DOI: 10.1002/tie.

22090

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The efficacy of talent management in international business:

The case of European multinationals

Chitalu Kabwe | Chukwuneke Okorie

Plymouth Business School, University of

Plymouth, Plymouth, UK Abstract
The focus of this study is on the efficacy of talent management (TM) practices to the
Correspondence
Chitalu Kabwe, Plymouth Business School, performance and operations of international businesses. There are relatively limited
University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, dedicated studies on the value and effectiveness of TM as an identifiable interna-
Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
Email: cbkabwe@yahoo.com, chitalu. tional practice and its contribution to international business. Anecdotal research and
kabwe@plymouth.ac.uk consultants' reports have argued for an increase in the return on investment where
TM practices are aligned with the business strategy. Conceptually, human capital the-
ory is adopted to explain investment in high potentials in addition to the resource-
based view, which help explain the development of internal sources of competitive
advantage, which are rare, inimitable, nonsubstitutable, and valuable. This article
builds on knowledge by qualitatively examining managerial experiences of TM prac-
tices within 17 European internationally operating businesses with employees rang-
ing from 800 to 200,000. An exploratory qualitative approach is adopted, with
semistructured interviews as the main data collection tool. Findings accentuate the
significance of developing the most valuable source of competitive advantage—peo-
ple. We argue that, if TM is effectively implemented can result in the development of
unique competences, which can ease the burdens of cross-border business chal-
lenges and lead to sustainable competitive advantage.

KEYWORDS
international business, talent, talent management

1 | I N T RO D UC T I O N of academic research lacks empirical research and has tended to be

The focus of this study is the efficacy of talent management
(TM) practices to the performance and operations of international busi-
nesses. In particular, we explore: (a) What is the value of TM practices in
international firms and; (b) To what extent do TM practices contribute
to the productivity of international firms? The study employs data col-
lected from senior managers and human resource (HR) managers
involved in TM within 16 European internationally operating business
with the number of employees ranging from 800 to 200,000. Through
the use of data from these companies, the current research offers the
much-needed empirical evidence on a growing research field of TM. As
noted by McDonnell, Lamare, Gunningle, and Lavelle (2010), TM as field
based upon anecdotal practitioner and/or consultancy views and small
case study-based investigations (c.f. Hartmann, Feisel, & Schober, 2010;
McDonnell et al., 2010; Stahl et al., 2007). Although there is now an
increase in research on TM at an international level (Ahamand et al.,
2018; Ambrocious, 2018; Bhattacharyya, 2017; Co, Nguyen, Nguyen, &
Tran, 2018; Latukha, 2018; Lazaris & Freeman, 2018), a gap remains as
regards to the context (Collings, Scullion & Dowling, 2009; Tarique &
Schuler, 2010; Thunnissen, Boselie, & Fruytier, 2013; Thunnissen, 2016)
and effectiveness of the approaches taken to manage talent in different
types of international organizations. The present research contributes
to filling this gap by exploring the efficacy of TM to international busi-
ness through lived experiences of senior and HR managers in Europe.

Thunderbird Int. Bus. Rev. 2019;1–16. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/tie © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1
2 KABWE AND OKORIE
Europe presents an interesting context for developing an under-
standing of TM. In 2007, the Boston Consulting Group survey con-
cluded the HR profession within the European context was least
competent in managing talent although TM was regarded one of the
five key managerial challenges (Boston Consulting Group, 2007).
Despite this perturbing conclusion, the Boston Consulting Group
(2007) survey report argued over a five-year period, organizations
with TM programs, which are aligned with the business strategy,
delivered a return on investment measured by return on common
equity (ROE), 20% higher on average than those of rival companies
where strategies are not aligned. Where key elements of their TM
programs are aligned, ROE over a five-year period averages 38%
higher than that of competitors without alignment (Collings et al.,
2010). Another report by Ernst and Young (2010, p. 4) argue “Superior
TM correlates strongly with enhanced business performance.” How-
ever, the academic literature shows there is little empirical evidence
on TM and its contribution to organizational performance in the long-
term (Joyce & Slocum, 2012; McDonnell, 2011; Schuler, Jackson, &
Tarique, 2011a, 2011b; Sparrow & Makram, 2015). This is a key
starting point for this study.
This article presents a more focused exploration of the effective-
ness of TM for international business to fill the highlighted gap earlier.
Although there have been valuable contributions to TM at a global
level (Collings & Mellahi, 2009; Farndale, Scullion, & Sparrow, 2010;
McDonnell et al., 2010; Tarique & Schuler, 2010), TM and expatriation
(Cerdin & Brewster, 2014; Vaiman, Haslberger, & Vance, 2015), and
global TM (GTM) and competitiveness (Petkovic & Dordevic, 2013),
an interest in MNCs (Cascio & Boudreau, 2016; Hartmann et al.,
2010; McDonnell, 2009; Mellahi & Collings, 2010) and empirical stud-
ies remain sparse (Tansley, Kirk, & Tietze, 2013; Thunnissen et al.,
2013). There are limited studies that address the extent to which TM,
as an identifiable international practice and its contribution, has to
international business. For example, Cerdin and Brewster's (2014)
study highlights the gap between expatriation management and TM,
which are undeniably closely related, but are hardly ever studied or
managed together despite their contribution to international business.
In this vein, we build on knowledge in the field of TM in three
major ways.
