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E-Tech  Server – computer that does tasks for other computers

 Service – task done by a server
The Current State of ICT  Client – computer that accesses the services that are provided by a
Internet server
- World Wide Web LAN – Local Area Network
- Massive digital network connected to billions of electronic devices The cloud – network of servers that provide different services
- Divided into generations (history) Google
1. Web 1.0 - Have 1 million servers
a. First generation of the Internet - Servers are housed in centralized locations (data centers) located in 7
b. Audiences and readers only absorb information from websites countries
c. Websites were Static Webpages Benefits of Cloud Computing
d. Static Websites 1. Reduced Cost (subscribing to cloud-based services is a lot cheaper than
i. Read-only/static traditional nethods)
ii. Delivered to users exactly as they are stored 2. Flexibility (businesses and organizations that are subscribed to cloud-
iii. Single file: html/htm (Hypertext Markup Language) saved in a based services can easily get these resources by upgrading their
server subscriptions)
iv. Displayed when it’s address is entered 3. Mobility (clients can access the cloud-based services in different
v. Ex. 1966 movie Space Jam locations)
vi. Display only text and pictures 4. Better Collaboration (cloud enables people in different locations to
vii. Uniform Resource Locator (URL)/address remains the same work on the same project
2. Web 2.0 5. Updated Software (cloud-based apps are constantly improved and
a. Second generation of the Internet these improvements are immediately made available to the clients)
b. Focuses on user participation
i. Emphasizes on a give-and-take relationship (website and Online Safety and Security
users) Information Security
c. Gives users power to share information  Full name
d. Allows the creation of real-life uses o Problem: most widely known detail
i. Online banking o Solution: refrain from using full name when not required
ii. Online shopping  Username
iii. Media sharing o Alias
e. Dynamic websites o Problem: as good as your actual name
i. Can change appearance & behaviors based on user’s actions o Solution: select usernames that do not include your real name
ii. Ex. Google.com  Password
f. URL changes depending on the user’s location, credentials and o One of the most important bits of information in the Internet
search parameters
o Group of characters when paired with the username /email address:
g. Social media
unlock a user account
i. Application and websites used to make online social
o Problem: figuring out the password of one account can compromise
interactions (sharing information, sending messages,
the others
exchanging ideas) w/ each other
o Solution:
ii. Relies on user (web contents)
 Do not share it w/ anyone
iii. Ex. Instagram and Facebook
 Memorize it
iv. Provide platform
 Do not use obvious passwords
h. Wiki
 Use combinations of upper and lower case letters, numbers
i. Hawaiian word wikiwiki: “quick/superfast”
and special characters
ii. Allows visitors to add/edit its contents
 Do not use the same password for different accounts
iii. Like encyclopedia/educational article
 Change your passwords periodically
iv. Wikipedia (world’s largest and most popular wiki website)
 Do not save your password when you log in public or someone
3. Web 3.0
else’s device
a. Current generation of the Internet
 Birth Date
i. Real-time – events: available to users as they happen
o Required to determine if you are old enough to access certain
ii. Ubiquitous – users are always connected to the Internet
iii. Machine Learning – computers and mobile devices can create contents and features
data and make decisions based on the user’s previous actions o Used for security checks
Web applications o Problem: can be used to pass security checks and hack personal
- Internet-based programs that are accessed through web browsers accounts
- Next step in the evolution of the Internet o Solution: observe age restrictions
- Ex. Youtube, Ebay, Social medias and Wikis  Home Address and Locations
Native applications o GPS (Global Positioning System)
- Programs directly installed in a computer/mobile device o Location-specific contents and options
- Can be run independently o Problem: it will tell potential criminals where you are
o Solution: hide it/not submit at all
Type of App Native App Web App  Phone Numbers
Email Microsoft Outlook Gmail o Used to have direct line to clients
Text editor Microsoft Word Google sheets o Problem: everyone who has it has a direct way to harass, threaten or
Photo editor Adobe Photoshop Pixlr inconvenience you
Music streaming Spotify (Mac, PC, or Spotify Web Player o Solution: do not submit unless necessary
mobile)  Email Address
Social media Facebook (mobile app) Facebook (browser- o Sign-up feature used to confirm the user’s identity
based) o Problem: direct link
o Solution: be cautious when sharing your email and opening strange
Cloud computing – Internet-based network used to store, manage, and share emails (offer prizes)
resources and info. Malware: Online Threats
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- Malicious software h. Not required
- Can be contracted through the Internet, also offline means (flash drives i. Mobile number
and Local Area Network, LAN) ii. Current email address
1. Virus iii. Location (automatic)
a. Program designed to interfere with the computer, device or i. Make your email address presentable and easy to remember
network’s normal operations j. Check your “password strength”
b. Spread when a computer makes contact with another (LAN, 3. Click the “Next step” button
Internet, flash drive, DVD) a. You have successfully created an email address
c. Relies on human action to spread Email Client
2. Worms - Application used for sending, receiving and organizing emails
a. Type of virus - Ex. Gmail, Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail, Mozilla Thunderbird, Yahoo
b. Automatically spread and copy itself (emails, links, downloads, file Mail
sharing) - Click “stay signed in” so you won’t have to sign in every time you open
3. Trojan your mail
a. Disguises itself as a useful and/or harmless program or file Email Folders
b. Named after the fictional wooden horse used by Greeks to defeat - Sections of an email client used to store different kinds of email
Troy  Inbox
c. Goal: get through the computer’s security features and cause o Contains messages you have received
harm once in it’s in o Unopened mails (unread)
d. Pose as harmless files or programs such as pictures/videos o Already opened (read)
e. Rely on people to send, copy, and download them  Outbox/Sent
4. Spam o Folder for the emails sent
a. Unwanted and unsolicited message/email o Also contains emails that you replied to
b. Spammers – collect emails  Drafts
5. Adware o Contains finished or unfinished emails composed but not sent
a. Launches unwanted ads  Flagged/Starred
b. Included in installers/browser add-ons o Important emails
6. Phishing o Star icon/flag icon
a. Derived from “fishing”
 Spam
b. Fraudulent practice of stealing important information from users
o Suspicious emails are kept
(passwords, pin codes, credit card numbers)
o Security measure
c. Done by tricking people into submitting their personal details
d. Sending emails and offers that imitate legitimate businesses  Trash
o Prevents you from accidentally deleting mails
(banks and credible websites)
How to Avoid Malware o Emails deleted can be recovered
1. Install an anti-virus program o Gmail deletes messages that have been in trash for more than 30
2. Do not submit your email address to suspicious looking websites days
3. Create alternate emails How to send an email (Gmail)
4. Don’t fall for obvious tricks 1. Click the compose button on the upper-left side of the screen
5. Don’t open spam mails 2. In the “To” section type the email address of the recipient
6. Do not click suspicious looking links a. CC (carbon copy) – visible to all recipients
