How Do Anthropologists Define Humanness?

Introduction
• Before anthropologists used to only study cultures other than their own, but
that is not the case anymore
• Remember that anthropology deals with human life throughout history, so it
deals both with humans that are dead and alive
• Remember that there are two main branches of anthropology:
- Physical anthropology – looks at physical data like fossils and bones
and includes more specialized fields like:
- paleoanthropology (study of fossil evidence for evolution)
- forensic anthropology (the analysis and identification of human remains
for crime and medical investigation purposes)
- Cultural anthropology – looks at humans in different cultural settings
around the work and includes:
- archeology (the excavation and study of human artifacts)
- ethnology (the comparing and contrasting of different cultures)
- ethnography (the study of a single group over a prolonged period of time)

Physical Proof of Evolution

• around 1830 – Jacques Boucher de Crevocoeur de Perthes, a French
geologist, discovered rocks along with the remains of rhinoceros and
elephants. These rocks appeared to have been used as tools. Since people
at that time were much more advanced, he reasoned that human evolution
must have occurred. However, he did not make these ideas public until
1846.
• This theory created a lot of controversy among religious groups because:
- it went against the word of the Bible. If people were to accept evolution, it
meant that God was not a perfect Creator.
- they considered fossils to be “sketchy” evidence that did not provide
clear stage-by-stage proof.
- even though they were willing to accept that species experienced “minor”
changes to some characteristics to adapt to their environment, they were
unwilling to believe that species evolved or transformed into different
species. They really did not want to believe that humans evolved from
primates!

Darwin Finds Evidence of Evolution

• 1831 – Charles Darwin undertook a 5 year expedition aboard the H.M.S.
Beagle and travels to South America, Australia, and many islands in the
Pacific
• In the Andes Mountains of South America, he found seashells, which
indicated that these mountains had once been underwater. He also found
evidence that
• In the Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed that there were many species
that were unique to the islands. He noticed that there within each group of
 plants of animals, there were variations in size or colour. BUT, he also
noticed that not all species reproduced without limit. He believed that over
long periods of time, changes occurred in climate and in other
environmental conditions that resulted in species that could adapt to these
changes. Those species that did not adapt would become extinct.

The Theory of Natural Selection

Natural selection: the process in which animals and plants best adapt to
their
environment to survive and produce similar offspring. In his book The Origin
of
Species (1859), he described his theory of evolution and stated that species
were forced to evolve or face extinction. The species that were able to
evolve and adapt survived. He also mentioned that no two members of a
species are exactly alike, and that this variation is a result of biological
inheritance and adaptation to the environment. Members of a species that
survive pass on their unique features to their children. Over time, successful
variations will produce a new species. This system of passing on and
variation would allow for successful growth and development of species.

Survival of the fittest: term used as a synonym for natural selection.

Darwin
intended this term to mean “better adapted to the immediate environment”,
not that those who are in the best physical shape will be the ones to survive.
Keep in mind that being the fastest and strongest does not necessarily mean
reproductive success. What is more important is the ability to attract mates.
So in this way, to be fit means to be able to reproduce successfully.
The interpretation that only the strongest will prevail is Social
Darwinism. This theory is inconsistent with what Darwin was
 proposing with respect to evolution and was used by others as a
means of justifying genocide.

The Descent of Man (1871)

This book was Darwin’s second on evolutionary theory. Here he discussed
the
origins and nature of humanity, and outlined the idea of common descent.
He believed that all humans came from one single ancestor – even though
he
knew that there was variation between humans, the physical and mental
characteristics were so similar.

Evolution of physical traits

Darwin states the purpose of this book in the introduction:

"The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly, whether man, like every other
species, is descended from some pre-existing form; secondly, the manner of his
development; and thirdly, the value of the differences between the so-called races
of man."

Darwin's approach to arguing for the evolution of human beings is to outline

how similar human beings are to other animals. He begins by using
anatomical similarities, focusing on body structure, embryology, and
"rudimentary organs" which are presumably useful in one of man's "pre-
existing" forms. He then moves on to arguing for the similarity of mental
characteristics.