 m
1.5 m

2.5 m

4.0 m

Plaster
λ=0.18 W/ m
oC d=15mm
Window glass
R= 1.1 m2oC/W
Brickwall d=20 mm
λ= 0.77 W/m oC
d=150 mm
Quiz:

The north wall of an existing construction is designed for 110 mm

thickness of brickwork inner leaf whereas the south wall of the
construction with 200 mm thick of heavyweight concrete blocks.

Given: The thermal conductivity values (λ) for brickwork is 0.62

W/mK, heavyweight concrete block is 1.63 W/m K and
fibreboard is
0.06 W/mK

Calculate the,

i. thermal resistance value of the brickwork

(2 marks)

ii. thickness of the south wall if the heavyweight concrete

blocks is replaced with fibre board having the same thermal
resistance of the original design.
(3 marks)
 Passive Building Design
Thermal Mass
 Materials that have the capacity to storage thermal
energy for extended periods.
 Absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling load)
and release heat during night (reduce heat load).
 Lower initial temperature than the surrounding
air (act as heat sink).
 Beneficial for country which had a big different
between day and night outdoor temperature. (e.g.
UAE).
 Benefits of Passive Building Design

 Optimal design of the building envelope / fabric

provides significant reductions in heating and cooling
loads-which in turn allowing downsizing of mechanical
equipment

 Materials that have the capacity to storage thermal

energy for extended periods.

 Absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling load) and

release heat during night (reduce heat load).

 Lower initial temperature than the surrounding air (act

as heat sink).

 Beneficial from country which had a big different

between day and night outdoor temperature.
 Energy Efficient Building

 Energy efficient building/Green Building

Roof:
Insulation serves to limit the conduction of heat through the
building shell.

Infiltration:
When outside air enters a building, it has to be cooled or heated to
maintain comfort. The more unconditioned air entering the
building, the greater the load on the heating and cooling system
and the greater the cost.

Windows:
Low-E windows provide excellent thermal insulation against
weather extremes and can effectively reduce solar heat gain as
well. Window tints and reflective films are efficient at reducing
solar gain but can also reduce the visual connection with the
outdoors. External window screens are excellent solar control
devices for single- or two-story facilities, and architectural features
such as awnings and overhangs allow year-round solar control
without minimizing visual quality.
Orientation:
Long, narrow buildings facing south with their long axis running east/west
will have lower peak cooling loads and electricity demand costs, and may be
able to utilize smaller cooling equipment.

Landscaping:
Well designed landscaping can reduce cooling costs from summer heat gains in
building. Trees planted on the east, west and south sides of a one-or two-story
building can effectively reduce summer solar heat gains through windows
which is one of the major contributors to the cooling load on an air
conditioning system. Trees also produce a natural cooling effect in the areas
surrounding a building by evaporating water though their leaves.

Daylighting:
Daylighting with skylights and other types of architectural glazing features can
provide natural lighting creating a pleasant working atmosphere. Daylighting
strategies may by particularly effective using skylights in large open areas
such as warehouses and manufacturing plants, and in office spaces where the
electrical lighting system output can be efficiently varied over a wide range of
light levels. It is important to balance daylighting strategies with good solar
heat control in order to keep cooling loads down.
Art School, Nanyang
Technological University,
Singapore

The glass facade provides a high performance

building envelope that reduces solar gain and heat
load while allowing the benefits of natural views
and daylight into creative spaces. The glass walls
provide a visual exchange between indoors and the
surrounding landscape or interior plaza as fluid
spaces. The diffused natural daylight is abundant
throughout studios and classrooms, thus making
them productive spaces for young creators.
The curving green roofs distinguish the building from among the other structures on campus but the line
between landscape and building is blurred. The roofs serve as informal gathering spaces. Besides that
purpose, the roofs serve as open space, insulate the building, cool the surrounding air and harvest
rainwater for the landscape irrigation.
This amazing design is surely going to be used more widely because it provides better and healthier
surrounding. In this particular example it offers a brand new experience in many perspectives, fulfilling the
intent that a school for art should inspire creativity, while solving the green surface deficiency.
End of CHAPTER 2…