7. Read before you install b. BCC (blind carbon copy) – hidden to other recipients
8. Do not download pirated contents 3. In the subject section, enter the subject or title of the email
4. Type your message below Subject
Email 5. Click the send button
- Electronic mail
- Transmitted through computer networks Collaboration Tools
- Successor of the postal mail/snail mail - Groupware
Email Address - Programs or set of programs that people use to achieve a common goal
- Unique name: represents a destination where emails can be delivered - Allows people to share information and communicate with each other
and sent Types of Groupware
- Functions as your home address in the WWW 1. Synchronous groupware – allows sharing of information in real-time
- Most important personal information a. Online chat – two or more people send and receive short
Parts of an Email Add messages instantly
1. Local part b. VoIP – “voice over Internet protocol”; Internet-powered
a. Left of the @ sign telephone service
b. Chosen by the user c. Videoconferencing – collection of several ICT technologies that
2. Domain part allow 2 or more people to communicate real-time audio and
a. Right of the @ sign video; Skype
b. Domain name of the website that provides the emailing service 2. Asynchronous groupware – are not instantly displayed to other
How to Create an Email Address using Gmail members of the group; participants are free to choose when they want
1. Go to Google’s sign-up page (accounts.google.com/SignUp to view the shared info.
2. Enter your information a. Email – sent and stored in the recipient’s inbox
a. Name (First and last name) b. Online forums – message boards; online services where people
b. Username can post messages for others to read and reply to
c. Password (entered 2x) c. Wiki – can be edited by members of an online community
d. Birthday d. Shared calendar – online calendar with many users
e. Gender Google Drive – cloud-based storage and sharing service owned and operated
f. CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing Test To Tell by Google
Computers and Humans Apart” - Software suit /collection of several programs that allow users to
i. Used to determine if the user is a human or robot communicate and share files
g. Terms of Service and Privacy Policy (checked)
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Google Docs, Sheets and Slides – collaborative productivity apps that are 15. Practice of using someone else’s work as if it is yours – plagiarism
included in Google Drive 16. Act of reproducing and distributing materials without the owner’s
- Allow real-time collaborative editing consent – piracy
 Google Docs – web-based word processor program 17. Single program/a system of programs designed to look for info in the
o Similar to Microsoft Word internet – web search engines
 Google Sheets – Google Drive’s spreadsheet app 18. Unauthorized recording and distribution of live/broadcasted
o Similar to Microsoft Excel performance – bootlegging
 Google Slides – Google’s presentation app 19. Unauthorized copying of the material support, labels, artwork and
o Works like a Microsoft PowerPoint packaging – counterfeiting
20. Legal right to own original work – copyright
Web Page Design 21. Process of planning, researching, creating, and maintaining info for
Website – collection of web pages that can be accessed through the Internet online publication – web content management
- Online location that points to a group of web pages 22. Sounds, images, videos, and other medias published on a website –
Web page – electronic document that is stored in a server and can be web content
accessed through the Internet using a web browser 23. Number of visitors in a website and pages that they visit – web traffic
- Backbone of websites 24. Series of steps/phases that web content has to go through before and
Parts of a website after it is published – web content lifecycle
1. Header – masthead 25. Where the idea for a web content is born – planning
a. Located at the top of each web page and contains the website’s 26. Stage/phase involves researching, writing, and other creative tasks –
name and logo creation
2. Navigation – interactive list that contains the names of the webpages in 27. When the content is ready to be delivered to the readers – deployment
a website 28. Has to be done in order to persuade internet users to view web
3. Content section – main focus of any website contents – promotion
a. Images, texts, videos 29. Process of updating existing web contents – maintenance
4. Contact section – separate webpage 30. Web content that become outdated have to be removed from the
a. Website’s information, message box website – retirement
5. Call to Action – message or instruction that urges the users to do an 31. Software publication used to create publish and manage online content
action – Content Management System
a. Created to gather public response 32. Online journal owned by an individual/group – weblog
6. About us – tells the user about the person/organization that owns the 33. Bullying done through electronic technology – cyberbullying
website 34. Unruly member who deliberately breaks the rules of an online
a. Provide credibility to the website owner community – trolls
7. Footer – always at the bottom of the webpage 35. Multiple accounts used by trolls – sock puppets
a. Display links to important information Actions or practices that are disruptive and harmful to other online users
b. Terms of Service, Copyright Information, FAQs (frequently asked 1. Foul language
questions) and personal info about the creators of the site 2. Spamming
Website builders – can be used to create websites without having to write 3. Bullying
code 4. Trolling
Weebly – web hosting service and a website building tool 5. Sock puppets
- Relies primarily on its drag-and-drop feature to place and manipulate 6. Flame wars
design elements Informal netiquette
Website design 7. The golden rule
 Dashboard – home page; first page you will see 8. Act as you would in real life
 Elements – collection of design elements that you can add to your 9. Know where you are and act accordingly
website 10. Respect people’s privacy
 Page and navigation – add multiple pages 11. Respect other people’s properties
o Automatically included in your website Conducting online search
 Theme – color scheme and fonts 12. Have a question in mind
13. Narrow it down
 Page Layout – set of elements you can add to your website
14. Advanced search
15. Look for a credible source
1. Global network connecting millions of computers – Internet
16. Give credit
2. Alias that represents your online presence – username
Web browsers
3. Group of characters that when paired with your username/email
17. Google chrome
address, can unlock your user account – password
18. Mozilla Firefox
4. Software that is intended to damage/disable computers and computer
19. Safari
systems – Malicious Software
Top level domains
5. Program designed to interfere with your computer, device/network’s
20. .com
normal operation – virus
21. .net
6. Type of virus that can hide your icons and destroy your files – worm
22. .org
7. Type of malware that disguises itself as a useful and/or harmless
23. .info
program/file – Trojan
24. .gov
8. Goal is to get through your computer’s security and cause harm once
25. .edu
it’s in – Trojan
Personal info that should not be given online
9. Unwanted/unsolicited message/mail – spam
26. Full name
10. Type of malware that launches unwanted ads – adware
27. Username
11. Practice of stealing important info: passwords, pin codes, credit card
28. Password
number – phishing
29. Birth Date
12. Name given to a set of rules and guidelines on how to behave properly
30. Home Address and Location
online – netiquette
31. Phone Number
13. Rules imposed by online groups – formal netiquette
32. Email Address
14. Guidelines that may not be imposed by law but are expected to be
Web content lifecycle
followed by everyone – informal netiquette
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33. Planning - The title of an academic text is sometimes followed by a sub-title to give the