First, we explore the managerial practical experience of the effi-
cacy of TM by qualitatively examining these practices. Although there
has been recent research examining the link between TM and organi-
zational performance (Gelens, Hofmans, Dries, & Pepermans, 2014;
Luna-Arocas & Morley, 2015) and studies investigating employee
work attitudes as mediating variables in TM research (Chami-Malaeb &
Garavan, 2013; Luna-Arocas & Morley, 2015), the practical explora-
tion gap still remains (Sparrow & Makram, 2015). Second, we make a
theoretical contribution through the adoption of the human capital
theory (HCT) and the Resource-based view (RBV). Although previous
research has suggested linking TM to HCT (Crane & Hartwell, 2019;
Tarique & Schuler, 2010) and using the framework as a conceptual
underpinning of TM (McDonnell, 2009). The theories appear not to
have been applied as a dual interpretive framework for TM practices
in international organisations.
Finally, we make a contribution by studying TM within interna-
tional businesses in the context of Europe. Recent studies (Tansley
et al., 2013; Thunnissen et al., 2013) have called for consideration of
relevance of context in TM. The study also builds on the work of Thu-
nnissen et al. (2013, p. 1745) who noted the current concepts and
assumptions in the TM literature are more related to U.S.-based
MNCs, which renders a description of TM in another context inaccu-
rate. Therefore, industry-related and national-related characteristics
have to be taken into account to define and describe TM precisely
(Boselie, 2010).
2 | WHAT IS TALENT MANAGEMENT?
Before the introduction of the concept of TM, competence and skills
development were the most commonly used terminology in the
Human Resources Management (HRM) literature (Boulter & Hill,
1996; Hooghiemstra, 1992; Mansfield, 1999). There has been a more
generic emphasis on competence development within the HRM litera-
ture because of the focus on the development of all employees and
ensuring everyone performs to the required standard. Undoubtedly,
TM as a management practice and academic field has emerged as an
important and clearly novel practice that makes a departure from the
HRM egalitarian approach, which focuses on the welfare of all
employees. TM employs segmentation of the workforce as a key dif-
ferentiating characteristic, which enables concentration on the devel-
opment of a selected few individuals who are capable of making a
disproportionate impact on organizational performance (Iles, Chuai, &
Preece, 2010). Two key points are presented below.
First, TM presents an important managerial practice necessary for
building an inimitable, rare, and sustainable source of competitive
advantage. The practice of TM allows an organization to develop their
identified talent internally using a variety of development activities
(Iles et al., 2010; Collings et al., 2010). In this respect, TM is not only
important in creating inimitable intangible assets and cultivating an
internal labor market but also plays a key role in retaining talent
(Sparrow & Makram, 2015). As noted by Sparrow and Makram (2015),
creation of value through TM at the organizational level is done
through exploiting the organization's internal resources and capabili-
ties to implement strategies that enable them to respond to market
opportunities, for example, by creating economic value and enhancing
an organization's performance in international operations.
Second, in relation to the line of argument by Hamel and Prahalad
(1993, 1994), TM can be regarded as a means of building an organiza-
tion's core competences. These authors argue that, competitive
advantage in the long term stems from building core competences in a
firm, which are superior to those of rivals. Sparrow and Makram
(2015) refer to what they call the TM architecture, which is the combi-
nation of systems, processes, and practices developed and
implemented by an organization to ensure the management of talent
is carried out effectually. By assuming the operation of these TM
architectures, there is an implied reliance on human capital thinking to
make a series of value claims including the fact that value resides in
KABWE AND OKORIE
the unique set of knowledge, capabilities, contributions, commitment,
skills, competencies, and abilities possessed by an organization's talent
(Schiemann, 2014; Sparrow & Makram, 2015). Given this thinking, TM
practices present a new way of building an organization's competitive-
ness, which may be regarded as inimitable.
Discourses of TM at a global level have been sustained by the
assumed contribution to an organization's productivity and competi-
tive advantage (Beechler & Woodward, 2009; Björkman, Ehrnrooth,
Smale, & Sumelius, 2013; Collings & Mellahi, 2009; Joyce & Slocum,
2012; McDonnell, 2011; Ready & Conger, 2007; Schuler et al., 2011a,
2011b; Son, Park, Bae, & Ok, 2018; Sparrow & Makram, 2015). Tal-
ented employees are considered as a firm's intangible resource; and a
system of practices and systems to manage them are considered to be
the most valuable (Dewhurst, Hancock, & Ellsworth, 2013; Scholz,
2012). Therefore, the focus of TM is not only filling positions with the
right people but more so contributing to the strategic goals of a com-
pany (Farndale et al., 2010; Lewis & Heckman, 2006), and is seen as a
set of tools to generate a firm's competitive advantage (Latukha,
2018,p. 69). Indeed, within an international context, organizations
often find a strategic value from employees who possess forms of
human capital, which go beyond the firm-specific level (Morris, Snell
& Björkman, 2016). Therefore, at an international level, TM is seen as
a means of facilitating the development of sustainable competitive
advantage through identifying, recruiting, developing, motivating, and
retaining the best people to achieve strategic goals of a company with
a focus on key positions (Collings & Mellahi, 2009; McDonnell &
Collings, 2011; Scullion & Collings, 2010).
Mindful of all these considerations, GTM is defined for the pur-
pose of this article, as “the strategic integration of resourcing and
development at the international level and involves the proactive
identification, development and strategic deployment of high per-
forming and high-potential strategic employees on a global scale
(Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007, p. 102).” Identifying talent alone is
insufficient: of more importance is the development and retention of
talented employees who possess the key knowledge to sustain the
competitive position of the company.
3 | D I F F ER E N C E S B E T W E E N T M A N D
INTERNATIONAL HRM
Although there are authors who define TM as a set of HR practices
(Kesler, 2002; Schweyer, 2004; Sullivan, 2004), there are differences
between TM/International TM and International Human Resources
Management (IHRM). Four main differences are presented. The first
three refer to the work of Tarique and Schuler (2010) who identify
three major differences between GTM and IHRM. First IHRM encom-
passes a wider range of stakeholders (Briscoe, Schuler, & Claus, 2009).
