Unit 1

Sources and classification of air pollutants

Sources and classification of Air Pollutants: Natural air pollutants-aerosol gases and
vapour-Meteorology and Air pollution: Atmospheric stability and inversions-mixing height-
plume behaviour-plume rise estimation-Impact of air pollutants on human / structure /
vegetation / global warming-Effluent dispersion theories-Isokinetic sampling-Modeling.

Air pollution:
Air pollution is the human introduction of chemicals, particulate matter or biological
materials that causes harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms or damages the
natural environment. The presence in the atmospheric environment of natural and artificial
substances that affect human health or well- being, or the well-being of any other organism is
air pollution. Air pollution causes death and respiratory diseases. It is also one of the main
reasons for ozone depletion.

Composition of air:

The Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth. Dry air
contains roughly 78.8% nitrogen, 20.95 % oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide and
trace amounts of other gases.

Atmospheres with oxygen concentrations below 19.5% can have adverse

physiological effects and atmospheres with less than 16% oxygen can become life
threatening.
Definition: “The imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse effects on the living
organisms existing on earth” is called air pollution.

“Presence of one or more contaminants such as fumes, dust, gases, mist, grit, odour,
smoke, aerosol, smog, plume or fog in considerable quantities, which is injurious to health, of
human, animal or plant life or which interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and
prosperity” is known as air pollution.

Classification of air pollutants:

The air pollutants can be classified in many ways as shown below:-
1) According to origin: The air pollutants are classified into:
Primary pollutants:
The pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources produced by
natural events ( eg: dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (eg:
emissions from vehicles, industries etc.) are called primary pollutants. Eg: smoke, dust,
oxides of sulphur & nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulate matter etc.
Secondary pollutants:
The pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions between
primary pollutants and atmospheric constituents are known as secondary pollutants. Eg.
Sulphur trioxide, ozone, ketones, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.
2) According to state of matter: The pollutants are classified into:-
Gaseous air pollutants:
These pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. They
are carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc.
Particulate air pollutants:
These are not gaseous substances. They are suspended droplets, solid particles or
mixtures of the two.
3)According to sources: Pollutants originate from
Natural sources:
These include volcanic eruptions, deflation of sand and dust, forest or wild fires of
natural vegetation, sulphur springs, natural geysers, organic and inorganic decays,
vegetative decays, marsh gases, cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers, photochemical
reactions, soil debris etc.
Man-made sources:
These include human activities such as industries, factories, urban centres, aircraft,
nuclear experiments, automobiles, agriculture, domestic burning of wood and burning of
fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, waste treatment plants and power plants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

i. Sulphur oxides (SOx):
SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and
petroleum often contain sulphur compounds, their combustion generates sulphur dioxide.
Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and
thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use
of these fuels as power sources.
ii. Nitrogen oxides (NOx):
Especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Nitrogen
dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula N02. It is responsible for photochemical
smog, acid rain etc.
iii. Carbon monoxide:
It is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a
major source of carbon monoxide.
iv. Carbon dioxide (CO2):
A greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms.
It is a natural gas in the atmosphere.
v. Volatile organic compounds:
VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into
the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming.
Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in
creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect
varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds
benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukaemia through
prolonged exposure. 1, 3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated
with industrial uses.
vi. Particulate matter:
Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are
tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and
the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be manmade or natural.
Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and
grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of
fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant
amounts of aerosols.
Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols those made by human activities
currently account for about 10 per cent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere.
Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,
altered lung function and lung cancer.
vii. Persistent free radicals – connected to airborne fine particles could cause
cardiopulmonary disease.
viii. Toxic metals – such as lead, cadmium and copper.
ix. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products
currently banned from use.
x. Ammonia (NH3) – emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving
as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a
building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous.
xi. Odours – such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
xii. Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

i. Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word “smog” is a portmanteau of
smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by
a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but
from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to
form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form
photochemical smog.

ii. Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of
the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it
drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At
abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of
fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
iii. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) – similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Sources of Air Pollution:

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified
into two major categories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel:

i. “Stationary Sources” include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities

(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating
devices.

ii. “Mobile Sources” include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound
etc.

iii. Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management,
farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest
and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning
stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

iv. Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents.

v. Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is not toxic; however, it is
highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an asphyxiate
and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the
oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.

v. Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.

Natural sources:
i. Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.

ii. Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.

iii. Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth’s crust. Radon is a colourless,
odourless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium.
It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in
buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most
frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

iv. Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.

v. Volcanic activity, which produce sulphur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Aerosols

Atmospheric Aerosols: Importance

Aerosols are minute particles suspended in the atmosphere. When these particles are
sufficiently large, we notice their presence as they scatter and absorb sunlight. Their
scattering of sunlight can reduce visibility (haze) and redden sunrises and sunsets.

Aerosols interact both directly and indirectly with the Earth's radiation budget and
climate. As a direct effect, the aerosols scatter sunlight directly back into space. As an
indirect effect, aerosols in the lower atmosphere can modify the size of cloud particles,
changing how the clouds reflect and absorb sunlight, thereby affecting the Earth's energy
budget.