34. Creation reader a clearer idea of its content, especially if the title is not explicit and
35. Deployment literary.
36. Promotion b. Introduction – outlines the structure and explains the aims and objectives
37. Maintenance of
38. Retirement an academic text.
Network Etiquette c. Body – contains the discussion of the content.
39. Formal netiquette - it is usually divided into sections and sub-sections to make the structure
40. Informal netiquette clear to the reader.
d. Summary - restate briefly the content of the text.
English - The conclusion shows what the text has contributed to your understanding
of the content.
Subject-Verb Agreement e. Bibliography/ Reference – lists the resources used in the academic text.
1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number - Some academic books have Glossaries, Appendices and Indexes.
a. The dog growls when he is hungry. GLEANING INFORMATION FROM TEXT STRUCTURE
2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and a. Pre-reading
the verb 1. Scan the book by looking at the front and back cover, reading any blurbs
a. The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good. on the first pages.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and the verb usually do not 2. Skim the Table of Contents to get an idea of the content.
affect the agreement 3. Read any prefatory material such as the Introduction or Preface.
a. The colors of the rainbow are beautiful. 4. Look at the Chapter and Sub-Chapter Titles.
4. When sentences starts with there or here, the subject will always be 5. Set a purpose for reading.
placed after the verb 6. Decide on the method of reading the assigned material.
a. There is a problem with the number sheet. b. Reading
5. Subjects don’t always come before verbs in questions 1. Focus on the reading task.
a. Does lefty usually eat grass? 2. Read the piece quickly to get an idea of what the book or article is about.
6. If two subjects are joined by ‘and’ – plural form of the verb 3. Highlight difficult words or sentences.
a. The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon. 4. Ask questions, jot these down, and answer them at a convenient time.
7. The verb is singular if the 2 subjects separated by ‘and’ refer to the 5. Look up the highlighted words and sentence to determine their meaning.
same person or thing 6. Read the piece again to get a better idea what it is about.
a. The teacher and adviser of the class is the host of the program. c. Post-reading
8. If one of the words: each, every, or no comes before the subject; verb – 1. Summarize what you have learned from the reading task.
singular 2. Write an outline or notes on the reading task to make it easy to review the
a. Every man and woman is required to check-in. reading in the future.
9. If the subject are both singular and are connected by the words: or, nor, 3. Reflect on and “own” the text.
either, neither and not only/but also; verb – singular
a. Mark or Tiffany is to blame for the accident Learning Concept:
10. The only time when the object of preposition factors into the decision SQ3R – stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review.
of plural or singular verb is when noun and pronoun subjects are: some, - This will help you glean more information from reading.
half, none, more, all, etc. - Mastering this method of reading will help you prepare better for
a. All of the chicken is gross. examinations and equip you with a set of skills you will need in
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units or measurements of your professional life.
time  Survey- a pre-reading stage where you skim and scan the book, an
a. Four quarters of oil was required to get the car running. article, or an assigned chapter in the book to get an idea what it is
12. If the subjects are both plural the verb should be plural about.
a. Dogs and cats are both available at the pound. - Pay attention to titles of units, chapters, sections, sub-sections,
13. The verb should agree to the nearest subject usually set in bigger fonts, bold, italics, and underlined; scan
a. Either the bears or the lion has escaped from the zoo. charts, graphs, and boxed material, guide questions, and
14. Indefinite pronouns usually take singular verbs summaries.
a. Everybody wants to be loved.  Question- look at the title of each chapter, heading, and sub-
15. Except few, many, several, both, all, some heading and turn each one into a question.
a. Few were left alive after the flood - Use other questions such as where, when, why, how as
16. If two infinitives are separated by ‘and’, they take the plural form of the appropriate for your other subjects.
verb  Read- read actively to find the answer to the question you asked
a. To walk and to chew gum requires great skill. above.
17. When gerunds are used as the subject, verb depend on the number  Recite- recall the answer and recite it out to yourself.
a. Standing in the water was a bad idea.  Review- do this not only when you prepare for a quiz or test, but
18. Collective nouns are singular every week.
a. The crowd is stampeding. - ask yourself “What were the main lessons I learned this week?”
19. Titles are taken singular - if you do not remember them, take a look at your notes rather than your
a. ‘The Fault in Our Stars’ is now in motion pictures. book, notes you should have if you had gone through the Survey, Question,
20. ONLY THE SUBJECT AFFECTS THE VERB Read, and Recite process earlier.

LEARNING CONCEPT: Learning Concept:

 Text structure - refers to how the information within a written text is
organized.
- this strategy help students understand that a text might present a main idea
and details; a cause then its effect; and/or different views of a topic.
- how the information in a text is organized.
PARTS OF AN ACADEMIC TEXT
a. Title – clearly shows the content of a text.
COMMON TEXT STRUCTURE
1. Spatial /Description- a descriptive structure gives details of something
to give a mental image of a person, place, or object.
