UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA NACIONAL

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Maestría en Administración de Negocios

Texto 1

Theories of Organizational Development in Business

Organizational development is a necessary process that all organizations must undergo. There
are many factors that make organizational development important for organizations to thrive and
be successful. This article will explain the process of organizational development, identify theories
associated with organizational development, and describe the necessary conditions for successful
organizational change and development.

Organizational development is a complex process that is described as a "set of behavioral

science-based theories, values, strategies, and technologies aimed at planned change of the
organizational work setting for the purpose of enhancing individual development and improving
organizational performance, through the alteration of organizational members' on-the-job
behaviors" (Britt & Jex, 2008, Ch. 15). The process of organizational development will cause
changes in the daily workplace routine, and these changes will cause success and productivity in
the workplace. Organizational developments help an organization to improve and evolve into a
more successful organization.

There are several theories associated with organizational development. Lewin's three step theory
on organizational development is simple but very valuable; it suggests that organizational change
has three steps known as unfreezing, transformation, and refreezing (Britt & Jex, 2008). During
the first step an organization realizes there is a need for change. During transformation the
changes in organizational development occur, and in the final step the implemented changes are
refreeze into the organizational routine. Another of Lewin's theories is the action-research model; it
suggests that organizational development can come through the use of problem identification,
hypothesis development and testing, and data analysis (Britt & Jex, 2008, Ch. 15). This theory is
cyclical, and can be repeated several times during organizational change.

The general system theory is another theory associated with organizational development that
discusses the importance of external environment on organizational development. This theory
suggests that an organization takes something from the environment and transforms it; it then is
given back to the external environment altered (Britt & Jex, 2008). This emphasizes the symbiotic
relationship of the organization and the external environment. Burke's theory of organizational
change also discusses the external environment. Burke's theory considers how leadership, the
external environment, mission and strategy, organizational culture, and individual and
organizational performance work together (Britt & Jex, 2008). Burke suggests that all of these
aspects impact each other in organizational development.

If organizational change and development is to be successful certain conditions must exist. Top
management must support the developments if they are to be successful because they have the
means to make the changes possible. Consultants must be competent and capable of all of the
necessary work needed to cause organizational change (Britt & Jex, 2008). Resistance is a
natural occurrence for change, and employees can be made part of the implementation to make
resistance less dominant (Britt & Jex, 2008). Organizations must also take ownership for the
changes or they will not be taken seriously.

Organizational development is necessary for any organization to survive and be successful. Many
1
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theories have helped organizations to understand and implement organizational developments. It

is important that conditions be correct in an organization if changes are expected to be successful.

Reference

Britt, T. W., & Jex, S. M. (2008). Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach (2

ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/5965366/theories_of_organizational_development_pg2.html
?cat=3

Texto 2

Small business management

It is well-known that small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) constitute the majority of
all businesses in most countries around the world. Consequently, universities and Business
Schools are starting to recognise the need for graduate courses based on small businesses
and entrepreneurship. Academics and researchers have carried their investigations to the
area of small business management, examining the sociological, psychological, managerial
and economic dimensions. Whilst these findings are incredibly significant in terms of
employment creation, new product development, and capabilities for networking, there are
relatively few dedicated programmes at undergraduate or postgraduate levels in small
business management.

The Need for Graduate Courses in Small Business Management

The popular conception that students are led to believe is that the highly paid jobs are only available in
the larger firms. The old assumption that small and medium sized businesses are associated with the
'low end' of economic activity is out of date. Almost all the pointers for innovation, growth,
employment, creativity suggest that the search for the gold mine should lead people to SMEs. Business
Schools should now focus their attention on graduate courses which examine the dynamics of small
businesses so that our future managers are educated leaders of these organisations.

If we are to learn about the major drivers of economic and business activity, Business Schools should
consider a syllabus that reflects the true face of the wider economy and of society. Graduate courses in
small business management are at the core of business management, enabling students to understand
and evaluate the nature of these firms, their boundaries, technologies, skills and knowledge base.
Graduate small business management courses also examine the growing international prescence of
small businesses, the small and large firm network and their capacity for beating the larger
organisation in the innovation and technology game.

Taken together with studies on entrepreneurship and new venture creation, programmes in small
business management at graduate level should help to foster learning for change and value creation in
society and prepare people for the world they really live in today.

Small Business Management in the Creative Industries

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As we examine further the type and nature of SMEs in the market place, making new combinations of
skills, technologies and finance to drive economic growth in the UK, India, China and many other
countries around the world, we find the treasure trove of the 'creative industries'. These are the
players in the information and communications technology industries, in film, media, broadcasting,
professional, business and producer services, music, design, and related industries that represent
some of the fastest growing industries and firms in the world.