The stakeholders can include customers, investors, suppliers,
employees, society, and the organization itself (Tarique & Schuler,
2010, p. 124). As regards GTM, the most immediate impact is on the
organization and the talented employees, for example, talent develop-
ment practices will enhance the competences of individuals leading to
3
higher productivity (Sparrow & Makram, 2015). Second, while IHRM
addresses broader concerns as a result of broader stakeholders and
criteria, whereas GTM focuses on attracting, developing, and retaining
employees in multinational enterprise (MNE) (Tarique & Schuler, 2010).
According to Iles et al. (2010), TM is integrated HRM with a selective
focus on a relatively small segment of the workforce, regarded as “tal-
ented” based on their current performance or future potential.
Third, IHRM encompasses more HR policies and practices while
GTM tends to be primarily focused on the HR policy and practice
activities of planning, staffing, appraising, compensating, and training
(Collings & Mellahi, 2009). In addition, TM also includes strategy,
organizational culture, and change management (Iles et al., 2010). In
this respect, TM can be considered as a subdiscipline of IHRM (Iles
et al., 2010). IHRM has a wide range of policies and practices including
planning, staffing, compensating, training and developing, appraising,
labor relations, and safety and health (Briscoe et al., 2009; Dowling,
Festing, & Engle, 2008).
Finally, in many cases, TM adopts an exclusive approach focusing
only on a few individuals regarded as having high potential and/or tal-
ent. IHRM has an egalitarian approach that focuses on the welfare of
all employees. TM, based on an exclusive approach, promotes the
identification and development of a selected few individuals who are
capable of making a disproportionate impact on organizational perfor-
mance. Indeed, in practice, there are two main approaches used by
organizations—exclusive and inclusive. First, the exclusive approach
that promotes an elitist perspective holds that only about 20% of an
organization differentially contributes to the performance of the orga-
nization and are, therefore, worthy of investment in development
(Dries, 2013; Gallardo-Gallardo, Dries, & González-Cruz, 2013;
Swailes, 2013; Tansley et al., 2007). Although GTM and its many
potential challenges can be examined in the context of IHRM, there
are significant differences between the two concepts.
4 | T M AN D I NT E R NAT I ON AL BUS I N E SS
International business involves doing business across national borders,
which encompasses operating in different institutional and national
cultural contexts as well as dealing with clients, suppliers, advisors,
and employees from a variety of local contexts. Furthermore, the
global economic weight has shifted toward emerging markets
(Cascio & Boudreau, 2016). It is no longer the large organizations—
MNEs who are engaged in cross-border trade but also small and
medium enterprises (Cerrato & Piva, 2012; Co et al., 2018; Lazaris &
Freeman, 2018). This kind of scenario presents a variety of unique
sets of operational and managerial challenges, which require a high
level of managerial and leadership skill sets. Indeed, academic
researchers have recognized the importance of talent, including all the
human and organizational elements that are pivotal to enterprise suc-
cess within the global context (Cascio & Boudreau, 2016).
TM as an identifiable practice emerged in the late 1990s after the
publication of the influential work “War for talent” by McKinsey con-
sultants (Michaels, Handfield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001). This report
4 KABWE AND OKORIE
highlighted shortage of talent owing to changing demographics and
the aging population in industrialized countries. In recent years, there
is wide recognition of the criticality of TM in a global context to the
achievement of MNEs' strategic objectives (Collings, 2014; Scullion,
Collings, & Caligiuri, 2010; Stahl et al., 2012; Tarique & Schuler,
2010). For example, within the IHRM literature, there is empirical evi-
dence that highlights the significance of international employee mobil-
ity as a key element of MNE's global talent strategies (McDonnell
et al., 2010; Sparrow, 2007; Stahl et al., 2012). Indeed, these examples
point to significance of sourcing and utilizing high potential and/or tal-
ented employees within international organizations as a means of
profitably influencing the performance and strategic direction of their
firms.
TM has been fueled by changes in the international business envi-
ronment, such as international alliances, cross-border mergers and
acquisitions, and internationalization of small-sized and medium-sized
businesses; all of which demand a more sophisticated skill set from
the employees of firms operating internationally. In this respect, there
is a growing recognition that the success of international alliances
depends most significantly on the quality of management in the com-
bined venture and on learning (Russo & Cesarani, 2017; Scullion &
Collings, 2006). This is also evident in the IHRM literature, where the-
re's empirical evidence of the positive relationship between top-
management team international assignment experience and indicators
of firm performance (Carpenter, Sanders, & Gregersen, 2001; Collings,
2014). The rapid growth in these international joint ventures and
cross-border mergers and acquisitions, combined with that of emerg-
ing markets and, in particular the emergence of India and China as
global players in the international business environment, have led to
an increased demand for talented individuals with the competence
required to operate in the global environment (Collings et al., 2007;
Schuler, Jackson, & Luo, 2004). Therefore, identifying, developing, and
retaining skilled employees become crucial in order for international
firms to compete favorably in different markets at home and abroad.
Europe presents a unique landscape for international business
worthy of consideration. First, the European region presents a signifi-
cant player in the global economy with 60 of the 100 largest non-
financial MNEs being headquartered in Europe (United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development, 2010). It is considered as one
of the triad of regions that drive the global economy (the others being
NAFTA and Asia) (Rugman & Verbeke, 2004). Second, within Europe,
multinationals tend to internationalize early due to the relatively small
size of their domestic markets (Collings, Scullion, & Vaiman, 2011).
Early internationalization implies a higher percentage of revenues
comes from outside the home country (Scullion & Brewster, 2001).