- This text structure shows what an item or place is like.
- Describes something in order of space and also it describes how
something looks.
- TIME DOESN’T PASS in these passages.
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- Signal words for Spatial and Descriptive : on the left, next to, in Both fruits Oranges have
front of, inside, between, at the top of, in the center, in the front more acid
of, outside, behind, in back of, across. Have skin and Apple has thinner
Examples: A book on local history may describe the geography of the town healthy skin
or province while a Science book may describe the migratory patterns of a
certain type of bird. | Order Sequence- refers on how a paragraph or essay is presented.
My Bedroom >Two windows on the west Wall. > A television - The order may be chronological, or first to last in a series of
across from the bed. >A bed in the middle. > A closet by the TV events.
2. Cause and effect- an academic text may outline causes and effects of a - Information is listed step-by-step and Explains how to do it or how
certain phenomenon. it happens.
- An action and its results are explained - Signal words for Sequence and Process: First, second, third… A, B,
 Cause- is an action that makes something else happened. C In the first place, For one thing ,Then, Next Before Now, After,
 Effect-is a result of the action. While, Into, Until, Last, During, Since, Always, O’clock, On time,
- Signal words for Cause and Effect : so, since, as a result, because, later, earlier.
therefore. Example:
Examples: A. Crack a few eggs.
a. CAUSE: I worked really hard in school. B. Add cheese.
EFFECT: So I graduated with college degree. C. Cook on one side
b. CAUSE: You should brush your teeth often. D. Flip omelet.
 EFFECT: You won't get cavities. 4. Problem-Solution- states an issue or problem, explains a solution, and
3. Comparison and Contrast- to compare is to point out the similarities discusses the effects of the solution.
and differences of two things. -is a pattern of organization where information in a passage is expressed as
- To contrast is to focus more on the differences of two things. a dilemma or concerning issue about problem.
- Tells how two things are similar and different. - Signal words for Problem and Solution : Consequently, Thereby,
- Signal words for Compare and Contrast : different from, same as, therefore, leads to, as a result, because of, since.
similar to, as opposed to, instead of, although, however, Example:
compared with, as well as, either...or, but, on the other hand, PROBLEM: Sam hit his head and got a big bump.
unless. SOLUTION: He got an ice and put it on his head.
Example: Apple and Oranges
COMPARE CONTRAST
Science Pangaea begins to Gondwana Major rifting of Greenland
break up and splinters further Laurasia, with the separates from
Earth’s Layers splits into two — the South North American North America. 
major landmasses America-Africa landmass
 Crust – less than 1% of Earth by mass — Laurasia in the landmass separating from Australia
o Oceanic crust – mafic north, made up of separates from Eurasia. separates from
North America the Antarctica- Antarctica and
o Continental crust – felsic and Eurasia, and Australia South America moves north. 
o Hard and rigid Gondwana in the landmass. and Madagascar
o Outermost and thinnest layer south, made up of separate from The Indian
the other The Indian Africa. landmass collides
o 5 km – oceanic crust continents. landmass breaks with Asia.
o 20 miles/30 km - continents away from the
Antarctica-
 Mantle – hot, ultramafic rock Australia
o 68% of Earth’s mass landmass.
o 1,800 miles/2,900 km thick
 Core – mostly iron metal; metallic Plates and Boundaries
o 31% of the Earth Boundary – border between two tectonic plates
o Outer core – liquid layer  Convergent boundary – two plates pushing towards each other
 Mostly iron and nickel o Eurasian and Indian plate = Himalayas
 1,800m-3,200m/2,890-5,510m – surface o Nazca and South American plate = west coast of South America
 1,400m/2,300 – thick  Divergent boundary – two plates that are moving apart from each
o Inner core – extremely hot, solid sphere of mostly iron and nickel other
center of the Earth o African and Arabian plate = red sea
 3,200-3960m/5,150-6,378km – surface o Pacific and Antarctic plate
 750 m/1,200 km - diameter
o North American and Eurasian plate = mid-Atlantic ridge; North
 Lithosphere – composed of both the crust and the mantle and behaves
Atlantic; Iceland
as a brittle, rigid solid
o South American and African plate = south Atlantic
o Hold the continents and the oceans
 Transform boundary – two plates slide past each other
o Broken into several large slabs called plates
o Pacific plate and Australian plate = New Zealand
 Asthenosphere – partially molten upper mantle and behaves plastically
o Pacific plate and North American plate = California
and can flow
Slip and Slide
Subduction zone – oceanic crust gets pulled under
Plate Tectonics
Trench – steep-sided depression in the ocean floor; deep valley that forms
Alfred Wegener – German Scientist
where an oceanic plate collides with the Asian continent
- Africa and South America
Chain of volcanoes – island arcs
- The Origin of Continents and Oceans – suggesting that the earth’s
Ring of fire- zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
continents were once joined together in one large mass
Tsunami – huge ocean wave caused by a sudden shift on the ocean floor
o Called it Pangaea: Greek: all the earth
Himalayas – convergent boundary; Indian landmass and asian continent
Seafloor spreading - divergent boundary
Continents on the Move Mid ocean ridge – raise ridge; forms under the ocean where plates are
200 million 135 million 65 million years 50-40 million spreading apart
years ago years ago ago years ago
Rift – dropped zone where the plates are pulling apart
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Fault – crack or fracture in the earth’s crust that is associated with this o Granites – contribute to the amount of in terms of energy per unit
movement mass
Transform boundary (strike slip fault) – San Andreas Fault o Volcanic rocks – products of volcanoes
 Crystallize in the surface of the Earth
1. Mid ocean ridges are places where tectonic plates are doing what? -  Commonly fine-grained
Spreading apart  Rest on top of older rocks
2. Plate tectonics theory – Alfred Wegener  Ex. of igneous rocks
3. Layer directly above the Earth’s core – mantle  Formed through exothermic process
4. Continental crust is thicker than oceanic crust  starts out in liquid then become solid
5. Border bet two tectonic plates – boundary Sedimentary Rocks
6. Boundary across Iceland – divergent boundary - Secondary rocks (comes from igneous rocks)
7. Tectonic plates float in semiliquid layer – asthenosphere - aggregation of pebbles and sand
8. Earth’s outermost layer – crust - Types of grains: coarse, medium and fine
9. Crust underneath the ocean – oceanic crust - Classification:
10. Earth’s layer broken into several large tectonic plates – lithosphere o Clastic – basic sedimentary rocks
11. Supercontinent Pangaea starts to break up – 200 m yrs ago  Created from "clasts" (little pieces of rocks that have been
12. African plate compacted and cemented to become larger pieces)
13. Crust found under continents – continental crust o Chemical – form when water evaporates
14. California’s San Andreas Fault – Strike-slip fault  Created from chemical precipitation
15. Boundary of North America and Carribbean plate – transform boundary o Organic/biogenic – contain shell fragments or fossils
16. South American Plate - Ex. Sandstone, shale, limestone and conglomerate
17. 225 m yrs ago; giant landmass – Pangaea o Weathering - process of breaking down