They connect with each other globally, they play with convergent technologies that cut across
manufacturing and services, and they move from homes to warehouses and factories in search of
productive gain. In many cases they out-do their larger counterparts through the power of their
creative skills. Their creativity is in the continual generation of new ideas and new knowledge with
which to alter the way we live and work.

The study of their dynamics, their organisational and technological ebb and flow, the complex blend of
skills needed to manage such organisations, the global sourcing of talent, products and services with
which to run these firms, the environments in which they thrive, and the role of government in
facilitating their growth, is at the heart of the MSc in Creative Industry Management.

The small, the creative, the strength of growing, and networked firms from different environments –
these are the honey pots of information, action, social, human and financial capital for our knowledge
creating economy. We need to commit more resources, more energy and time to their study for at
least the next decade or so. These are changing times and studying a graduate courses in small
business management is going to put students ahead of the game and shape the future of business
management.

Article By:

Professor Jay Mitra

Head of School of Entrepreneurship and Business
University of Essex

http://www.internationalgraduate.net/small-business-management.htm

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Maestría en Ingeniería de Calidad

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Meat Packaging

Nanotechnology for Safe Meat Packaging

R S Rajkumar, Suresh R, Susitha K, Prejit and S Wilfred Ruben

THE word ‘nano’ comes from the Latin word. “Dwarf”. The concept of nano-technology was first given by Noble Laureate Physicist Richard P. Fennan in Southern California in 1952
(Kakade, 2003). Eric Drexler popularized the term ‘nanotech’ in 1980’s. Nanotechnology involves experimenting and manipulating with particles, called nano-particles that are
demonstrated in the scale of nanometres (a billionth of a metre). Nano-technology is thus the manufacture of structures, materials, decades and machines using nano-particles with
programmed precision (Chaudary et al., 2006).
Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the global food system. Novel agricultural and food security systems, disease treatment delivery methods, tools for molecular and
cellular biology sensors for pathogen detection, environmental protection, and education of the public and future workforce are the examples of the important impact that
nanotechnology could have on the science and engineering of agriculture and food systems (Carmen et al., 2003). This article discusses application of nanotechnology in meat
packaging industry.

Use of Nanotechnology in Meat Packaging

The flexible packaging industry is growing rapidly. It is a $38 billion global market. With the demand for flexible packaging growing at an average rate of 3.5 percent per year, flexible
materials need to meet and exceed the high expectations of consumers and the stressors of the supply chain. Increasing competition between suppliers, along with government
regulations, have resulted in innovations in films that enhance product and package perfor
mance, as well as address worldwide concerns with packaging waste.
The consumer demands meat, to remain fresh for long time, ease in handling, safe and healthy with environmental friendly packaging. Properties such as mechanical and heat
resistance can be increased (www.azonano.com). Packaging materials that have improved temperature performance can be used for hot fill operations. Very thin films that can offer
the advantages of flexibility and functionalities like being anti-counterfeit, anti-tamper and anti-microbial should be made. Self-heating feature can also be incorporated in the
packaging material. Environment friendly, lightweight-packaging materials can be made for use in army rations. In future, with the aid of nanocomposites we may be able to modify
plastic into a super barrier just as glass or metal (Brody, 2003).

Nanocomposite Technology
Nanocomposites, defined as polymers bonded with “nano” particles to produce materials with enhanced properties are recently gaining momentum in mainstream commercial
packaging use. One such innovation is polymer nanocomposite technology, which holds the key to future advances in flexible packaging. “Nanocomposites appear capable of
approaching the elusive goal of converting plastic into a super barrier - the equivalent of glass or metal-without upsetting regulators.” (Brody, 2003).
Polymer nanocomposites are constructed by dispersing a filler material into nanoparticles that form flat platelets. These platelets are then distributed into a polymer matrix, creating
multiple, parallel layers that force gases to flow through the polymer in a "tortuous path," forming complex barriers to gases and water vapour. The more is tortuosity present in a
polymer structure, the higher is the barrier properties. The permeability coefficient of polymer films is determined using two factors: diffusion and solubility coefficients, i.e., P = DxS.
Different types of fillers are utilized; the most common is a nanoclay material called montmorillonite - layered smectite clay. Clays in a natural state are hydrophilic, while polymers
are hydrophobic. To make the two compatible, the clays’ polarity must be modified to be more “organic.” One way to modify clay is by exchanging organic ammonium cations
[positively charged ions] for inorganic cations from the clays’ surface. Many different types of commercial plastics, flexible and rigid, are utilized for nanocomposite structures,
including polypropylene, nylon, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene.
Chemical giant Bayer produces a transparent plastic film (called Durethan) containing nanoparticles of clay. The nanoparticles are dispersed throughout the plastic and are able to
block oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture from reaching fresh meats or other foods.  The nanoclay also makes the plastic lighter, stronger and more heat-resistant.
Nylon nanocomposites, used as barrier layers for multilayer PET containers, prove to perform as much as two to three times better than the traditional ethylene vinyl alcohol barrier
layers, since nylon has a 50°F higher melt temperature.
The advantages of nanocomposite films are numerous, and the possibilities for application in the packaging industry are virtually endless. Because of the nanocomposite process's
dispersion patterns, the platelets result in largely improved performance in the following properties:

 Gas, oxygen, water, etc. barriers

 High mechanical strength

 Thermal stability

 Chemical stability

 Recyclability

 Dimensional stability

 Heat-resistance

Good optical clarity (since particles are nano-size).      By 2009, it is estimated that the flexible and rigid packaging industry will use 5 million lb of nanocomposite materials in the
food and beverage industry. By 2011, consumption is estimated to be 100 million lb. Polymer nanocomposites are the future for the global packaging industry. Once production and
materials costs decrease, companies will be using this technology to increase their product's stability and survivability through the supply chain to deliver higher quality to their
customers while saving money. The advantages that nanocomposites offer far outweigh the costs and concerns, and with time, the technology will be further refined and processes
more developed.  Other types of nanofillers, allowing new nanocomposite structures with different, improved properties that will further advance nanocomposite are being developed
for uses in many diverse packaging applications.

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Antimicrobial and Active Packaging using Nanotechnology

Nano materials helps to keep products fresh for a longer period of time by using nano-sensors placed in meat production and distribution facilities, meat packaging or the meat itself
which can detect all kinds of meat borne pathogens like E. coli, Campylobacter, Salmonella and Listeria spp by attaching themselves to the pathogens. Nanostructured film can
prevent the invasion of bacteria and microorganisms and ensure the meat safety, a consultancy said. With embedded nanosensors in the packaging, consumers will be able to
determine whether meat has gone bad or find out its nutrition content (www.azonano.com).
Anti-microbial packaging materials are very useful. It is hoped that with the advancement and growth in nano-science we can expect almost all packaging materials with anti-
microbial agents incorporated in them. By placing Nano-sensors in packages, problems such as contamination, toxins or lapses in expiry dates can be detected
(www.azonano.com).
Another window of opportunity for nano-particles is represented by meat safety applications. Latour et al. (2003) are investigating the ability of synthesized adhesin-specific nano-
particles to irreversibly bind to targeted types of bacteria, inhibiting them from binding to and infecting their host. This research is aimed at reducing the infective capability of human
meat borne entero-pathogens in poultry products, using two types of nano-particles. One type is based on the self-assembly of organic polymer (e.g., polystyrene), and the other on
inorganic nano-particles functionalized with polysaccharides and polypeptides that promote the adhesion of the targeted bacterial cells.
Understanding the interaction between contaminated surfaces and microorganisms allowed the design of materials that are resistant to bacterial adhesion. Researchers are already
making efforts to develop a new generation of “self-cleaning” materials loaded with anti-microbial compounds that can be released under certain environmental conditions and kill
the contaminant micro flora (Shefer and Shefer, 2003).
Baker and coworkers have used high-shear mixing of a lipid oil discontinuous phase with an aqueous continuous phase to develop nano-emulsions, which is an effective solution for
disinfecting sensitive equipment safely (Lerner, 2000). Nano-emulsions consist of oil droplets of 400-800 µm in diameter that are able to fuse with and subsequently disrupt the
membrane of a variety of different pathogens, such as bacteria, spores, enveloped viruses, and fungal spores.
Kodak, best known for producing camera film, is using nanotech to develop antimicrobial packaging for meat products are commercially available since 2005. Kodak is also
developing other ‘active packaging,’ which absorbs oxygen, thereby keeping meat fresh.

Electronic Tongue Technology and Smart packaging

Today, meat packaging and monitoring are a major focus of meat industry-related nanotech R&D. Packaging that incorporates nano materials can be “smart,” which means that it
can respond to environmental conditions or repair itself or alert a consumer to contamination and/or the presence of pathogens. According to industry analysts, the current US
market for “active, controlled and smart” packaging for foods and beverages is an estimated $38 billion – and will surpass $54 billion by 2008.
Scientists at Kraft, as well as at Rutgers University and the University of Connecticut, are working on nano-particle films and other packaging with embedded sensors that will detect
meat pathogens. Called “electronic tongue” technology, the sensors can detect substances in parts per trillion and would trigger a colour change in the packaging to alert the
consumer if a meat has become contaminated or if it has begun to spoil.
While devices capable of detecting meat-borne pathogens could be useful in monitoring the meat supply, sensors and ‘smart packaging’ will not address the root problems inherent
in industrial meat production that result in contaminated meats: these problems are faster meat (dis)assembly lines, increased mechanisation, a shrinking labour force of low-wage
workers, fewer inspectors, the lack of corporate and government accountability and the great distances between meat producers, processors and consumers. Just as it has become
the consumer's responsibility to make sure that the meat one is consuming has been cooked long enough to ensure that pathogens have been killed. Consumers will soon be
expected to act as their own meat inspectors so that industry can continue to trim safety overhead costs and increase profits.