Numerous European Multinational Corporation or Company (MNCs)
built up overseas subsidiaries, which enjoyed a large degree of auton-
omy, thus making it difficult to switch from the direction of local
autonomy toward global integration (Collings et al., 2011, p. 456).
Indeed, studies have suggested variations in organizational structure
between North American and European MNCs, with the former plac-
ing more emphasis on formalization of structure and process, while
the latter places greater importance on socialization (Bartlett &
Ghoshal, 1989), which demanded disparate approaches to TM
(Collings et al., 2011). This paragraph was meant to highlight the
unique context of this article, an in-depth discussion of the variations
in approaches is outside the boundaries of the present study. How-
ever, it is worth noting that European MNCs as global economic
players merit an evaluation of the effectiveness of their TM practices.
5 | L I N K I N G H U M A N CA P I T A L A ND T M TO
I N T E R N A T I O N A L BU SI N E S S
HCT was developed as a contribution to theories on economic
growth. HCT states “the knowledge and skills that people acquire
through education and training is a form of capital, and this capital is a
product of deliberate investment that yields returns” (Becker, 1985;
Shultz, 1971). HCT as advanced by Becker (1976) helps in identifying
the conditions under which investment in the development of human
resources makes economic sense for the business enterprise. Exten-
ding HCT to TM in international business entails viewing talent as
human capital necessary for developing and sustaining cross-border
operations. It is argued that, TM as a practice focusing on the long-
term development of human resources could be theoretically
explained by HCT (Brewster, Carey, Grobler, Holland, & Wärnich,
2008; McDonnell, 2009; Tarique & Schuler, 2010). In a conceptual
study conducted by Tarique and Schuler (2010, p. 129), they claim
“HCT can be used to explain the choices the MNE make in managing
IHRM activities to meet the challenges of GTM.” The choices firms
make include investing in and developing the necessary skill set
among high-potential employees in order for MNCs to be equipped in
dealing with issues of operating in different national contexts and
markets. Therefore, employing HCT entails viewing talent in terms of
capital and thus costs related to attracting, retaining, and developing
talent can be viewed as investments in the human capital of the firm
(Tarique & Schuler, 2010).
In exploring the efficacy of TM to international business, it is
important to establish the link between human capital and TM; three
points are advanced in this regard. First, the TM literature has indi-
rectly relied upon human capital thinking to make a series of “value
claims” (Sparrow & Makram, 2015; Lepak & Snell, 1999, 2002).
According to Sparrow and Makram (2015), talented employees are
distinguished from other employees owing to the capital they possess,
which empowers them to make considerable difference and add value
to their organizations. High-potential employees are seen as both an
organization's strategic asset and a manipulable resource that has the
potential to contribute to value creation (Sparrow & Makram, 2015).
For example, in the context of international business, high-potential
employees become invaluable as regards the implementation of a
firm's international strategy as they have the knowledge and compe-
tences that would help an organization to attain competitive
advantage.
Second, TM as a practice can help organizations, particularly inter-
national businesses, to identify critical roles worth investing in and are
central to the organizations success. For example, in a theoretical
KABWE AND OKORIE
model of strategic TM developed by Collings and Mellahi (2009), the
identification of pivotal talent positions is regarded as the first stage
in any TM system. Boudreau and Ramstad (2005, 2007) also advocate
the identification of key positions that have the potential to differen-
tially impact on sustainable competitive advantage. Identification of
pivotal roles can in turn lead to identifying and developing high-
potential employees capable of substantially contributing to the
attainment of a firm's international strategic objectives. This is particu-
larly important for international businesses because of the high costs
of failure.
Third, Mellahi and Collings (2010) contend that effective imple-
mentation of GTM, should facilitate the promotion of talent from
around the global network (both subsidiary and home country talent)
to take key positions within the MNEs including being part of the
upper echelon management team at the center. Within MNEs, there
are issues regarding the development and ownership of talent
between the headquarters and subsidiary, which may hinder the
development of talent. Owing to the fact that the performance of
subsidiaries is evaluated on the revenue they generate, anecdotal evi-
dence shows subsidiaries often veil or put forward less-talented
employees (Cappelli, 2008). This is because subsidiary managers may
derive some benefits from the performance of their highly performing
staff; but derive little or no benefit from their performance in other
subsidiaries and/or headquarters should they move on (Mellahi &
Collings, 2010, p. 146). As noted by Mellahi & Collings (2010), talent
ownership issues may impact the effectiveness of TM across globally
dispersed subsidiaries. This presents a challenge for senior managers in
MNEs as it may affect their ability to gain a competitive advantage.
6 | L I N K I N G R B V A N D TM T O
I N T E R N A T I ON A L B U S I N E S S
In a recent study, McDonnell (2009) contends that, the concept of
TM may be soundly grounded in the RBV of the firm. The four key
features of RBV are inimitability rare, valuable, nonsubstitutable, and
valuable. Inimitability implies the knowledge, skills, ability, and posses-
sion of unique social relations cannot be easily duplicated by competi-
tors. Human talent as a source of competitive advantage may be
inimitable due to the uniqueness of the human capital and the social
capital it embodies. In reference to Hamel and Prahalad (1993, 1994),
TM can be regarded as a means of building an organization's core
competences. These authors argue that, competitive advantage in the
long term stems from building core competences in a firm, which are
superior to those of rivals. Hamel and Prahalad (1994) define core
competences as competitively unique activities and processes through
which resources are deployed in such a way as to achieve competitive
advantage. TM practices present a new way of building an MNE's
competitiveness, which may be regarded as inimitable.