Aerosols also can act as sites for chemical reactions to take place (heterogeneous
chemistry). The most significant of these reactions are those that lead to the destruction of
stratospheric ozone. During winter in the polar regions, aerosols grow to form polar
stratospheric clouds. The large surface areas of these cloud particles provide sites for
chemical reactions to take place. These reactions lead to the formation of large amounts of
reactive chlorine and, ultimately, to the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. Evidence
now exists that shows similar changes in stratospheric ozone concentrations occur after major
volcanic eruptions, like Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, where tons of volcanic aerosols are blown into
the atmosphere
 The dispersal of volcanic aerosols has a drastic effect on Earth's atmosphere. Follow an
eruption, large amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrochloric acid (HCL) and ash are
spewed into Earth's stratosphere. HCL, in most cases, condenses with water vapor and is
rained out of the volcanic cloud formation. SO2 from the cloud is transformed into sulphuric
acid, H2SO4. The sulphuric acid quickly condenses, producing aersol particles which linger in
the atmosphere for long periods of time. The interaction of chemicals on the surface of
aerosols, known as heterogeneous chemistry, and the tendency of aerosols to increase levels
of chlorine gas react with nitrogen in the stratopshere, is a prime contributor to stratospheric
ozone destruction.

Volcanic Aerosol

Three types of aerosols significantly affect the Earth's climate. The first is the
volcanic aerosol layer which forms in the stratosphere after major volcanic eruptions like Mt.
Pinatubo. The dominant aerosol layer is actually formed by sulfur dioxide gas which is
converted to droplets of sulfuric acid in the stratosphere over the course of a week to several
months after the eruption. Winds in the stratosphere spread the aerosols until they practically
cover the globe. Once formed, these aerosols stay in the stratosphere for about two years.
They reflect sunlight, reducing the amount of energy reaching the lower atmosphere and the
Earth's surface, cooling them. The relative coolness of 1993 is thought to have been a
response to the stratospheric aerosol layer that was produced by the Mt. Pinatubo eruption. In
1995, though several years had passed since the Mt. Pinatubo eruption, remnants of the layer
remained in the atmosphere. Data from satellites such as the NASA Langley Stratospheric
Aerosol and Gas Experiment II (SAGE II) have enabled scientists to better understand the
effects of volcanic aerosols on our atmosphere.

Desert Dust

The second type of aerosol that may have a significant effect on climate is desert dust.
Pictures from weather satellites often reveal dust veils streaming out over the Atlantic Ocean
from the deserts of North Africa. Fallout from these layers has been observed at various
locations on the American continent. Similar veils of dust stream off deserts on the Asian
continent. The September 1994 Lidar In-space Technology Experiment (LITE), aboard the
space shuttle Discovery (STS-64), measured large quantities of desert dust in the lower
atmosphere over Africa. The particles in these dust plumes are minute grains of dirt blown
from the desert surface. They are relatively large for atmospheric aerosols and would
normally fall out of the atmosphere after a short flight if they were not blown to relatively
high altitudes (15,000 ft. and higher) by intense dust storms.

Because the dust is composed of minerals, the particles absorb sunlight as well as
scatter it. Through absorption of sunlight, the dust particles warm the layer of the atmosphere
where they reside. This warmer air is believed to inhibit the formation of storm clouds.
Through the suppression of storm clouds and their consequent rain, the dust veil is believed
to further desert expansion.

Recent observations of some clouds indicate that they may be absorbing more
sunlight than was thought possible. Because of their ability to absorb sunlight, and their
transport over large distances, desert aerosols may be the culprit for this additional absorption
of sunlight by some clouds.

Human-Made Aerosol

The third type of aerosol comes from human activities. While a large fraction of
human-made aerosols come in the form of smoke from burning tropical forests, the major
component comes in the form of sulfate aerosols created by the burning of coal and oil. The
concentration of human-made sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere has grown rapidly since the
start of the industrial revolution. At current production levels, human-made sulfate aerosols
are thought to outweigh the naturally produced sulfate aerosols. The concentration of aerosols
is highest in the northern hemisphere where industrial activity is centered. The sulfate
aerosols absorb no sunlight but they reflect it, thereby reducing the amount of sunlight
reaching the Earth's surface. Sulfate aerosols are believed to survive in the atmosphere for
about 3-5 days.

The sulfate aerosols also enter clouds where they cause the number of cloud droplets
to increase but make the droplet sizes smaller. The net effect is to make the clouds reflect
more sunlight than they would without the presence of the sulfate aerosols. Pollution from the
stacks of ships at sea has been seen to modify the low-lying clouds above them. These
changes in the cloud droplets, due to the sulfate aerosols from the ships, have been seen in
pictures from weather satellites as a track through a layer of clouds. In addition to making the
clouds more reflective, it is also believed that the additional aerosols cause polluted clouds to
last longer and reflect more sunlight than non-polluted clouds.

Climatic Effects of Aerosols

The additional reflection caused by pollution aerosols is expected to have an effect on

the climate comparable in magnitude to that of increasing concentrations of atmospheric
gases. The effect of the aerosols, however, will be opposite to the effect of the increasing
atmospheric trace gases - cooling instead of warming the atmosphere.

The warming effect of the greenhouse gases is expected to take place everywhere, but
the cooling effect of the pollution aerosols will be somewhat regionally dependent, near and
downwind of industrial areas. No one knows what the outcome will be of atmospheric
warming in some regions and cooling in others. Climate models are still too primitive to
provide reliable insight into the possible outcome. Current observations of the buildup are
available only for a few locations around the globe and these observations are fragmentary.
Understanding how much sulfur-based pollution is present in the atmosphere is important for
understanding the effectiveness of current sulfur dioxide pollution control strategies.