Nanotechnology and transportation of gases

Through nano-technology we can increase or decrease gas transmission rate to suit the packaging requirements of the product. Nanotechnology enables designers to alter the
structure of the packaging materials on the molecular scale. With different nanostructure, plastics can gain various gas and water vapour permeability to fit the requirements of
preserving fruit, vegetable, beverage, wine and other foods. By adding nano particles, people can also produce bottles and packages with more light- and fire-resistance,
stronger mechanical and thermal performance and less gas absorption.
Such nano tweaking can increase the shelf life of meats and preserve flavour and colour. SINTEF-Nanotech to create small particles in the film and improve transportation of some
gases through the plastic film to pump out dirty air such as carbondioxide has been developed.
Dispersing a filler material into nano particles, creates multiple, parallel layer that force gases to flow through the polymer in a “tortous path”, forming complex barriers to gases and
water vapour

Nanotech Bio-switch in ‘Release on Command’ Meat Packaging

Researchers in the Netherlands are going one step further. They want to develop intelligent packaging that will release a preservative if the meat within begins to spoil. This "release
on command" preservative packaging is operated by means of a bio-switch developed through nanotechnology to extend the shelf life of meat / food (Gogotsi, 2006). Research
project in Finland is working on printable indicator, which contains reactive substance that signals if oxygen is present in package.

Meat Packaging Sensors in Defence and Security Applications

Developing small sensors to detect meat-borne pathogens will not just extend the reach of industrial agriculture and large-scale meat processing. The US military however views it
a, it’s a national security priority. With present technologies, testing for microbial meat-contamination takes two to seven days and the sensors that have been developed to date are
too big to be transported easily. Several groups of researchers in the US are developing biosensors that can detect pathogens quickly and easily, reasoning that “super sensors”
would play a crucial role in the event of a terrorist attack on the food supply. Researchers at Purdue University are working to produce a hand-held sensor capable of detecting a
specific bacterium instantaneously from any sample. They've created a start-up company called BioVitesse. Environmental friendly, lightweight-packaging materials can be made for

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use in army rations (Brody, 2003).

Overall advantages of nanotechnology on meat packaging

 Thermal Stability and Chemical Stability

 Heat resistance

 Gas, Oxygen, water etc., barrier.

 Dimensional stability and Flexibility

 Functionality – Anti-counterfeit, Anti-tamper, Anti-microbial, Sensors (temperature, moisture, light, decay)

 High mechanical Strength

 Good optical density

 Recyclability.

Companies working on Nano meat packaging

 CONSTAR® International: “Diamond Clear” – nanomaterial blended with polyethylene terephthalate – oxygen scavenger

 Air product polymer: “AIR FLEX EF 9100 EMULSION” – prevent penetration of liquid or gases and environment friendly.

 KODAK®: Antimicrobial food packaging

 Amcol International Co-op – NANOCOR®:  Polymer blended with nanocrystal

 Honey well®: Polymer nanoclay – gas barrier

 OX – Oxygen scavenger

 HFX – Hot Filled Application

 CSD – Carbonated soft drink

 SOLPHAS®: Environment friendly nano-particle for coating plastic film, Antimicrobial packaging

 BAYON®: Supply nano-composite nylon film to juice carton

 KRAFT®: Working on nano-particle films that willl detect meat pathogens

Global overview of Nanotechnology food

A handful of food and nutrition products containing invisible nano-scale additives are already commercially available. Hundreds of companies are conducting research and
development (R&D) on the use of nanotech to engineer, process, package and deliver meat and nutrients to our shopping baskets and our plates. Among them are giant food and
beverage corporations, as well as tiny nanotech start-ups.
The U.S. is leading in nanotechnology research, with more than 400 research centers and companies involved and more than $3.4 billion in funding. Europe has more than 175
companies and organizations involved in nanoscience research, with $1.7 billion in funding, and Japan has more than 100 companies working with nanotechnologies. Globally, the
market for nanocomposites is expected to grow to $250 million by 2008, with annual growth rates projected to be 18 percent to 25 percent per year. A 2004 report produced by
Helmut Kaiser Consultancy, “Nanotechnology in Food and Food Processing Industry Worldwide,” predicts that the nanofood market will surge from $2.6 billion today to $7 billion in
2006 and to $20.4 billion in 2010.