The practice of TM allows an organization to develop their identi-
fied talent internally using a variety of development activities. In this
respect, TM is not only important in creating inimitable intangible
assets and cultivating an internal labor market but also plays a key role
5
in retaining talent (Sparrow & Makram, 2015). As noted by Sparrow
and Makram (2015), creation of value through TM at the organiza-
tional level is done through exploiting the organization's internal
resources and capabilities to implement strategies that enable them to
respond to market opportunities, for example, by creating economic
value and enhancing an organization's performance.
Therefore, the process of TM accentuates the importance of
developing the most valuable source of competitive advantage—peo-
ple. Huselid, Becker, and Beatty (2005) argue that, there are often lim-
ited financial and managerial resources available to attract, identify,
develop, and retain top performers. As there are different groups of
employees whose value to the organization differs, there may be need
for these groups to be treated differently, as they differ in their poten-
tial to add value or risk the corporate brand; different HR/employee
resourcing practices may be required for each talent segment (Iles,
2007, p. 111). Although this should not be at the expense or neglect
of other employees, it is argued that, it is both reasonable and essen-
tial to invest in scarce developmental assignments and spend
resources on the most promising talent (Walker, 2002, in Iles et al.,
2010). Similarly, McDonnell (2009) contends that, resources are more
appropriately utilized if MNEs focus on those designated as the key
talent (high-potential). Certainly, it makes economic sense for an orga-
nization to attract and identify only the high-performing and high-
potential individuals and in turn provide them with further develop-
ment opportunities. This should be the ultimate aim of TM practices
rather than pursuing the egalitarian approach of HRM.
The effective management of human resources is progressively
recognized as a major determinant of success or failure in interna-
tional business (Scullion & Collings, 2006; Stroh & Caligiuri, 1998).
Indeed, the costs of failure in the global business environment are
potentially higher than in domestic operations (Dowling et al., 2008).
This makes it imperative for internationally operating businesses to
engage in TM initiatives so as to enable them to identify and develop
high-potential employees who are capable of sustaining their interna-
tional operations with less risk of failure.
Business survival depends on speed and continuous self-renewal
of knowledge, and developing talent is central to the operations of
companies in general (Stahl et al., 2007) and in particular to those of
MNEs. Undeniably, recognizing the impact of a complex economy that
demands more sophisticated talent, new expertise at all levels of the
organization and fundamental changes in how companies respond to
the imperatives of new technology and globalization, all of which pose
major challenges to the effective management of talent (Cappelli,
2005; Stahl et al., 2007).
TM in international business operations is seen as a means of pro-
viding a degree of consistency for the firm's people management prac-
tices (Brewster, Sparrow, & Vernon, 2007). Brewster et al further note
that a strong corporate culture can make the use of TM approaches
and harmonized company's activities easier across country borders.
TM provides a means of bringing uniformity to the approaches used
to manage high-potential employees dispersed around the world.
Scullion and Collings (2006) note that, numerous TM systems have an
underlying focus on a series of core values that are strongly reflective
6 KABWE AND OKORIE
of corporate values and even the wider industry culture, and therefore
more easily perceived as universal. For example, companies with a
strong value of equality may reflect this in their TM policies by using a
transparent and inclusive approach to managing talented employees.
In summary, conceptually, HCT as a framework explains the
investment that MNCs make in sourcing and developing talent. The
development of talent within an MNC can be grounded in the RBV as
this explains the development of internal sources of competitive
advantage, which are rare, inimitable, nonsubstitutable, and valuable.
This is important for the success of MNCs because international busi-
nesses have unique challenges owing to cross-border operations in
different national and institutional contexts. This results in the need
for a different skill-set required to operate in the global business envi-
ronment, which is more sophisticated and demanding than that
required in a national context (Guthridge & Komm, 2008; McDonnell
et al., 2010). Thus, the ever-increasing complexity and uncertainty in
which MNCs operate is said to create a unique set of organizational,
co-ordination, and managerial issues (Morley & Collings, 2004). This is
primarily because international business operations are conducted in
different countries and employ workers from different national back-
grounds (Scullion & Linehan, 2005). As a result, TM presents a means
of building the necessary human capital leading to rare, unique, non-
substitutable, and inimitable skill set required by international firms to
maintain their competitiveness.
7 | METHODOLOGY
An interpretivist philosophy is adopted because the researchers con-
sider the concept of TM to be socially constructed by senior manage-
ment, mainly for the purpose of enhancing individual performance
with the expected end being improved productivity of the business. In
this context, several authors note that, talent has an indisputable
value as a competitive weapon (Lewis & Heckman, 2006; Mellahi &
Collings, 2009; Tarique & Schuler, 2010). Given this background, it is
undoubtedly clear that TM is a concept that cannot be regarded as
being independent of the involved social actors. The themes and/or
questions explored are in the table:
Owing to the need for an in-depth understanding of TM, the quali-
tative method of research was considered to be appropriate in collect-
ing the data from respondents. Saunders et al. (2016, p. 177) note
“your choice of sampling techniques is dependent on the feasibility
and sensibility of collecting data to answer your research question(s)
and to address your objectives from the entire population.” In this
respect, purposive sampling was adopted. This is a “non-probability
sampling method where the researcher has a clear idea of what sam-
ple units are needed and then approaches potential sample members
to assess whether they meet eligibility criteria” (Easterby-Smith, Tho-
rpe, & Jackson, 2008, p. 218). Semistructured telephone interviews
were conducted with 19 senior managers representing 16 companies.
The respondents were identified mainly through the researcher's
attendance at HRM practitioner conferences such as the chatered
institute of personnel and development annual human resources
development held in London (United Kingdom).
The respondents represented companies from eight different indus-
try sectors: energy, pharmaceuticals, paper manufacturing, financial ser-
vices, construction, engineering, beverage, and motor manufacturing.