The Removal of Aerosols

It is believed that much of the removal of atmospheric aerosols occurs in the vicinity
of large weather systems and high altitude jet streams, where the stratosphere and the lower
atmosphere become intertwined and exchange air with each other. In such regions, many
pollutant gases in the troposphere can be injected in the stratosphere, affecting the chemistry
of the stratosphere. Likewise, in such regions, the ozone in the stratosphere is brought down
to the lower atmosphere where it reacts with the pollutant rich air, possibly forming new
types of pollution aerosols.

Aerosols as Atmospheric Tracers

Aerosol measurements can also be used as tracers to study how the Earth's
atmosphere moves. Because aerosols change their characteristics very slowly, they make
much better tracers for atmospheric motions than a chemical species that may vary its
concentration through chemical reactions. Aerosols have been used to study the dynamics of
the polar regions, stratospheric transport from low to high latitudes, and the exchange of air
between the troposphere and stratosphere.

Future NASA Aerosol Studies

NASA's ongoing Atmospheric Effects of Aviation Project (AEAP) has measured

emissions from the engines of several commercial and research aircraft. Jet engine emissions
have been shown to affect the concentrations of atmospheric water vapor and aerosols, and
they may affect how clouds form and the concentrations of atmospheric ozone. Few actual
measurements of their effects have been made, however.

In the spring of 1996, the Subsonic Aircraft Contrail and Cloud Effects Special Study
(SUCCESS) focused on subsonic aircraft contrails and the impact of the aerosols in those
contrails on cirrus clouds and atmospheric chemistry. Researchers have determined that
aircraft contrails can prolong the presence of high altitude cirrus clouds while also decreasing
the size of the ice crystals that make up the clouds.Studies like SUCCESS and AEAP will be
ongoing as scientists continue to try to understand how aerosols affect our atmosphere and
climate.

Aerosols: Tiny Particles, Big Impact

Take a deep breath. Even if the air looks clear, it’s nearly certain that you’ll inhale
tens of millions of solid particles and liquid droplets. These ubiquitous specks of matter are
known as aerosols, and they can be found in the air over oceans, deserts, mountains, forests,
ice, and every ecosystem in between. They drift in Earth’s atmosphere from the stratosphere
to the surface and range in size from a few nanometers less than the width of the smallest
viruses to several several tens of micrometers about the diameter of human hair. Despite their
small size, they have major impacts on our climate and our health.

Different specialists describe the particles based on shape, size, and chemical
composition. Toxicologists refer to aerosols as ultrafine, fine, or coarse matter. Regulatory
agencies, as well as meteorologists, typically call them particulate matter PM2.5 or PM10,
depending on their size. In some fields of engineering, they’re called nanoparticles. The
media often uses everyday terms that hint at aerosol sources, such as smoke, ash, and soot.

Climatologists typically use another set of labels that speak to the chemical
composition. Key aerosol groups include sulfates, organic carbon, black carbon, nitrates,
mineral dust, and sea salt. In practice, many of these terms are imperfect, as aerosols often
clump together to form complex mixtures. It’s common, for example, for particles of black
carbon from soot or smoke to mix with nitrates and sulfates, or to coat the surfaces of dust,
creating hybrid particles.

The bulk of aerosols about 90 percent by mass have natural origins. Volcanoes, for
example, eject huge columns of ash into the air, as well as sulfur dioxide and other gases,
yielding sulfates. Forest fires send partially burned organic carbon aloft. Certain plants
produce gases that react with other substances in the air to yield aerosols, such as the
“smoke” in the Great Smoky Mountains of the United States. Likewise in the ocean, some
types of microalgae produce a sulfurous gas called dimethylsulfide that can be converted into
sulfates in the atmosphere. Sea salt and dust are two of the most abundant aerosols, as
sandstorms whip small pieces of mineral dust from deserts into the atmosphere and wind-
driven spray from ocean waves flings sea salt aloft. Both tend to be larger particles than their
human-made counterparts.

The remaining 10 percent of aerosols are considered anthropogenic, or human-made,

and they come from a variety of sources. Though less abundant than natural forms,
anthropogenic aerosols can dominate the air downwind of urban and industrial areas.

Fossil fuel combustion produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide, which reacts with
water vapor and other gases in the atmosphere to create sulfate aerosols. Biomass burning, a
common method of clearing land and consuming farm waste, yields smoke that’s comprised
mainly of organic carbon and black carbon.

Automobiles, incinerators, smelters, and power plants are prolific producers of

sulfates, nitrates, black carbon, and other particles. Deforestation, overgrazing, drought, and
excessive irrigation can alter the land surface, increasing the rate at which dust aerosols enter
the atmosphere. Even indoors, cigarettes, cooking stoves, fireplaces, and candles are sources
of aerosols.

Patterns

When viewed from space, a number of patterns emerge from Earth’s aerosols some
driven by nature and others by man.
 Nature generates broad swaths of particles detectable by satellites over both water and
land. The strong winds of the “roaring forties” latitudes, for example, create a heavy band of
airborne salt north of Antarctica. A thinner and more evenly dispersed veil of aerosols
primarily salt from whitecaps and sulfates from microalgae usually covers most of the
world’s oceans. Over land, massive plumes of dust blow above deserts.

Meanwhile, the eastern portion of the United States and urban areas in Europe are
hotspots for the production of human-made aerosols. Plumes of industrial aerosols typically
sulfates from coal power plants and black and organic carbon from vehicle traffic rise from
cities such as New York, Pittsburgh, London, and Berlin.