Status in India
To promote research and development in nano-science the Government of India has launched a programme “Nano-Material Science And Technology Initiative” (NSTI) in tenth five-
year plan One hundred crore rupees have been allocated. Yet, this technology is in budding stage and not entered the field of meat science and technology. Mumbai based “Yash
Nanotech” is a business information provider and consultant to entrepreneurs and is aiming to become leading suppliers of nanotech tools, products and services in India. (Mettoth,
2004)

Hazards and risks

Although the hazards and risks of nano-technology are not known but can be assumed that like any other technology this may also have associated hazards and risks.
Environmentalists are afraid that nano-technology may produce contaminants, which because of their nano-size, may pose to be ultra-hazardous. Even if these particles are not
harmful, their interaction with products may be harmful (www.enn.com). However, judicious use of nano-technology will find tremendous applications in various fields. Research has

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shown that nano-sized particles accumulate in the nasal cavities, lungs and brains of rats, and that carbon nano-materials known as ‘buckyballs’ induce brain damage in fish.
Vyvyan Howard, a toxicologist at the University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom, has warned that the small size of nanoparticles could render them toxic, and is of the opinion that
full hazard assessments are needed before manufacturing is licensed.
Many interested parties, including the Canadian ETC Group and the insurance company Swiss Re, have expressed their concern over releasing tiny particles, which, because of
their small size, are able to travel very far into the environment. They warn that we do not yet know how these particles will act in the environment or what chemical reactions they
will trigger on meeting other particles. However, these same groups also concur with nanotechnology advocates who feel the field may offer ‘cleaner’ technologies, and, ultimately, a
cleaner environment. But mostly, the concern is for the lack of research into nanotechnology’s potential threats to human health, society and the environment. After witnessing
widespread rejection of genetically modified meats, the meat industry may be especially skittish about owning up to R&D on “atomically modified” meat products (www.enn.com).

Conclusion
There are lots of challenges in the upcoming nano-technology. Based on its applications in almost all the fields, it is gaining popularity and needs to be harnessed through a holistic
approach. Scientists from different streams viz., microbiology, material sciences, chemistry, chemical engineering, bio-engineering, bio-chemistry, food science, meat science, public
health have to join hands together for the cost effective and safe meat. Nanotechnology can meet consumer demand for cost effective and safe meat.  Nano-packed meats have
better shelf life, lighter weight and better recyclability. In long run nanotechnology will change the fabrication of whole packaging. Nano-technology can make products cost-effective.
Production will be carried out by self-replicating nano-devices using small assent of material, energy, low capacity, less labour and land. Thus production is more efficient. The
potential of nano-technology in meat industry cannot be fully appreciated yet because of lack of sufficient knowledge. If nano-technology continues to advance at its current pace,
we could expect that soon we will be able to create unlimited amount of meat by synthesis at the atomic level, which would eradicate hunger (Carmen et al., 2003).

References
Brody, A. L. (2003). ‘Nano, nano’ food packaging technology. Food Technol. 57: 52-54.
Carmen, I., Moraru., Chithra, P., Panchapakesan., Qingrong Huang., Paul Takhistov, Sean Liu and Kokini, L. (2003). Nanotechnology: A New Frontier in Food Science. Food
Technol. 57 (12): 24-29.
Gogotsi, Y. (2006). Nano materials Handbook. Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. CRS Press.
Kakade, N. (2003). Nanotechnology: new challenges. Electronics for You, 35:3-36.
Latour, R. A., Stutzenberger, F. J., Sun, Y. P., Rodgers, J., and Tzeng, T. R. Adhesion-specific nano-particles for removal of Camphylobacter jejuni from poultry. CSREES Grant
(2000-2003), Clemson Univ., S.C. www.clemson.edu. (Accessed June 2008).
Lerner, E. J. (2000). Nano is now at Michigan. Medicine at Michigan, summer issue, pp.14-21. Available at www.medicineatmechigan.org. (Accessed June 2008).
Chaudhary, M., Pandey, M. C, Radhakrishna. K. and Bawa, A. S. (2006). Nano- Technology: Applications in Food Industry. Beverage and Food World. 32 (11): 60-63.
Mettoth, R.(2004). Nanotechnology shaping the future. Electronics for You. 36: 40-49.
Shefer, A. and Shefer, S. (2003). Novel Encapsulation system Provides Controlled Release of Ingredients. Food Technol. 57 (12): 40-42.
www.azonano.com. Food Packaging Using Nanotechnology Methods: an Overview of ‘Smart Packaging’ and ‘Active Packaging’.
www.enn.com. Nanotechnology: Advantages and Hazards

http://www.pfionline.com/index.php/columns/packaging/183--nanotechnology-for-safe-meat-
packaging

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Especialización en Higiene y Seguridad del Trabajo

Texto 1

Negative Effect Of Mechanical, Chemical And Biological Hazards On

Workplace Health

Who would want to work in a place where they would be needing to risk their lives everyday Of course
there is such a thing as occupational hazard, but unnecessary risks whether included in occupational hazards
or not, should still be addressed by company workplace health programs. By addressing these very
important health issues at work, employee moral can increase and so will productivity and eventually bottom
line.