18. Himalayans Mountain Range – 40-50 m yrs ago  Physical – mechanical disaggregation; produces sedimentary
19. Philippine and Pacific plate – convergent boundary rocks (sand)
20. Subduction zone of the Juan de Fuca and North American plate – one  Chemical – chemical decomposition; produces residual
plate is being pulled under another materials
21. Subduction zone Metamorphic Rocks
22. Theory of plate tectonics – continents are in slow constant motion - Subjected to mechanical forces and extreme physical conditions
23. Geological event (transform boundary) – earthquake (temperature)
24. Island arc – collision of two oceanic plates - Metamorphism - rocks are in solid shape
25. Earth’s only liquid layer – outer core o Tectonic process – mechanical deformation
26. Solid layer made only of mostly iron and nickel – inner core  Mechanical processes = rocks are build up in complexities
27. Mountain formation – two continental plates collide o Contact Metamorphism – small sections of contact
28. Rift formation o Regional metamorphism – large sections of rocks
29. Not likely to happen at a divergent boundary? - Mountain Formation - Ex. Slate and diamond
30. Pacific Plate Exogenic process – erosion, transportation, and deposition
- Depend on factors such as the resistance of rocks to erosion an
Earth’s Interior weathering and the amount of relief an time
Jules Verne – A Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864)  Weathering of rocks: geomorphic agents (ice, wind and snow)
 Earth’s overall density is higher than the density of crustal rocks, so the  Mass wasting – rocks sliding down due to gravity
core must be made of metal Endogenic process – uses heat from within the earth
 Since the Earth has a magnetic field, there must be metal within the - Hypogene processes
planet. Iron and nickel are both magnetic - Process originates from within the earth’s crust
 Meteorites – remains of the material that formed the early solar and - Causes earthquakes, volcanic activity, metamorphism, formation of
are thought to be similar to material in the Earth’s interior ocean troughs and continents
o Contains silica minerals and iron-nickel - Caused by the thermal energy of the crust and the mantle
o Boundary bet Earth’s core and mantle o Derived from the decay of radioactive material and the
o 4.2 b yrs old gravitational differentiation in the mantle
Earthquakes – form of energy wave of motion that is transmitted through
Earth Materials and Processes the surface layers of the earth
Geology – study of landscapes (rocks and minerals) - Due to the dislocation of rocks underneath the surface
Rocks – formed from distinct grains (mineral grains) that come together Tectonic movements – movements of the tectonic plates
Igneous rocks – form by crystallization and composed of several kinds of - Gives rise to mountains, oceans, ridges, troughs, and other land forms
minerals - Distrophism – process results in building up a surface
Sedimentary rocks – composed of usually one kind of material Volcanism – matter is transported to the surface of the earth and then
Minerals – naturally occurring chemical element or compound, possessing erupted
definite crystalline structure - Magmatic materials are effused towards the surface of the earth
- Classified according to chemical composition an atomic structure through volcanic structures
- Make up rocks an silicates crystallize in order to form rocks - Intrusives/plutons – magma doesn’t reach the surface
- Common to denote the element as oxides Plate tectonics – concerned with the movement of the continents
More than 2000 types of minerals – are now known Continental Drift – proposed by Alfred Wegener
Silicate minerals – structure based on the silicate unit (part of tetrahedral - Theory that the continents are moving
building block) - Continents are moving due to the movement of tectonic plates on the
- 6 major groups are identified earth’s surface
Peridotites – contain olivine and pyroxene - Mesosaurus – found in Brazil and Africa
Igneous Rocks Paleomagnetism – process by which the earth’s magnetic fields move
- Starting points in the rock cycle Fold – bend in the rock that is the response to compressive forms
- Found on the earth’s mantle Fault –displacement of a rock that was once connected along a fault line
- 70% of the Earth’s mass and 80% of the Earth’s volume Polarity changes – key indicators of seafloor spreading
- Derived from the convection in the Earth’s mantle Seafloor spreading – volcanic activity gradually moves away from the ridge
o Convection – source of heat energy is found in the radioactive Basaltic magma – causes the formation of the seafloor
isotopes of potassium, uranium, and thorium
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180 m – oldest oceanic crust Philosophy
Stages of Ocean Basin Evolution
1. Embryonic Insight – Fr. Roque J. Ferriols, SJ
2. Young Philosophy
3. Mature - Greek philos: “to love”; sophia: “wisdom”
4. Declining - “the love of wisdom”
5. Terminal - Study of nature of knowledge, existence, and reality
6. Relict scar - Jacques Maritain: “Philosophy is the science by which the natural light
History of earth – recorded in stratified rocks of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all things; the
Geologic time scale – temporal framework that is composed of the science of things in their first causes, in so far as these belong to the
arrangement of stratified rocks natural order”
- Important for understanding the history of the earht Branches of Philosophy
Dating – based on the decay of radioactive elements in the rocks  Metaphysics – study of the fundamental nature of existence and reality
1. Relative – able to place the events in their proper order, but cannot (man and world); examines the composition of the universe
ascertain the exact number of years ago when the event took place  Ontology – study of being and existence; being as a being
2. Absolute – how many years ago a certain event took place  Epistemology – study of nature and scope of knowledge and justified
Marker fossils – date rocks belief; analyzes the nature of all knowledge related to: Truth,
- Index fossils Justification, Belief
- Able to indicate the types of organisms that existed in a certain time  Ethics – study of human values and actions
period  Morality – sub-field of ethics; study of set of codes and systems of
- Guide to the age of the rocks in which they are preserved conduct
Glossary  Aesthetics – focused on the nature and appreciation of art
Basaltic rock – fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock  Logic – deals with science and art of correct inferential reasoning; way
Basaltic magma – molten rocks that are rich in magnesium and iron and lack of investigating the structure and nature of the statements given
silica o Aristotle – new (allows us to learn what we do not know) and
Exogenic – coming from outside a system necessary (conclusions are inescapable) reasoning
Endogenic – coming from inside a system  Rational psychology/Philosophy of Man – studies the principles of man
as a composite body and soul
Surface waves – travel to the surface  Cosmology – deals with the origin and structure of the universe (parts,
 Rally waves – moving up and down elements, laws, characteristics: space and time)
 Love waves – shifting left and right  Theodicy – does not question the existence of God; studies the nature
Body waves – fastest moving waves; used to figure out the body structure of and attributes of God within the understanding of human; reconciling
the earth the goodness and justice of God with the observable facts of evil and
 P-waves – primary waves; pressure waves; travel to air(330m/s), liquid suffering in the world
(1,500 m/s), and through solid (5,000 m/s) Composite – made of different parts or elements