Not only are there eight distinct business sectors, but there is also vari-
ety in terms of size of the organizations based on the number of
employees. The biggest company employs 200,000 people, while the
smallest has 800. Furthermore, the titles of the respondents were var-
ied including HR Vice-Presidents, HR Directors, Talent Development
Consultants, Talent Development Managers, and HR Business Partners.
The differences in the titles and the relative position of the respondents
in their companies' hierarchies are significant for this study. Notably,
some respondents even have the word “talent” in the titles. Indeed, the
very distinctions in the job titles suggest the sample has enormous
potential to uncover key facets of TM from, admittedly, a managerial
perspective. Table A2 shows a summary of the respondents.
8 | DATA ANALYSIS
An adapted version of Crewswell's (2007), Spiral was used to analyze
data. At the very bottom of the iceberg is the data collection and tran-
scription of the recorded interviews. The sources of data were mainly
semistructured interviews with senior managers complimented by com-
pany documents and websites. Given these various sources, field notes
and interview transcripts yielded a very large database. For example,
each interview transcript was at least 3,000 words. As understanding
these data would be crucial in achieving the study's objectives, the next
stage was to read through the information, identifying themes and
areas for further clarification from respondents. This aim was achieved
via subsequent e-mail exchanges and telephone calls. An iterative pro-
cess of reading through the data and seeking clarification from infor-
mants was pursued during this stage of the process.
The field notes and transcripts were read again to tease out any hid-
den meanings, an example being that, in responding to the interview
questions, most respondents had reflected on their experiences. This
brought TM practices to life and opened up new doors of exploration.
Accordingly, data coding started at the literature review stage, after which
the themes, represented in Table A1, were identified. Data analysis
involves guiding principles that assist the researcher (Creswell, 2007). By
organizing field notes in files and coding them, the researcher was able to
cope with a vast amount of information. Creswell's (2007, p. 151) spiral
was adapted to include the computer-based data analysis package –
NVIVO. Because NVIVO allowed all the necessary field notes, transcripts
and documents created in Microsoft Word to be uploaded, it enabled the
researcher to read through the interview transcripts. This provided
another opportunity to search for hidden meanings.
9 | FINDINGS
This study aimed at exploring the efficacy of TM practices to international
business. To achieve this aim, three main themes were identified,
KABWE AND OKORIE
interview questions were developed in alignment with these themes:
(a) Understanding the meaning of TM (Definitions); (b) The
role/significance of TM in international operations, and (b) Understanding
TM as a (potential) way of developing human capital (refer to Table A1).
The findings are organized according to these themes.
10 | THE UNDERSTANDING OF TM
All participants were asked to explain their organizational understand-
ing of talent and TM, key themes in the definitions were then collated.
Refer to the Table A3.
Although there is variations in the working definitions of TM, four
key themes are evident. First, 11 out of the 17 companies define TM
as a development process for those employees who have the poten-
tial to take up leadership positions and those with functional or tech-
nical expertise in a particular key area for the purpose of growing
their businesses. This indicates TM is a means of developing unique,
rare, nonsubstitutable, and valuable competences.
Second, in three out of the 17 organizations, TM was described as
a means of meeting the supply of and demand for the right people with
the right skills needed to execute their strategy. Again, this points to
possession of valuable and nonsubstitutable competences, which are
hard to find. These organizations place emphasis on critical positions
that are difficult to fill; those jobs that would provide an organization
with important skills to facilitate the firm's operations in various parts
of the world. For example, in the pharmaceutical company, critical skills
were identified as exceptional knowledge of pharmaceutical sciences,
project management, and research and development.
Third, TM is conceptualized as a tool for meeting an organization's
strategic objectives in eight of the sample organizations. Findings indi-
cate TM programs are a means of building up and leveraging the com-
petences of employees to develop the strategic capability of the firm.
This implies they have to invest and develop the human capital and
ensure they have distinct competences, which place them in an
advantageous position for enhancing international operations. For
example, the energy sector company attracts a considerable number
of joint venture projects owing to the availability of competent
employees within the company.
Finally, TM is seen as a means of developing human capital for the
company. In all cases, there was a strong conviction among respondents
that, if TM was not seen as a means of developing human capital, the
senior managers would not be doing the job of developing competences
among high-potential employees. Provision of the right experiences for
employees and the development of specialist skills in different busi-
nesses within their firms were seen as a key element of TM activities.
This aspect of TM will be discussed in detail at a later point.
1 1 | T H E RO L E / S I G N I F I C A N C E O F T M I N
I N T E R N A T I ON A L O P E R A T I O N S
In all cases, it is evident that the significance of TM in international
firms' operations is captured in the way they define TM. Three key
7
points will be discussed further. First, the findings reveal international
expansion, joint ventures, entering new markets, and getting new
business (extending the business portfolio) are some of the kinds of
business operations that may determine the required categories of tal-
ented employees. For example, as the market for paper has been
shrinking in some parts of the world, the Finnish paper manufacturing
company from the sample needs people who can drive change. The
firm has a great need for new capabilities and competences such as
business development and innovativeness, as can be deduced from
the statement of their HR Director:
So, our business strategy at the moment consists of three races:
The first one is the race for European profitability.
The second one is the race for new growth markets.
And the third one is the race for new businesses.
The firm needs talented individuals who can run their European
business with a focus on maximizing financial revenue by expanding
into new markets and business sectors (for example, Brazil, Russia,
India, and China) as well as grasping the growth opportunities in those
markets. In addition, these sought-after employees must have a
demonstrable ability not only to be innovative, but also to turn new
business ideas into practical profitable businesses.