The workplace should be free from any needless risks and it is up to the workplace health programs to make
sure this is always the case. Extremely hot or cold temperatures or health risks involving radiation and
microwaves are two examples of risks at two difference workplaces.

Although there are an infinite number of hazards, it can also be classified into mechanical, biological and
chemical.

Mechanical hazards include ordinary common day hazards like slipping on a wet floor, the risk of falling,
collisions and even entanglement. It may seem like its nothing serious but falls, entanglements and even just
slippages can mean paralysis or even worse.

It is however all the same that management must address all and any risks to workplace health.

Health programs at work can be extremely cheap, as a simple yellow tape can create the awareness that that
place is dangerous so anyone should stay away. Creating barriers to prevent people from falling of elevated
areas is another example. Each and every single one of these workplace health measures to reduce risk and
eventually eliminate it altogether.

Every day, new chemicals and new forms of compounds are being synthesized. There is no use in
classifying each chemical as there are so many under the sun.

Since each chemical does its own thing in different environmental conditions, it is very hard to say right
away what the risk to workplace health is.

One way to manage the workplace health risks of chemicals is to have Material Safety Data Sheets on each
chemical present in the workplace. Data on how to prevent and manage spills, how to handle the chemicals
are all included in each chemical MSDS.

Every possible staff that may be in danger of the chemical should at the least be notified and made aware of
where the MSDS is stored for times of emergency.

If you've ever wondered if diseases from bacteria or viruses were hazards, you're right on the money as these
are all biological health hazards present not just at home but also in the workplace. While nurses and doctors
may be more at risk of biological workplace health hazards, each profession or job has its own hazards from
illnesses and diseases. Since diseases can be airborne, waterborne and what have you, it is impossible to
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confine it.

Educating employees should be the number one priority to prevent biological hazard to wreck havoc in the
lives of the staff. Simple things like washing hands with soap, proper waste disposal, proper procedure for
handling cuts, bruises and injuries and so forth can go a long way in managing these biological workplace
health hazards.

One more way of preventing the widespread of these diseases is by having regular checkups among the
employees and immediately isolate employees that are already infected.

It may be ideal that all risks in the workplace be eliminated but this is impossible, the next best thing is to
have employees that are knowledgeable about the risks involved. When people start to be more cautious and
know about hazards, the workplace is instantly a safer place. Just knowing isn't enough, only by doing will
the workplace health improve.

Read more: http://www.articlesnatch.com/Article/Negative-Effect-Of-Mechanical--Chemical-And-

Biological-Hazards-On-Workplace-Health/1005277#ixzz1OMui55UI
Under Creative Commons License: Attribution No Derivatives

Texto 2

Ergonomics of the Office and Workplace: An Overview

By: John J. Triano, DC, PhD and Nancy C. Selby, BS

Back pain is one of the most common work-related injuries and is often caused by ordinary work activities such as
sitting in an office chair or heavy lifting. Applying ergonomic principles - the study of the workplace as it relates to the
worker - can help prevent work-related back pain and back injury and help maintain a healthy back.

The goal of an ergonomics program in industry is to adapt the workplace to a specific worker, dependent on the job
description, required tasks and physical make up of the employee performing those tasks. Two types of situations
typically cause people to begin having back pain or to sustain a back injury while on the job:

1. Non-accidental injury, where pain arises as a result of normal activities and requirements of the task. Poor
body mechanics (such as slouching in an office chair), prolonged activity, repetitive motions, and fatigue are
major contributors to these injuries. This may occur from sitting in an office chair or standing for too long in one
position.
2. Accidental injury results when an unexpected event triggers injury during the task. A load that slips or shifts as
it is being lifted, and a slip and fall or hitting one’s head on a cabinet door are typical examples. These accidents
can jolt the neck, back and other joints with resulting muscle strain or tearing of soft tissue in the back.

Back Injury from Physically Demanding Jobs

Occupations that are physically demanding and require repetitive lifting (such as in nursing or heavy industry) are at
greatest risk for both non-accidental and accidental back injury. For example, many healthcare workers have back
problems because patients are of different stature and weight with varying needs. Often, the patients need help
changing position, rising from a chair and walking. Similarly, the physical effort needed on an accident or fire scene to
release a trapped person or save a life is unpredictable. The same problems occur in the construction industry where
consistencies of tasks are a challenge.