The western portion of the United States is comparatively clear, though some areas
experience aerosol loads that rival the worst conditions in the East. Industrial aerosols, dust,
and wildfire smoke frequently pollute the air in the Los Angeles Basin. Agriculture can
produce heavy loads of soil dust, especially in California’s San Joaquin and Imperial valleys,
and the largest localized source of dust in the western U.S. is Owens Dry Lake, a river bed
that was drained to provide water for LA. Likewise, the port of Houston has some of the most
aerosol-laden air in the world.

However, the most aerosol-laden air in the United States today pales in comparison to
Asia. Satellites can detect a visible pall of aerosol clouds over Bangladesh, northern India,
and northern Pakistan an area called the Indo-Gangetic plain, especially during the pre-
Monsoon season. The aerosol layer is comprised of complex mixtures of dust blowing from
the Thar Desert and pollution from the densely populated plain. In eastern China, fast-
growing cities such as Beijing also produce heavy blankets of aerosol.

Depending on the season and weather conditions, surges of aerosols can make their
way into the atmosphere almost anywhere on Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere, plumes of
mineral dust swirl over deserts and arid regions. In the Southern Hemisphere, slash-and-burn
agriculture in the Amazon and Central Africa releases large amounts of smoke and soot.
Fires, some sparked by lightning and some by human activity, leave large patches of forest
ablaze during summers in Canada, Russia, and the United States.

Although most aerosols remain suspended in the atmosphere for short periods
typically between four days and a week they can travel vast distances. Particles moving with
the atmosphere at 5 meters (16.4 feet) per second will travel thousands of kilometers in a
week. Dust plumes from the Sahara frequently cross the Atlantic and reach the Caribbean.
Winds sweep a mixture of Asian aerosols particularly dust from the Gobi desert and pollution
from China east over Japan and toward the central Pacific Ocean. Smoke from wildfires in
Siberia and Canada can find its way to the Arctic ice cap.

Over time, aerosol emissions have changed significantly. In Asia, anthropogenic

emissions have increased in recent decades as urbanization and industrialization has
proceeded at a breakneck pace. By contrast, aerosols have declined in North America and
Europe as factories have moved to developing countries and Western nations have adopted
more stringent clean air regulations.
Aerosols and Incoming Sunlight (Direct Effects)

The Sun provides the energy that drives Earth’s climate, but not all of the energy that
reaches the top of the atmosphere finds its way to the surface. That’s because aerosols and
clouds seeded by them reflect about a quarter of the Sun’s energy back to space.

Different aerosols scatter or absorb sunlight to varying degrees, depending on their

physical properties. Climatologists describe these scattering and absorbing properties as the
“direct effect” of aerosols on Earth’s radiation field. However, since aerosols comprise such a
broad collection of particles with different properties, the overall effect is anything but
simple.

Although most aerosols reflect sunlight, some also absorb it. An aerosol’s effect on
light depends primarily on the composition and color of the particles. Broadly speaking,
bright-colored or translucent particles tend to reflect radiation in all directions and back
towards space. Darker aerosols can absorb significant amounts of light.

Pure sulfates and nitrates reflect nearly all radiation they encounter, cooling the
atmosphere. Black carbon, in contrast, absorbs radiation readily, warming the atmosphere but
also shading the surface. Organic carbon, sometimes called brown carbon or organic matter,
has a warming influence on the atmosphere depending on the brightness of the underlying
ground. Dust impacts radiation to varying degrees, depending on the composition of the
minerals that comprise the dust grains, and whether they are coated with black or brown
carbon. Salt particles tend to reflect all the sunlight they encounter.

Aerosols and Clouds (Indirect Effects)

Whereas aerosols can influence climate by scattering light and changing Earth’s
reflectivity, they can also alter the climate via clouds. On a global scale, these aerosol
“indirect effects” typically work in opposition to greenhouse gases and cause cooling. While
greenhouse gases disperse widely and have a fairly consistent impact from region to region,
aerosol effects are less consistent, partly because of how the particles affect clouds.

Most elementary school students learn that clouds form when enough water vapor
condenses. That’s true, but aerosols play a critical role in the process. In fact, most clouds
owe their existence to aerosols that serve as the tiny “seeds,” called cloud condensation
nuclei.

Natural aerosols often sulfates, sea salt or ammonium salts are the most common
condensation nuclei in pristine environments. Polluted air, in contrast, usually contains much
higher concentrations of water-soluble particles, which means pollution-rich clouds tend to
have more numerous, but smaller, droplets. The small droplets make polluted clouds look
brighter than they would otherwise be. Just as many bits of crushed ice give light more
surfaces to reflect off appearing brighter than a solid cube of ice if the water in a cloud is
divided into a larger number of smaller droplets, it will scatter more light and become more
reflective.
Atmosphere:

The earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very large planet.

Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen, which comprises
78% of the atmosphere, and oxygen which accounts for 21%.

Various trace gases make up the remainder.

Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers: the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.

Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via conduction,
convection, and radiation.

Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring heat poleward. Major currents,
such as the northward flowing Gulf Stream, transport tremendous amounts of heat
poleward and contribute to the development of many types of weather phenomena.

Properties of Atmosphere:

The first 64 to 80 km above the earth contains 99% of the total mass of the earth's
atmosphere and is generally of a uniform composition, except for a high concentration
of ozone, known as the ozone layer, at 19 to 50 km.

Calculated according to their relative volumes, the gaseous constituents of the
atmosphere are nitrogen, 78.09%; oxygen, 20.95%; argon, 0.93%; carbon dioxide,
0.03%; and minute traces of neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, and
ozone.