Second, TM practices appear to be a means of dealing with the
competitive pressures that the management face within their business
environment. The efficacy of TM practices rests on the extent to
which they help the MNCs to deal with business challenges. TM prac-
tices strongly help in identifying the attributes of talented
employees—those with competences to work effectively in the mar-
kets in which the firms operate. From the sample, a major multina-
tional European subsidiary of a global energy company has a mobility
categorization of its talents, including whether they are fully mobile,
have restricted mobility, or are not mobile. This helps the company to
assess how many of their talented employees are readily available for
international assignments both in the long-term and the short-term.
The HR Director for the United Kingdom stated:
Our organisation runs global projects which require
working with other agencies/organisations… One most
important thing that attracts these organisations to our
company is the very fact that it has skilled and experi-
enced partners. However, their mobility is important
for us to meet the demands for our overseas business.
This categorization of mobility is necessary for the effectiveness of
international operations. Apart from mobility, a global mindset and
capability to work in different environments- cultural adaptability is
considered essential. This is captured in the statement:
…you need a specific kind of talent, as you need people
that can have a global mindset and have the capability
of working in different environments, and have the
capability of moving, international mobility, language
8 KABWE AND OKORIE
skills… (Director, Learning and Development, beverage
company, Germany)
In all cases, respondents acknowledged the development of distinctive
competences through TM practices among their high potential was nec-
essary for sustaining their international operations. Therefore, the evi-
dence suggests TM equips the MNCs to be more effective in the markets
in which international firms operate. Furthermore, the various markets
also determine the characteristics and competences that the organiza-
tions seek in their talented employees. Thus, it can be concluded that the
context in which these businesses operate determines the criteria
deployed in identifying talented employees who can work abroad in joint
ventures and the specific competences they seek to develop.
Finally, the data suggest that TM is a means of creating global align-
ment. This was evident in five organizations that had undergone
mergers and acquisitions. In particular, the German Energy Sector Com-
pany was founded after a merger and a series of acquisitions; given this
background, the major challenge faced by this organization was esta-
blishing a uniform mindset for facing challenges in their business envi-
ronment, including identifying and developing high-potential
employees. The Vice-President of Employer Branding (Germany) stated:
…a very big obstacle we had until today was ourselves,
because we are coming from different cultures in our
company, from different programmes and we lost a lot
of time in talking to all talent managers and HR in our
company, until we defined this corporate management
programme.
This organization started out as a German-based company and has
since expanded into foreign markets, resulting in management and
employees with different priorities, values and ways of thinking. The
introduction of a global corporate TM program with uniform assess-
ment tools can be seen as a way of building consistency and a com-
mon commitment to the values and goals of the firm. The fact that
there is only one centralized TM program is evidence that the com-
pany uses this program as a means of creating unity and aligning its
employees, who are geographically dispersed as they continue to
expand into foreign markets.
12 | TM AS A POTENTIAL WAY OF
DEVELOPING HUMAN CAPITAL AND
D I S T I N C T I V E CO M P ET E N C E S
In all cases, the respondents acknowledged TM activities are a means
of developing employees' human capital for the benefit of both the
individuals and the organization. The managerial view was the focus
of this research. Developing high-potential human capital was consid-
ered essential for the sustainability of international operations. One of
the key determinants in making long-term investments in developing
employees' competences was the nature of the business. There was
an indication of needing efficiency and continuity especially among
energy and pharmaceutical companies who tend to have long-term
projects. For example, the German Energy Company usually has pro-
jects lasting 15–17 years. The Vice-President of Employer Branding
for this firm noted:
15-17 years is an average length of time we expect
employees to stay in our company. So, we're talking
about long-term things. If you are building a power
plant, if you're talking about coal you need six to eight
years… if you are talking about nuclear, eight to
12 years from the first meeting until the power plant is
delivering energy. So, we are always talking about
long-term strategies and long-term development.
The aforementioned example demonstrates sample firms make deliber-
ate investment in TM practices, developing high-potential employees,
which brings forth benefits in terms of strengthening the organization's
rare, inimitable, and nonsubstitutable competences resulting in
accomplishing long-term projects of building power plants and deliver-
ing energy to their end customers. High-potential employees in turn feel
valued as the company shows interest in not only helping them acquire
skills and capabilities but enabling them to develop a career.
In developing human capital, considerable importance was placed on
facilitating a fit between TM practices and strategic plans as there was
need to harness TM's potential contributions in the attempt to deliver the
goals of the international businesses. In this light, eight of the sample
organizations noted developing human capital to enable international
expansion was an important consideration in the TM process. Linked to
this is an aspect of spotting skills gaps early on and finding means of filling
these gaps to support the organization's strategy. Accordingly, talented
individuals constitute one of the most important organizational capabili-
ties and this asset needs to be developed to match the changes taking
place in the internal as well as the external environment.
Furthermore, a major multinational European subsidiary of a global
energy company noted that developing human capital through TM
places them in an advantageous position for joint ventures and strate-
gic alliances. The HR Director for the United Kingdom stated:
Our organisation runs global projects which require
working with other agencies/organisations… One most
important thing that attracts these organisations to our
company is the very fact that it has skilled and experi-
enced partners. However, their mobility is important
for us to meet the demands for our overseas business.
Consequently, TM programs are a means of building up and leveraging
the competences of employees to develop the strategic capability of
the international firms, which make them more attractive for strategic
partnerships. Indeed, of considerable value to the performance of busi-
nesses operating internationally is the necessity to build the human
capital- the core competences among their high-potential employees.
However, developing human capital in MNCs is not without chal-
lenges. In this regard, the respondent from a Swiss financial services
KABWE AND OKORIE
company noted it was difficult to identify and develop talent as human
capital in the subsidiaries owing to retention issues and cultural factors.