Office Chair Back Injuries

People who sit most of the day, such as those who work at a computer while sitting in an office chair, are also at high
risk for non-accidental back injury. Office ergonomics, or computer ergonomics, can help minimize the risk of repetitive
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Facultad Regional Mendoza
ESCUELA DE CUARTO NIVEL
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injury, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, and the risks associated with prolonged sitting in an office chair, such as
neck strain, lower back pain and leg pain.

This article and other related ones summarize the use of ergonomic concepts, mechanical devices and good body
mechanics (biomechanics) that can contribute to reducing back injuries in the work environment for many jobs.
Importantly, staying physically fit, strong and flexible improves the likelihood of avoiding back injuries in all types of
work environments.

http://www.spine-health.com/wellness/ergonomics/ergonomics-office-and-workplace-overview

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Facultad Regional Mendoza
ESCUELA DE CUARTO NIVEL
COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS EN INGLÉS

Maestría en Ingeniería Estructural Sismo Resistente y Maestría en Desarrollo Sustentable del Hábitat
Humano

http://www.environmentmagazine.org/Archives/Back%20Issues/January-February
%202009/FullerPortisKammen-full.html

Toward a Low-Carbon Economy: Municipal Financing for Energy Efficiency and Solar Power
by Merrian C. Fuller, Stephen Compagni Portis, and Daniel M. Kammen

T he economic and environmental need to transition to a low-carbon economy is now at the forefront of energy science, engineering, and policy discussions in the

United States and internationally. Former Vice President Al Gore has called for a carbon-free electricity supply in the United States by 2018, 1 and in California, Japan, and
the United Kingdom, a growing list of municipalities have legislated 70–80 percent or higher reductions in their greenhouse gas emissions over the next four to five
decades. These cuts are consistent with the recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Thus far much of the effort has been focused on
technology and policy solutions, with very little attention given to how this change can be enabled through creative financing.

A critical arena for this transformation is in buildings, which account for more than 70 percent of the electricity use 2 and almost 40 percent of greenhouse gas emissions 3
in the United States. Many of the more stringent laws to reduce energy use in buildings, such as Title 24 in California, 4 target new buildings. However, because buildings
have many-decade lifetimes, it may be virtually impossible to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the levels described by the lower-risk scenarios of the IPCC 5 and adopted
by local municipalities, 6 states,7 and nations8 without a targeted effort to reduce energy demand in existing homes and commercial spaces.

This means that retrofit efforts, such as improving energy efficiency and adding solar photovoltaics (PV) and solar thermal systems to buildings, need to expand
dramatically. Some states, including California, have already set targets for “net zero energy” new buildings, where efficiency and on-site generation are combined to
reduce residential buildings to zero net energy use by 2020 and commercial buildings by 2030. 9 The California Public Utilities Commission has also set the ambitious goal
to reduce energy use in existing homes by 40 percent and install low-energy heating and cooling systems in 50 percent of new and existing homes by 2020. 10 In addition,
since 2002, the average nominal cost of electricity has risen more than 5 percent per year, and the average cost of natural gas has risen more than 10 percent a year for
residential customers in the United States, 11 driving up the need and demand for programs that bring down energy costs.

Many barriers exist to reducing energy consumption and increasing the use of renewable energy. One is high first cost (“up-front cost”), which is both a psychological and
financial barrier for many people. Our research group from the University of California, Berkeley, has worked with a number of cities, initially Berkeley to address this
barrier by making financing for solar power installations and energy-efficiency retrofits more appealing and accessible to property owners. Urgency around the need to cut
emissions has inspired cities to apply old tools, such as municipal financing, to the new problem of reducing the amount of carbon in the energy supply.

Clean energy municipal financing mechanisms like the City of Berkeley’s program Berkeley FIRST (Financing Initiative for Renewable and Solar Technology) have the
potential to help catalyze the transition to a more sustainable use of energy and also deliver benefits beyond emissions reductions, including a new source of job growth,
reduced strain on the electric power system, and more comfortable and well-maintained buildings. How do these initiatives work, and what might the financial impact be
on participants at the state and national levels? How do the benefits of clean energy municipal financing compare to other available financing options like mortgages and
loans, especially in light of the current financial crisis?

Barriers to Reducing Energy Demand

Over the last 30 years, a contentious debate has continued over why consumers and businesses choose or forego energy-efficient products and practices, and what role
public policy and enabling programs (financing and other) should play in influencing these decisions. Researchers have often tried to explain consumer efficiency-related
decisions using a life-cycle cost analysis, which looks at the up-front costs of adoption versus the energy savings over time. Many public policy efforts start with the
premise that regulations should only promote options that give consumers a positive net present value for the life-cycle cost, using a discount rate for future savings of 5–8
percent. This takes into account the fact that the future savings are worth less to an individual than if they were received today. Thus, the discount rate presents the lost
value of, for example, $100 received a year from now versus $100 received today that could be invested at 5 percent and therefore worth $105 in a year. The net present
value is the future discounted benefits minus the initial investment. Appliance standards were created using this framework with the intention of removing the least-
efficient appliances from the market while keeping the financial burden to a minimum. However, ex-post analyses of implicit discount rates for customer choices reveal
extremely high and widely varying discount rates, often in the range of 25 percent to 75 percent. 12

The difference between a market rate of return and the implicit discount rates observed in consumer choice was labeled the “energy-efficiency gap,” and much effort has
been devoted to closing this gap through incentives and policies to address perceived barriers. 13 Several traditional barriers are purported to cause the energy-efficiency
gap; these same barriers also affect the decision to install solar power systems. The barriers include lack of information, transaction costs, principal-agent barriers, and
high first cost.

