Isip, Maria Kristna C.

BSMT – 1B
1. What are the primary functions of the skeletal system?
a. Body support
b. Facilitation of movement
c. Protection
d. Storage
e. Blood cell production
2. Name the major types of fibers and molecules in the extracellular matrix of
the skeletal system. How do they contribute to the functions of tendons,
ligaments, cartilage and bones?
 The collagen fibers of tendons and ligaments make these structures very
tough, like ropes or cables. Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas the
water-filled proteoglycan makes it smooth and resistant. The extracellular
matrix of bone contains collagen and minerals, including calcium and
phosphate.
3. Define diaphysis, epiphysis, epiphyseal plate, medullary cavity, articular
cartilage, periosteum and endosteum
a. Diaphysis - the shaft or central part of a long bone.
b. Epiphysis - the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from
the shaft.
c. Epiphyseal plate - a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end
of a long bone.
d. Medullary cavity - The medullary cavity (medulla, innermost part) is the
central cavity of bone shafts where red bone marrow and/or yellow bone
marrow (adipose tissue) is stored; hence, the medullary cavity is also
known as the marrow cavity.
e. Articular cartilage - Articular cartilage is the smooth, white tissue that
covers the ends of bones where they come together to form joints. Healthy
cartilage in our joints makes it easier to move. It allows the bones to glide
over each other with very little friction.
f. Periosteum - a dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the
bones except at the surfaces of the joints.
g. Endosteum - The endosteum (plural endostea) is a thin vascular
membrane of connective tissue that lines the inner surface of the bony
tissue that forms the medullary cavity of long bones.
4. Describe the structure of compact bone. How do nutrients reach the
osteocytes in compact bone?
 Compact bone is composed of cylindrical units, called osteons, which are
formed from layers of concentric circles, called lamellae, around a central
canal containing blood vessels and nerve fibers. Each osteon has many
little spaces between its rings. Osteocytes receive nutrients and eliminate
 wastes through blood vessels in the compact bone. Blood vessels in the
periosteum and endosteum supply blood to blood vessels in the central
canals. Nutrients exit vessels in the marrow and pass by diffusion through
canaliculi to the osteocytes of the trabeculae.
5. Describe the structure of spongy bone. What are trabeculae? How do
nutrients reach osteocytes in trabeculae?
 Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone.
Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to
small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow. Osteons are absent
in spongy bones, instead they contain “lamellae” arranged in the lattice of
“trabeculae”, from where they receive nutrients via blood supply.
6. Define and describe intramembranous and endochondral ossification
a. Intramembranous ossification - is the process of bone development from
fibrous membranes; bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal
connective tissue.
b. Endochondral ossification - is the process of bone development from
hyaline cartilage; bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage.
7. How do bones grow in diameter? How do long bones grow in length?
 Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by a process that is similar to
endochondral ossification. Even though bones stop growing in length in
early adulthood, they can continue to increase in thickness or diameter
throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle activity or to
weight.
8. What is accomplished by bone remodeling? How does bone repair occur?
 Bone remodeling (or bone metabolism) is a lifelong process where mature
bone tissue is removed from the skeleton (a process called bone
resorption) and new bone tissue is formed (a process called ossification or
new bone formation). In the first year of life, almost 100% of the skeleton
is replaced. There are four stages in the repair of a broken bone: 1) the
formation of hematoma at the break, 2) the formation of a
fibrocartilaginous callus, 3) the formation of a bony callus, and 4)
remodeling and addition of compact bone.
9. Define the axial and appendicular skeleton
a. Axial skeleton - The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and
includes the bones of the skull, ossicles of the middle ear, hyoid bone of
the throat, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage (ribcage) (Figure 1).
The function of the axial skeleton is to provide support and protection for
the brain, the spinal cord, and the organs in the ventral body cavity. It
provides a surface for the attachment of muscles that move the head,
neck, and trunk, performs respiratory movements, and stabilizes parts of
the appendicular skeleton.
b. Appendicular skeleton - The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the
skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the
 appendages. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements
within the limbs, as well as supporting shoulder girdle pectoral and pelvic
girdle.
10. Name the bones of the braincase and the face
 Maxillae, mandible, lacrimal bones, nasal bones, zygomatic bones,
palatine bones, vomer and inferior nasal conchae are the facial bones.
The brain case consists of the paired parietal and temporal bones, plus
the unpaired frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.
11. Give the locations of the paranasal sinuses. What are their functions?
 Paranasal sinuses are found in the forehead, sphenoid, ethmoid, and
maxillae. They lighten the weight of the head, help humidify and heat
inhaled air, increase speech resonance, and protects vital structures.
12. What is the function of the hard palate?
 The hard palate sits at the front of the roof of the mouth and contains the
palatine bone. The hard palate makes up two-thirds of the palate. It
provides structure in the mouth and allows space for the tongue to move
around.
13. Through what foramen does the brain connect to the spinal cord?
 The foramen magnum
14. How do vertebrae protect the spinal cord? Where do spinal nerves exit to
the vertebral column?
 The spinal cord is protected by bones, discs, ligaments, and muscles.