The lower atmosphere contains varying amounts of water vapor, which determine
its humidity.

Condensation and sublimation within the atmosphere cause clouds or fog, and the
resulting liquid water droplets or ice crystals may precipitate to the ground as rain,
sleet, snow, hail, dew, or frost.

The air also carries many kinds of dust, of meteoric as well as terrestrial origin, and
microorganisms, pollen, salt particles, and various gaseous and solid impurities
resulting from human activity.

Because of the pull of gravity the density of the atmosphere and the pressure exerted
by air molecules are greatest near the earth's surface (about 1 gram per 103 cc).

Composition of Atmosphere:

1) Nitrogen 78.08%
2) Oxygen 20.95%
3) Argon 0.93% (9300 ppm)
4) Carbon Dioxide 0.035% (350 ppm)
5) Neon 18 ppm
 6) Helium 5.2 ppm
7) Methane 1.4 ppm
8) Ozone 0.07 ppm

Vertical Structure of atmosphere and temperature profile:

The troposphere is hotter near the Earth's surface because heat from the Earth warms this
air. The Mesosphere, like the troposphere layer, has a decrease in temperature with altitude
because of the decrease in the density of the air molecules. Thermosphere: As the altitude
increases, the air temperature increases.

In the troposphere, the source of heat is the surface of the Earth as well as particles in the
air which absorb heat and energy from the Sun and release it back into the atmosphere. The
ozone layer absorbs radiation from the Sun, helping to increase the temperature in the upper
portion of the stratosphere.

Atmospheric lapse rate:

The atmospheric lapse rate refers to the change of an atmospheric variable with a
change of altitude, the variable being temperature unless specified otherwise (such
as pressure, density or humidity).

Lapse rates are usually expressed as the amount of temperature change associated
with a specified amount of altitude change, such as 9.8 K per kilometre, 0.0098 K
per metre or the equivalent 5.4 °F per 1000 feet.

If the atmospheric air cools with increasing altitude, the lapse rate may be expressed
as a negative number. If the air heats with increasing altitude, the lapse rate may be
expressed as a positive number.

Lapse rates and atmospheric stability:

Atmospheric stability is a term used to qualitatively describe the amount of vertical

motion of the air in the lower atmosphere (the troposphere). In broad general terms,
the atmospheric stability can be characterized by these four categories:

A very stable atmosphere is one that has very little vertical motion of the air.

A stable atmosphere is one that discourages vertical motion but does have some
motion of the air.

An unstable atmosphere is one that encourages continual vertical motion of the air,
upwards or downwards.

A neutral atmosphere is one that neither discourages nor encourages vertical motion
of the air and is often referred to as conditionally stable.

Importance of understanding atmospheric stability:

An understanding and knowledge of atmospheric stability is important for many

reasons. What follows is a brief discussion of some of those reasons:

Probably one of the most important reasons is that atmospheric turbulence and mixing
plays a major role in air pollution dispersion modeling. Turbulence and mixing is
provided by an unstable atmosphere and thus enhances the dispersion of air pollutant,
while a stable atmosphere inhibits turbulence and results in very poor dispersion of air
pollutants.

A stable atmosphere inhibits rain fall, while an unstable atmosphere encourages
rainfall and thunderstorms.

A stable atmosphere also inhibits forest fire activity and an understanding of
atmospheric stability helps explain certain aspects of forest fire behavior.

A certain amount of atmospheric instability is important for glider pilots, since
without it the thermals needed for glider flight would not form. Understanding of
atmospheric stability is also important for the safety of glider pilots because high
atmospheric instability may lead to thunderstorms.

The atmospheric stability has a large impact on the deposition and drift of aerially
applied sprays of various farm crop protection materials.

Lapse rate:

Lapse rate is rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through
the Earth’s atmosphere (troposphere to be specific).

The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with
elevation, zero when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when
the temperature increases with elevation (temperature inversion).

The lapse rate of non rising air commonly referred to as the normal
or Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) is highly variable, being affected
by radiation, convection, and condensation; it averages about 5 °C per kilometer in
the lower atmosphere (troposphere).

Three types of lapse rates:

a) ELR - Environmental Lapse Rate
b) DALR - Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
c) SALR - Saturated (wet) Adiabatic Lapse Rate
a) Environmental Lapse Rate

Actual air Temperature we measure i.e. Observed air Temperature at any height

Varies in space and with time
There are two ways to change the temperature of air parcel
1) Diabatic process  Direct energy exchanges
2) Adiabatic process  Does not involve net energy exchange (heating by compression
and cooling by expansion)
Lapse Rate Fall in temperature with height
Adiabatic Lapse Rate Fall in temperature in a rising parcel of air without losing any
internal heat

Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate:

The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the rate of fall in temperature with altitude
for a parcel of dry or unsaturated air (air with less moisture) rising under adiabatic
conditions

Unsaturated air has less than 100% relative humidity

Saturated air  The air that cannot hold any more moisture. It’s stomach is full.

Unsaturated air  It’s stomach is not full. It can accommodate some more
moisture.

When a rising air parcel has little moisture, condensation during upliftment is low, the
latent heat of condensation released is low [Less additional heat from inside].

As a result, the fall in temperature with height is greater compared to Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (normal parcel of air).

The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s atmosphere equals 8° C per kilometre.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with stable conditions [because it has
less moisture].

Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate:

When an air parcel that is saturated with water vapour rises, some of the vapour will
condense and release latent heat [Additional Heat from inside]. This process causes
the parcel to cool more slowly than it would if it were not saturated.