Berkeley’s novel financing model for low-carbon energy focuses on the last of these. A contractor may audit a house and suggest improvements that save money in the long
term while increasing the comfort of the house, but the owner may not have the money available for the project. Up-front costs can even cause individuals with access to
capital to decline a project, as they may prefer to spend their money on higher-priority items. The psychological burden of a large payment may also be significant,
especially to reduce an expense such as a utility bill, which is often a small percentage of total expenditures for individuals and businesses. Financing alleviates this
problem by allowing individuals and businesses to pay over time and match the timing of the payments with the benefits realized from the projects.

Clean Energy Municipal Financing

Berkeley FIRST is an example of clean energy municipal financing in development by the City of Berkeley that will provide the up-front funds for residential and

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 UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA NACIONAL
Facultad Regional Mendoza
ESCUELA DE CUARTO NIVEL
COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS EN INGLÉS

commercial property owners to install electric and thermal solar systems and make energy-efficiency improvements to their buildings. Berkeley has committed to provide
funding for the program through the issuance of a special tax bond that is repaid semi-annually over 20 years through special taxes collected on only the property tax bills
of participating property owners. The financing mechanism is based on California’s Mello-Roos financing law and does not require a city subsidy or exposure to the city’s
general fund.14 As of summer 2008, the city had received more than 1,300 inquiries from municipalities around the world asking how this program will be implemented.

To participate in a clean energy municipal financing program, a residential or commercial property owner selects a contractor and identifies their choice of solar and
energy-efficiency upgrades that fit within the scope of the program, as defined by the municipality. A project might include a solar PV array or a solar thermal system and
improvements to the energy efficiency of a building, such as adding insulation and new ducts, sealing building shell leaks, and replacing a furnace or air conditioning unit.
Improvements to a residential property could cost $4,000–$20,000 or more. The property owner submits an application to the municipality, whose staff reviews the
scope of work and checks that they have a clear property title. After the municipality approves the application, the work is completed, a lien is placed on the property, and
a check is issued to the property owner. A special tax is added to future property bills. If the property is sold before the end of the 20-year repayment period, the new
owner pays the remaining special taxes as part of their property’s annual tax bill. The interest component of the special tax payments will be tax deductible, similar to a
home equity line or home mortgage. The special tax bond is backed by the liens on participating property owners’ homes.

Berkeley FIRST is expected to be a major component of Berkeley’s effort to reduce local greenhouse gas emissions, promote energy-efficiency improvements in its
buildings, and make the shift to renewable sources of energy more affordable. Berkeley’s Measure G, a city-wide public ballot measure, set a target greenhouse gas
reduction of 80 percent from the 1990 baseline for the city by 2050, consistent with the IPCC findings. 15 The measure was approved by 81 percent of voters. Energy-
efficiency improvements, solar PV, or solar hot water systems are already cost-effective for many residential and commercial property owners with the existing state and
federal subsidies. Berkeley FIRST addresses high first cost and the concern of some property owners that they will not get the full benefit of their investment if they sell the
property. Initial signs show strong demand for the program. The City of Berkeley started accepting applications through its Web site on 5 November 2008, and
applications to claim the $1.5 million available for the pilot were submitted within 10 minutes.

This program has the potential to be implemented in municipalities across the country. Laws in many states already enable a similar financing mechanism, and other
states are pursuing legislation to enable the use of clean energy municipal financing. For example, State House Bill 08-1350, passed by the Colorado legislature and signed
into law in 2008, allows local governments to finance improvements with a repayment over 20 years through special assessments collected through the property tax
system. This law allows local governments to proactively provide a mechanism for property owners to decrease their use of fossil fuels for heating and electricity, providing
a public benefit. In November 2008, Boulder used this authority to pass Measure 1A, which allows the county to issue up to $40 million in special assessment bonds to
finance clean energy improvements. Similar legislation has been enacted in California and is proposed in other states. These early programs have been implemented
through city, county, and state-level initiatives; the federal government could support such programs by providing capital or by assisting municipalities in aggregating
bonds so that larger bonds can be issued at a lower cost.

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