 S-waves – secondary waves; shear waves; slower than the p-waves; Fundamental – most important part of something
only travel through solid Justification – acceptable reason for doing something
Medicine – science that deals with treating diseases
Ultimate – greatest or most extreme
Axiology – (theory of value); the inquiry into the nature, criteria and
metaphysical status of value

Basic Terms in Logic

Logic
- Zeno the Stoic
- Greek term logike: “thought”
- Etymologically: “treatise pertaining to thought”
- Aristotle: “organon” – tool or instrument of the sciences
- Instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for correct thinking
- Study of science and art of correct inferential reasoning
- Deals with laws, methods and principles of correct thinking
- Distinguishes correct from incorrect reasoning
- Science: systematized body of knowledge
- Art of reasoning
Formal Logic – conceptual patterns or structures needed for a valid and
correct argument; correct patterns of argumentation
Material Logic – deals with the nature of the terms and propositions that are
used in the different types of inference; discusses types and meanings of
terms or words and sentences or propositions used in arguments
Apprehension – first act of intellect; beginning of knowledge; understanding
or an idea of things that we can say we know; formation of a mental image of
the thing (idea)
Idea – mental product of the apprehension; mental or intellectual image or
representation of the object; formed through abstraction
Abstraction – process by which the intellect strips the object of its non-
essential qualities, retains the essential ones, and forms them into one image
(idea)
Term – external manifestation or sign of an idea; written/spoken word
Comprehension – sum total of the attributes or thought elements which
constitutes the idea; meaning, signification, thought, content, connotation of
the idea
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Extension – sum total of all individuals, things, beings, groups to which the
idea can be applied; denotation (application of the idea to different
individuals or things
“As the comprehension of the idea increases, the extension decreases and
vice versa”
A. According to Significance/Meaning (Comprehension)
a. Univocal – used in an identical sense; expresses only one
meaning/sense when applied to several objects
i. A term has no other possible meanings other than itself
ii. The term used is defined
b. Equivocal – expresses two or more different or unrelated
meanings; externally the same but different in sense
i. Pronunciation: son-sun
ii. Spelling: bow-bow
iii. Both in spelling and pronunciation: watch-watch
c. Analogous – expresses a meaning that is partly different and
partly the same/meanings that are related
i. By proportion – applied to unlike objects that have some
resemblance with each other
ii. By attribution – attributed in other things because of some
intrinsic relation with the first
B. According to Application or Extension
a. Singular – applies to only one individual/object
b. Universal – applied distributively to all the insividuals/objects in a
class; universal idea; all, every, no, each
c. Particular – applies to only a part of the extension of the
universal; some, few, several, majority, many, a number of
d. Collective – applies to a collective idea
Predicaments – classification of universal natures and concepts
Predicables – classification of universal predicates in general
“Predicaments and Predicables are useful to put order in our universal
concept by ways of classification and to assign the proper nature of things
when we try to define them”
Supreme Predicament
- Aristotle: Categories (Greek term for Predicaments)
o Substance – being that carries existential actuality by itself
(existing)
o Accident – modification of the substance/being; does not carry
existential actuality by itself
The Ten Predicaments
1. Substance – nature that carries actuality and reality by itself; a nature
that exists by itself
2. Quantity – modification of substance as regards the effect of having
extended and measurable parts (dimensions and weight)
3. Quality – formal modifier of the substance
a. Habit – quality modifying the substance well or ill as to
itself/operation in a permanent manner
b. Disposition – quality analogous to the former but not permanent
in character
c. Capability – power and strength in action
d. Incapability – shortcoming of strength for action
e. Passion – quality of a transient nature resulting from one
alteration in the substance
f. Passive modification – akin to the former, but s of a lingering
nature
g. Form – shape of artificial things
h. Figure – shape of natural things
4. Relation – reference of one substance to another
5. Action – motion of the substance, commonly inducing a result in
another thing
6. Passion – modification of the substance as the result of the influence of
another agent
7. When – circumstantial determination of the substance to time (point,
proportion, certain duration)
8. Where – circumstantial determination of the substance to a point in
space, surface, or circumstantial body
9. Posture – determination of the substance to the disposition of its parts
10. Habits – determination of the substance to external outfit
Predicability
- Aptitude of a universal concept to be said of many subjects; logical
property of the universal concept
o Univocal – applicable to many subjects in exactly the same sense
o Analogous – applicable to many subjects in a sense that neither
altogether the same or different
The Predicables
- Taken as Classifications; universal concepts bearing different kinds of
logical relationship to the subject
o Genus – part where the subject has in common with other
individuals of a different species
 Man is an animal (has in common with the brute)
o Specific Difference – part which distinguishers its essence from
that of other species
 Man is rational (distinguishes him from brutes)
o Species – comprises both the genus and specific difference
 Man is a rational animal
o Property – attribute that is not a part but necessarily flows from it
 Man is capable of progress, of making tools, of religious
sentiment, of artistic feeling, of wonderment
o Accident – associated with the subject merely in factual and
contingent manner
 Mary is beautiful and healthy
Definition
- Latin definere: “to lay down”
- Lay down the markers/limits
- Conceptual manifestation either of the meaning of the term or of the
formal features of the object
Kinds of Definition
1. Nominal – simply explains the meaning of a term/word; may provide
the origin/root word/equivalent term
a. Synonym – equivalent term/word
b. Etymology – origin/root
2. Real – explains what a thing or subject is; nature: properties,
characteristics, qualities/features; complete explanation/simple
description
a. Essential – explains the very nature: genus and specific difference
i. Proximate genus – essential elements w/c makes the object
similar to others
ii. Specific difference – distinctive element w/c distinguishes it
from others
iii. Ex. Mother (woman having a child); Triangle (a polygon with 3
sides and 3 angles)
b. Descriptive - giving the positive but non-essential features of the
object
i. Distinctive – set of distinctive characteristics of an
object/external features
1. Water (colorless, tasteless, and odorless substance)
ii. Genetic – origins/process of production
1. Water (result of the combination of 2 atoms of hydrogen
and 1 atom of oxygen)
iii. Causal – efficient cause; final cause; end/purpose
1. Painting (work of art by a painter)
Distinctive
X – [genus] characterized by certain [qualities, properties, traits]
X Z – [genus] having the following/manifesting certain [traits, qualities,
symptoms, etc.]