The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of water
vapour in the air is highly variable. The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the
adiabatic lapse rate [because the condensation process keeps on adding more latent
heat of condensation]. On an average it is taken as 4° C per kilometre.

Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with unstable conditions [because it
has more moisture].

As an air parcel rises and cools, it may eventually lose its moisture through
condensation; its lapse rate then increases and approaches the dry adiabatic value.

Weather conditions at different adiabatic lapse rates:

LR (Lapse Rate) = Average Adiabatic Lapse Rate of entire atmosphere = 6 °C/km

ALR of a place may be greater than or lesser than the Laspe Rate of atmosphere,

i.e, it may be less than or greater than 6 °C/km

If ALR at a place is greater than 6 °C/km then it is called DALR = Less moisture

than normal = more stable than normal.

If ALR at a place is lesser than 6 °C/km then it is called WALR = More moisture

than normal = less stable than normal or instability.

Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR  Little moisture in the air parcel  It won’t
rain
Conditional stability: WALR < ALR < DALR  Normal moisture conditions  It may or
may not rain
Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR  Excess moisture in the air parcel  It
will rain violently.
Mixing height:
The mixing height is the height of vertical mixing of air and suspended particles
above the ground. This height is determined by the observation of the atmospheric
temperature profile. A parcel of air rising from the surface of the Earth will rise at a given
rate (called the dry-adiabatic lapse rate). As long as the parcel of air is warmer than the
ambient temperature, it will continue to rise. However, once it becomes colder than the
temperature of the environment, it will slow down and eventually stop. It is at this junction
where the temperature of the parcel crosses the curve denoting the vertical environmental
temperature profile determines the mixing height.
Plume behaviour:
The dispersion of emitted gases from the source of their production is known as
plume and the source is known as stack.
Types of Plume:

Continuous Plume: The release and the sampling time are long compared with the
travel time.

Puff Diffusion / Instantaneous Plume: The release time or sampling time is short
when compared with the travel time.
Types of Plume Rise:

Buoyancy Effect: Rise due to the temperature difference between stack plume and
ambient air.

Momentum Rise: Rise due to exit velocity of the effluents (emissions).

Concept of Plume Penetration:

Meteorology plays an important role in the dispersion of effluents.

Various meteorological factors affect the dispersion of emission into the atmosphere
in a variety of ways.

Convective boundary layer (or mixing height) is one of the most important
meteorological variables responsible for high ground level concentrations.
Effect of Temperature Profile on Plume Rise
Rise:
Looping Plume:

High degree of convective turbulence

Superadiabatic lapse rate - strong instabilities

Associated with clear daytime conditions accompanied by strong solar heating & light
winds

High probability of high concentrations sporadically at ground level close to stack

Occurs in unstable atmospheric conditions
Coning Plume:

Stable with small-scale turbulence

Associated with overcast moderate to strong winds

Roughly 10° cone

Pollutants travel fairly long distances before reaching ground level in significant
amounts

Occurs in neutral atmospheric conditions
Fanning Plume:

Occurs under large negative lapse rate

Strong inversion at a considerable distance above the stack

Extremely stable atmosphere

Little turbulence

If plume density is similar to air, travels downwind at approximately same elevation
Lofting Plume:

Favorable in the sense that fewer impacts at ground level.

Pollutants go up into environment.

They are created when atmospheric conditions are unstable above the plume and
stable below.
Fumigation:

Most dangerous plume: contaminants are all coming down to ground level.

They are created when atmospheric conditions are stable above the plume and
unstable below.

This happens most often after the daylight sun has warmed the atmosphere, which
turns a night time fanning plume into fumigation for about a half an hour.
Temperature inversion:

Temperature inversion is a condition in which the temperature of the atmosphere
increases with altitude in contrast to the normal decrease with altitude.

When temperature inversion occurs, cold air underlies warmer air at higher altitudes.
Temperature inversion may occur during the passage of a cold front or result from the
invasion of sea air by a cooler onshore breeze.

Overnight radiative cooling of surface air often results in a nocturnal temperature
inversion that is dissipated after sunrise by the warming of air near the ground. A
more long-lived temperature inversion accompanies the dynamics of the large high-
pressure systems depicted on weather maps.

Descending currents of air near the center of the high-pressure system produce a
warming (by adiabatic compression), causing air at middle altitudes to become
warmer than the surface air. Rising currents of cool air lose their buoyancy and are
 thereby inhibited from rising further when they reach the warmer, less dense air in the
upper layers of a temperature inversion.

During a temperature inversion, air pollution released into the atmosphere's lowest
layer is trapped there and can be removed only by strong horizontal winds. Because
high-pressure systems often combine temperature inversion conditions and low wind
speeds, their long residency over an industrial area usually results in episodes of
severe smog.
The Different Types of Inversions:
1) Radiation Inversions (the most common)
2) Frontal Inversions
3) Marine Inversions
4) Subsidence Inversions
Some of these effects include the trapping of air pollution and sound waves, and the
bending of light.
Radiation Inversions:

Radiation inversions are the most common type of inversion. In some places, they
occur almost nightly.

Radiation inversions generally happen in places where it cools off a lot at
night. During the night, the ground cools off, radiating the heat to the sky. Hence, an
inversion

It is because of radiation inversions that there is often fog in the morning. The
radiation inversion traps the moisture (clouds) under the inversion layer resulting in
for or smog, depending where you live. These clouds will lift either when a wind
comes through and blows them away, or when the sun heats the inversion layer,
allowing the clouds to disperse.