Between the vertebrae there are discs that act as cushions, or shock
absorbers for the spine. Ligaments and muscles help keep the vertebrae
in the right position. The spinal nerves exit through foramens in the
vertebra.
15. Name and give the number of each type of vertebra. Describe the
characteristic that distinguish the different types of vertebrae from one
another.
a. Cervical spine has 7 vertebrae (C1 - C7) which are found in the neck and
are the smallest of the true vertebrae.
b. Thoracic spine consists of 12 vertebrae (T1 - T12) has the presence of
facets to connect to other bones.
c. Lumbar spine consists of 5 vertebrae (L1 - L5) which are the largest of all
vertebra with the absence of facets.
d. Sacrum which consists of 5 fused vertebra (S1-5) and is triangular-shaped
and flat.
e. Coccyx which is 3-5 fused vertebra called the tailbone. It is small and
looks like a tail.
16. What is the function of the thoracic cage? Name the parts of the sternum.
Distinguish among true, false and floating ribs
  Thoracic cages protect the vital internal organs such as the lungs and the
heart. The parts of the sternum are: upper manubrium, body, and lower
xyphoid process.
 True ribs - ribs that are connected directly to the sternum.
 False rib - those which are connected to sternum with help of coastal
cartilage.
 Floating ribs - those which are not attached anteriorly.
17. Name the bones that make up the pectoral girdle, arm, forearm, wrist and
hand. How many phalanges are in each finger and in the thumb?
 Pectoral girdle has two clavicles and two scapulae. The arm consists of
the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges. The base
of the hand contains eight bones, each called a carpal bone, and the palm
of the hand is formed by five bones, each called a metacarpal bone. There
are 14 phalanges on each hand. Three phalanges are present on each
finger, with the exception of the thumb which possess only two.
18. Define the pelvic girdle. What bones fuse to form each hip bone? Where
and with what bones do the hip bones articulate?
 The pelvic girdle is formed by a single hip bone. The hip bone attaches the
lower limb to the axial skeleton through its articulation with the sacrum.
The right and left hip bones, plus the sacrum and the coccyx, together
form the pelvis. The hip joint is the articulation of the pelvis with the femur,
which connects the axial skeleton with the lower extremity. The adult of
coxae, or hip bone, is formed by the fusion of the ilium, the ischium, and
the pubis, which occurs by the end of the teenage years.
19. Name of the bones of the thigh, leg, ankle and foot
 Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.
20. Define the joint or articulation. Name and describe the differences among
the three major classes of joints.
a. Joint - connects different bones together and is responsible for movement
and stability.
i. Fibrous Joints - made of fibrous connective tissue which do not
move
ii. Cartilaginous Joints - those which are made of cartilage or
fibrocartilage
iii. Synovial joints - are joints which have synovial fluid that is able to
provide movement.
21. Describe the structure of synovial joint. How do the different parts of the
permit joint movement?
 The bones of a synovial joint are surrounded by a synovial capsule, which
secretes synovial fluid to lubricate and nourish the joint while acting as a
shock absorber. The ends of the joint bones are covered with smooth,
glass-like hyaline cartilage which reduces friction during movement.
22. On what basis are synovial joints classified? Describe the different types
of synovial joints and give examples of each. What movements does each
type of joint allow?
a. Synovial joints are classified according to shape and structure of the joint.
he shape of the joint affects the type of movement permitted by the joint.
These joints can be described as planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle,
or ball-and-socket joints.
i. Planar joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or
slightly curved faces. These joints allow for gliding movements:
tarsal, carpal.
ii. Hinge joints are the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the
slightly hollow end of the other bone. Ex: elbow, knee
iii. Pivot joints consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring
formed by the other bone. This structure allows rotational
movement: joints of the 1st and 2nd vertebra
iv. Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting
into a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another bone. This joint
allows angular movement along two axes. Ex. joints of the wrist and
fingers
v. Saddle joints are called as they are because the ends of each bone
resemble a saddle, with concave and convex portions that fit
together. They allow angular movements similar to condyloid joints
but with a greater range of motion. Ex: joints of the thumb
vi. Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone
fitting into a cuplike socket of another bone. This allows the
greatest range of motion, as all movement types are possible in all
directions. Ex. shoulder and hip joints
23. Describe and give examples of flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and
supination/pronation.
a. Flexion/extension
 When talking about flexion and extension, we are usually referring
to these movements as they occur about the coronal axis, and
along the sagittal plane. Flexion refers to decreasing a joint angle,
and extension to increasing the joint angle back to resting
anatomical position.
b. Abduction/adduction
 Abduction and adduction refer to movements made about a sagittal
axis and along the coronal plane. Abduction is moving a body part
away from its resting anatomical position in the coronal plane;
adduction is returning it to its normal resting position (includes
‘hyperadduction’).
c. Supination/pronation
 Abduction and adduction refer to movements made about a sagittal
axis and along the coronal plane. Abduction is moving a body part
away from its resting anatomical position in the coronal plane;
adduction is returning it to its normal resting position (includes
‘hyperadduction’).