Genetic
X – [genus] derived from/originated from [source, origin, etc.]
X Z – [genus] produced through [processes, procedures, formulation, etc.]
Causal
X – [genus] produced/created/made by [makes, creator, writer, producer]
X – [genus] used for/designed to/intended for [use, purpose, goal, etc.]
Other Classification
1. Popular – common knowledge/idea
a. Jose Rizal (national hero)
b. Fiesta (day of thanksgiving)
2. Scientific – technical definitions of scientific terms
a. Diabetes insipudus – disorder of the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland due to a deficiency of vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone:
ADH)
3. Medical – medical terms of procedures; using medical terms
4. Legal – legal concepts, procedures; using legal terms
5. Lexical – definition given in the dictionary
Rules of Definition
1. Must be clearer than the term being identified
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a. Net (reticulated fabric decussater at regular intervals with Type Quality/Quantity Example Schema
interstices and intersections
b. Happiness (way station between too little and too much)
A Universal All mothers are u+ Pp
Affirmative compassionate
2. Must not contain the term being identified A mother is a
a. Teacher (person who teaches) woman who has Su+ Pu (in
b. Cookbook (book for cooking) a child case of
3. Must be convertible with the term being identified definition)
a. Dog (4-legged animal) E Universal All students are Su Z Pu
b. Wolf (sheep-killing animal) Negative not out-of-
4. Must be an affirmative statement not negative whenever possible school-youths
a. Child (individual not yet an adult) I Particular Some foods are Sp+ Pp
b. Amateur (not professional) Affirmative expensive
c. Darkness (absence of light) O Particular Some vendors Sp−Pu
Negative are not
Propositions taxpayers
Judgment – second act of intellect; pronounces the Logical Opposition
agreement/disagreement bet terms/ideas; act by which intellect - Relation existing between propositions having the same subject and
relates/combines ideas/concepts predicate but different quality/quantity or both
Enunciation – mental judgment; pronouncement considered as the mental - Relative properties of proposition = propositions happens only when
product of the act of judgment we relate 2 propositions with the same subject and predicate
Kinds of Judgment 1. Contradiction – proportions having the same subject and predicate but
1. Affirmative – agreement of identity between two ideas/concepts different quality and quantity; cannot be both true or false at the same
2. Negative – non-identity/disagreement of ideas/concepts time: if one is true, the other is false and vice versa
Proposition – judgment expressed in sentence or a sentence pronouncing 2. Contrariety – proportions having the same subject, predicate and
the agreement or disagreement bet terms; always had truth-value: may be universal extension, but different in quality; cannot be both true but
true/false; cannot be both true and false; must express an assertion/claim may be both false: if one is true, the other is false; if one is false, the
that is meaningful and coherent other may be true/false = doubtful/undetermined
Truth – agreement of the mental judgment in proposition with reality 3. Sub-contrariety – proportions having the same subject, predicate and
Types of Proposition particular extension, but different in quality; cannot be both false, but
1. Categorical – direct judgment/assertion of the may be both true: if one is false, the other one is true; if one is true the
agreement/disagreement of two terms in an absolute manner other may be true/false (doubtful)
2. Hypothetical – does not express direct judgment; relation between two 4. Sub-Alternation – proposition having the same subject, predicate and
judgment in w/c the truth of one depends on the other; always a quality, but different extension/quality
compound statement Equivalence – similarity in terms of meaning between proportions
a. Conditional – uses “if-then” statement Eduction – process of forming equivalent propositions; process of immediate
b. Disjunctive – uses “either-or” inference in w/c from a proposition taken as true, another proposition w/c is
c. Conjunctive – uses “and” implied it is derived
Categorical Proposition 1. Obversion – process of eduction in w/c the derived proposition, while
Elements retaining the subject of the original proposition has predicate, and
 Subject – term designating the idea about w/c something is contradictory of the original predicate
affirmed/denied a. Obvertend – original proposition
 Predicate – term designating the idea w/c is affirmed/denied of the b. Obverse – derived proposition
subject c. Process of Obversion
 Copula – expressing the mental act w/c pronounces the i. Retain the subject
agreement/disagreement between the subject and the predicate 1. All – men – are not – immortal
 Quantifier – expresses the application/extension of the proposition 2. Men (subject)
Properties of Categorical Preposition ii. Contradict the predicate (replacing the predicate term of an
1. Quality of Proportion – affects the copula and makes the proposition opposite or contrary meaning)
either affirmative/negative 1. Immortal (predicate) = mortal
a. Affirmative – proposition whose predicate is always affirmed of iii. Negate the copula (changing the quality of the proposition)
its subject according to the whole of its comprehension and part 1. Are not (copula) = are
of its extension iv. Retain the quantity
b. Negative – one whose preposition is always denied of its subject 1. All (quantity)
according to a part of its comprehension and the whole of its v. Final: all men are mortal
extension 2. Conversion – process of eduction in w/c the derived proposition takes
2. Quantity of Proportion – number of individuals to whom the the predicate of the original proposition for its subject and the original
preposition applies subject for its predicate
a. Universal – proposition whose subject is a universal term; all, a. Convertend – original proposition
each, every, no, nobody b. Converse – derives proposition
b. Particular – proposition whose subject is a particular term (used c. Process of Conversion