Frontal inversion:

Frontal Inversions are inversions caused by a shallow "cold front" blowing in under
warmer air. In other words, sometimes a bunch of cold air, called an air mass, will
get blown by the wind from one place to another, warmer place, and will get blown
underneath the warm air, causing an inversion.

Sometimes you hear about a "cold front" or a "warm front" moving in from
somewhere. What this is referring to is when wind is blowing from a cold or warm
place, and causing a large pocket of that air, also called an "air mass," to come to
where you are.

If this is a cold air mass, and it is small enough it blows under the current, warmer air
without pushing all the warm air away, this can cause an inversion

These inversions generally last until either the cold front blows on to somewhere
else, or until that air is warmed up by the sun.

Marine Inversions:

Marine Inversions occur in places near large bodies of water, especially in the spring
when the water is the most chilly.

When air passes over these large bodies of water, it is cooled by the heat getting
conducted from the air to the water. This cold air is then blown inland under the
warmer air that is over the land, thus creating an inversion.
Subsidence Inversions:

Subsidence Inversions Take pace in valleys or in places partially surrounded by hills

or mountains.

When the air blows over the hills, it is heated as it is compressed into the side of the
hills When that warm air comes over the top, it is warmer than the cooler air of the
valley.

Also, increasing the inversion, as the air comes over the top of the hill, it causes the
air in the valley to be compressed, heating the cooler, valley air from the top down.

When this cool air is trapped and compressed, so is everything that is in the air, such
as vehicle emissions, smoke, and smog in general. This is a big problem for cities
located in valleys.

Effects of Inversions:

One of the most harmful effects of inversions is that they trap the pollution close to
the ground, trapping the smog.

Besides trapping smog, inversions also trap sound waves. Because of this, the loud
sounds of things like airplanes taking off will seem louder as the sound waves refract
off the inversion layer and back down to the ground.

But sound waves aren't the only thing that gets refracted by weather inversions. light
can be bent by the inconsistency of the temperature. When an inversion is not present,
but the ground temperature is significantly hotter than the air higher up like in the
desert, the bending of light causes mirages in the form of thinking that there is a lake
or puddle up ahead.

Really, it is the sky reflecting off of the ground because of the extreme change in
temperature when there is a temperature inversion, the affect is just the opposite. If
the inversion is strong enough, it can cause far off objects to look like they are
 floating above the ground. If things are far enough they are past the curvature of the
earth, they may become visible. This reverse or "superior" mirage is called looming.

Air Quality and Meteorology:

Primary Metrological Parameter:

Wind speed, Wind Direction, Atmospheric Stability
Secondary Metrological Parameter:

Sunlight

Temperature

Precipitation and humidity

Topography

Energy from the sun and earth’s rotation drives atmospheric circulation
Atmospheric Transport:
Basic Mechanisms in the Movement of a Plume

Advection

Dispersion
Treatment of Concentration Field

Theoretical Approach
1) Statistical theory
 2) Similarity theory
3) K-Theory
Theory Models
4) Higher Order Closure Models

Experimental Approach
1) Wind tunnel/ Water tank
2) Field Studies (Expensive, Time Consuming & Limitation of
Instrumentation )
Types of Air Quality Models:
Types of air quality models

Emission rate Modeling

Ambient Air Concentration Modeling
Types of ground level concentration models

Physical Model / Mathematical Model

Historical Model

Trend Model

Prototype Model
Briggs plume rise equations:
The Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation requires the input of H which is the
pollutant plume's centerline
rline height above ground level and H is the sum of HS (the actual
physical height of the pollutant plume's emission source point) plus ∆H (the plume rise due
the plume's buoyancy). Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollutant dispersion plume is
given below.

Briggs divided air pollution plumes into these four general categories:

1) Cold jet plumes in calm ambient air conditions

 2) Cold jet plumes in windy ambient air conditions
3) Hot, buoyant plumes in calm ambient air conditions
4) Hot, buoyant plumes in windy ambient air conditions

Briggs considered the trajectory of cold jet plumes to be dominated by their initial
velocity momentum, and the trajectory of hot, buoyant plumes to be dominated by their
buoyant momentum to the extent that their initial velocity momentum was relatively
unimportant. Although Briggs proposed plume rise equations for each of the above plume
categories, it is important to emphasize that "the Briggs equations" which become widely
used are those that he proposed for bent-over, hot buoyant plumes.

In general, Briggs's equations for bent-over, hot buoyant plumes are based on
observations and data involving plumes from typical combustion sources such as the flue gas
stacks from steam generating boilers burning fossil fuels in large power plants. Therefore the
stack exit velocities were probably in the range of 20 to 100 ft/s (6 to 30 m/s) with exit
temperatures ranging from 250 to 500 °F (120 to 260 °C).
Effective Stack Height:
Plumes rise vertically from a smokestack before starting to disperse according to the
Gaussian model. Therefore, because of the plume rise, the centerline of the Gaussian model
is higher than the height of the stack. The “effective stack height”, which is stack height
plus vertical plume rise, is used in the Gaussian model for more accurate calculations of
pollution concentration from a point source.

Calculating Effective Stack Height Wind Speed

The surface wind speed is different at the effective stack height, which is used in the
Gaussian model. To determine the effective stack height wind speed, UH, following equation
and table is used.

Where:
Ua = wind speed at altitude Za, m/s
H = effective stack height, m
Za= height above surface, m (usually 10 meters)
p = exponent is a function of atmospheric stability class
Air sampling:
Air pollution sampling: Related to analysis of pollutants in a given volume of air.
Air sampling: Capturing the contaminant from a known volume of air, measuring the
amount of contaminant captured, and expressing it as a concentration. The air is passed
through a filter medium (normally a paper for solid & liquid contaminants and a sorbent for
gases). The volume of air is measured against the amount of contaminant captured. This gives
the concentration, which is expressed either as milligrams per cubic metre (mg/m3) or parts
per million (ppm). The volume of air is calculated by multiplying the flow rate through the
filter medium by the time in minutes.
1) Sampling for Monitoring:
a) Ambient air quality monitoring
b) Stack air quality monitoring
2) Sampling for pollutants:
a) Air sampling based on the particulate pollutant
b) Air sampling based on the gaseous and vapor pollutant
3) Industrial exposure sampling:
a) Grab Sampling
b) Short-term Exposure Sampling
c) Full-shift Exposure Sampling
Types of contaminants:
There are three types of contaminant according to their physical properties:
1) Particulates
2) Vapours
3) Gases
Particulates can be further subdivided into five types:
i. Aerosols
ii. Dusts
iii. Fumes
iv. Smokes
v. Mists
Aerosol : Dispersion of solid particles of microscopic size in air.
Dust: Solid particulate capable of temporary suspension in air.
Fume: Solid particles produced by condensation from the gaseous phase. Fumes are usually
derived from the heating of a solid to its melting point and the subsequent cooling of the gas
produced.
Smoke: Particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic matter consisting
predominantly of carbon and oxides of carbon.
Mist: Dispersion in air of liquid droplets usually large enough to be
seen by the naked eye.
Vapour: Gaseous phase of a substance that usually exists as a liquid or solid at normal room
temperature and pressure.
Gas: A substance which does not normally exist as a liquid or solid at normal room
temperature and pressure.
Air sampling calculation:
An air sample requires three basic measurements:
1) Amount of pollutant collected
2) Flow of air through the medium
 3) The run time in minutes
Flow×time(in minute)=volume through filter in cubic meter
Concentration in microgram per cubic meter or in ppm
Air sampling techniques based on the particulate pollutants

Sedimentation

Filtration

Impingement

Precipitation

Thermal precipitation

Electrostatic precipitation
Air sampling techniques of the gaseous pollutants

Absorption sampling

Adsorption sampling

Condensation sampling
Point Sources

Point source models are a way to represent a steady stream of pollutants being ejected
from a smokestack. The point source model mostly used is a Gaussian distribution,
which is a statistical representation of the dispersion of emissions from the stack in a
given space.
Line Sources

Line source models are a way to represent a steady stream of vehicles travelling along
a road. The line source model mostly used is a Gaussian distribution, which is a
statistical representation of the dispersion of emissions from the road in a given space.

Isokinetic sampling:
Principles of isokinetic extraction:

Purpose is to capture particles that pass through a defined area for a defined time
without disturbing their paths.

The velocity of the air going into the sampling probe nozzle is equal to the velocity of
the undisturbed air at that point.

The air is disturbed as little as possible so that the same particles (no more and no
less) go into the nozzle as would have passed the area of the nozzle had it not been
there.
Sampling from fluid streams of air, flue gas, steam, or any media that contains entrained
particles is a very tricky affair. If the fluid is homogenous, the sampling is relatively simple
since the fluid has the same consistency throughout the flow area. This is not the case with
fluids having entrained particles. Particle concentration changes because of the flow pattern
inside the fluid stream. Let us consider the example of measuring particulate emission from a
coal fired power plant. The norm in most of the countries around the world is around 50
mg/Nm3. Non compliance results in stiff penalties and even closure of the plant. To prove
that the plant is running at these levels, particulate samples from the flue gas ducts are
analyzed. The key step is getting the correct sample. There are two major problems in getting
a correct sample.
 1) The large cross section area of the flue gas duct results in flow segregation due to
many reasons. Taking a large number of samples from points across the duct avoids
the effect of this segregation.
2) The sample is drawn out of the flue gas duct by suction from each point through a
sampling tube. If the sampling velocity at the point of sampling is less than the fluid
velocity, then all the particles, especially the smaller size particles, will not enter the
sampling tube. If the velocity is more, then more particles will enter the tube, again
especially the smaller particles. Both conditions produce samples with wrong
concentration. Ideally, the flow of the sample through the sampling system should be
such that the velocity at the sampling point inlet is the same as the velocity of flue gas
at that point. This is called Isokinetic Sampling.
Isokinetic sampling is widely used in dust and particle measurements in power plants,
furnaces, kilns, and scrubbers. Ambient air pollution measurements also make use of this
method. Other applications in coal-fired power plants include sampling of pulverized coal
and sampling steam to check the purity before in enters the turbine. Crude oil sampling at
transfer points to check the impurities is another application.
Isokinetic Sampling method:
An ideal isokinetic sampling system consists of a probe that inserts and traverses
along the section of a duct or pipe. It has a velocity measuring point at the tip, the sampling
tube, and a temperature measurement point. The probe includes a sampling flow adjustment
valve. After measuring the velocity and making the sampling flow adjustments, samples are
drawn. This gives an isokinetic sample at each point. Sampling of steam and other fluids at
high temperatures and pressure make use of fixed nozzles sized to get isokinetic flow.
Isokinetic sampling is an elaborate process used for collecting samples that have commercial
or legal implications. This is also the primary sampling method for the calibration of online
instruments. The isokinetic sampling unit is shown below.