partly and indeterminately); some, many, few, majority, a number i. Interchange the subject and the predicate
of, minority, most 1. All – doctors – are – professionals
c. Singular – proposition whose subject is a singular term 2. Doctors (subject); professionals (predicate)
d. Collective – proposition whose subject is a collective term; applies ii. Retain the quality
to a class or group 1. All (quality)
Types of Categorical Proposition iii. No term may have a greater extension in the converse
A Universal Affirmative All X are Y proposition than in the converted proposition (rule); if the
E Universal Negative No X is Y/all X are not Y term is particular, it must remain a particular; if it is universal,
I Particular Affirmative Some X are Y it may remain a universal/it can be used as a particular
O Particular Negative Some X are not Y/Not 1. All (quantifier) = some
all X are Y iv. Final: Some professionals are doctors
Scheme of Categorical Proposition
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b. Fallacy of Equivocation – happens when one term expresses 2
Syllogisms different meaning in the syllogism; committed when the
Reasoning – third act of intellect; intellect by way of inference, is able to supposition of a term shifts/when an equivocal term is used in the
know a truth based on previously known truth; mental act also known as argument
inference c. Fallacy of Illicit Major Term – committed when major term has a
Inference – process of deriving/deducing another proposition from given wider/greater extension in the conclusion than in the major
propositions premise/when the major term in particular in the major premise
 Immediate inference – inference from one proposition without the use and universal in conclusion
of a third term; logical opposition and equivalence d. Fallacy of Illicit Minor Term – committed when the minor term
o Some models are beautiful [ladies] has a wider/greater extension in the conclusion than in the minor
o Some beautiful ladies are models premise, when the minor term is particular
 Mediate inference – inference based on at least two proportions and it 2. The middle term must be distributed in at least 1 of the premises
employs a third term 3. The middle term must not appear in the conclusion
o All commercial models are highly paid personalities a. Fallacy of Misplaced Middle Term – happens when the middle
o Some commercial models are actresses term appears in the conclusion
o Some actresses are highly paid personalities 4. The middle term must be taken as a universal in the premises at least
Argument – sequence of proportions in w/c from statements taken as true once
another statement is inferred/derived a. Fallacy of the Undistributed Middle Term – happens when the
Premises – first 2 propositions middle term is taken twice as a particular in both premises
Conclusion – proposition that provides the reason for the truth 5. If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must be affirmative
Kinds of Reasoning a. Fallacy of Negative Conclusion – happens when the conclusion,
1. Deductive Argument – (etym: Deduco – I lead down); process of derived from 2 affirmative premises, is negative
reasoning which proceeds from universal/general laws, 6. No conclusion can be drawn from 2 negative premises
principles/statements to particular instances or propositions; truth of a. Fallacy of 2 Negative Premises – if two terms do not agree w/ the
the premises is intended to guarantee the truth of its conclusion; the same 3rd term, the argument cannot proceed since there will be
conclusion is already implied in the premises = if the premises are true, no common ground between the two terms
the conclusion becomes necessarily true 7. No valid conclusion can be derived from two particular premises
2. Inductive Argument – (etym: Induco – I lead to); process of reasoning a. Fallacy of Double Particular Premises – a syllogism with 2
which proceeds from specific/particular instances to the formulation of particular premises will always violate one/more rules of
general/universal principles or statements; truth of its premises is inference; for a syllogism to be valid, one premise must be
intended to make likely or probably, the truth of its conclusion = true universal
premises do not necessarily guarantee a true conclusion, even if all 8. The conclusion always follows the weaker side
premises are true, the conclusion could be false; appeal to evidence
through sense experience; the strength of the argument depends on a
alllllllllhigher degree of probability
Syllogism – form of deductive argument; standard expression of argument in
Aristotelian logic; basic form of argument wherein it is arranged orderly so as
to show the structure/form of the argument and important terms and
propositions to facilitate logical analysis
 Matter – ideas/terms and judgments/propositions; what the argument
says
 Form – logical connection of the ideas/terms by virtue of which the
conclusion follows necessarily from the given premises
Kinds of Syllogism
 Categorical Syllogism – composed of categorical propositions; first 2
are premises and third is the conclusion; contains 3 terms: major,
minor, and middle term
o All inventors are scientists
o Some inventors are well-known worldwide
o Hence, some people who are well-known worldwide are scientists
 Hypothetical Syllogism – composed of hypothetical propositions; terms
are not identified
o If the suspect is found guilty, then he will serve time in prison
o But he will not serve time in prison
o Ergo, he was found guilty
General Laws Concerning Categorical Argument
1. Dictum de Omni – whatever is affirmed universally, should also be
affirmed of its logical parts
2. Dictum de Nullo – whatever is denied universally, should also be
denied of its logical parts
3. If two concepts agrees respectively with the same third concept, then
they also agree with each other
4. If one concept agrees with a third term and the other disagrees with
the same third term, then they disagree with each other
5. If each two terms disagrees respectively with the same term, then
nothing can follow/concluded
Eight Laws of Categorical Syllogism
1. There must only be 3 terms in the syllogism
a. Fallacy of 4-term construction – committed when there are 4
terms instead of 3 in the syllogism