For example, if high-potential employees from Asia are taken to Switzer-
land for development for a period of 2 years, repatriating them back to
Asia is a problem. Talented employees in this case have the power to
influence resourcing decisions owing to the scarce skills and compe-
tences they possess. Thus, when they are repatriated, if they are not
happy with the conditions, they may decide to leave the company and
invest their human capital in another firm. Given this situation, the Swiss
financial services company reported losing a considerable amount of
resources because an appreciable number of talented employees decided
not to return to their home country and hence left the organization.
13 | DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
The study explores the efficacy of TM for international business. Mak-
ing reference to HCT and RBV, the study adds to the TM literature fill-
ing gaps that have hitherto existed, both theoretically and empirically.
Regarding the value of TM to international business, we find TM to be
a means of identifying, developing, and retaining high-potential individ-
uals who have the human capital necessary to lead the operations and
ensure sustainability of their businesses (Beechler & Woodward, 2009;
Björkman, Stahl & Vaara, 2007; Björkman et al., 2013; Collings &
Mellahi, 2009; Joyce & Slocum, 2012; Makram & Sparrow, 2014; Pet-
kovic & Dordevic, 2013; Ready & Conger, 2007; Schuler et al., 2011a,
2011b; Son et al., 2018). Indeed, TM within MNCs is motivated by a
variety of organizational goals, including business control and client
demands, moderated by cost considerations (Li & Scullion, 2010;
Suutari & Brewster, 2001).
The long-term development of human capital through TM prac-
tices leads to developing the knowledge and competences that are
unique and nonsubstitutable. Development of human capital is aligned
to a firm's long-term international strategy by showing considerable
interest in developing and retaining (engaging) high-potential
employees to sustain international operations. Indeed, this is what
Scullion and Collings (2006) regard as the main purpose of TM in
international operations. In this regard, there is recognition of securing
the commitment of high-potential employees among the respondent
organizations. The management in these organizations has made
efforts as regards securing the commitment of high-potential
employees through career development in TM practices. While there
is agreement among researchers that the effectiveness of TM prac-
tices is likely to be associated with positive high-potential employees'
attitudes (Chang, 2005), the causal chain between high-potential com-
mitment and development through TM has been found to be more
complex than previously thought (Khoreva & Vaiman, 2015). Mean-
while, high-potential employees are likely to perceive, value, and react
to TM practices differently (Khoreva & Vaiman, 2015).
Another value-adding aspect of TM for international business is
developing capital through networking. Networking is not only a means
of acquiring knowledge and skills but also to enhance the know-how to
use their human capital to fulfil both organizational and personal
9
ambitions. As noted by Gratton & Ghoshal, (2003, p. 3), talented indi-
viduals' social networks become capital because “they provide access to
the resources members of the network possess or have access to.” Five
of the companies in the sample send their senior managers to INSEAD
as a means of making external contacts that are significant in getting
information about problems in the wider business environment and
how to solve these. The practice of increasing senior managers' social
networks is also recognized in the work of Adler and Kwon (2002) as a
form of investment in building the network of external relations which
have the potential to augment both individual and collective actors'
social capital, which gives them superior access to information, power,
and solidarity. The managerial emphasis is on creating social capital nec-
essary for employees to deal with their daily challenges in their roles as
well as sharing and acquiring knowledge to improve business opera-
tions. In this context, the management expects to create social capital
for the purpose of enhancing organizational capital (Adler &
Kwon, 2002).
Furthermore, the value of TM practices for international businesses
is realized through the development of leadership competences and
other significant competences of strategic importance to the business,
hence organizations can meet both short-term and long-term goals. As
highlighted in the literature, there is recognition among the respondent
firms that internationally competent managers represent a key compo-
nent of success among organizations operating in different geographical
locations (Scullion, 1994, 2001; Stroh & Caligiuri, 1998). Indeed, within
an international context, it has been argued “there is a growing recogni-
tion that the success of international business depends most impor-
tantly on the quality and contributions of top executive talents and how
effectively these critical resources are managed and developed”
(Brewster et al., 2007, p. 309). This is because developing managerial
competences is seen as a means of improving the effectiveness of
implementing international strategies.
Through TM, the talent pipeline contributes to the process of
maintaining the supply and demand of staff in international opera-
tions. Indeed, the shortage of employees with the necessary compe-
tences and motivation has been described as one of the greatest
barriers to success for firms around the world today (Schuler et al.,
2011a, 2011b). Yet, highly skilled individuals' competences and moti-
vation are crucial to achieving organizational goals and in particular
achieving success in international operations. Indeed, a key result of
successfully addressing the challenges of GTM is having the right tal-
ents at the right place at the right time with the needed competencies
(Guthridge & Komm, 2008; Tarique & Schuler, 2010).
Several studies show that until very recently, it was becoming
increasingly difficult to locate and retain suitable managerial talent to
manage an organization's international operations (Gregersen, Morri-
son, & Black, 1998; Scullion, 1994; Scullion & Collings, 2006; Suutari,
2002). Clearly, empirical evidence shows that in embracing the notion
of TM, organizations are responding to changes in the external labor
market, increased competition and skills shortages, recruitment and
retention difficulties, and the challenges of undertaking succession plan-
ning for senior leadership roles (Holden & Tansley, 2007). The idea of
TM as a process of maintaining the supply and demand of staff for
10
international operations resonate with Cappelli's (2008) concept of TM
as a process for forecasting, planning, and meeting the HR needs of an
organization.
1 4 | CONC LU SIONS
The study set out to explore the questions: (a) What is the value of
TM practices in international firms and; (b) To what extent do TM
practices contribute to the productivity of international firms? The
value of TM practices for international businesses is evident in the
managerial lived experiences. From a human capital perspective, TM
practices are used to invest in the high-potential employees who have
the competences to help the MNCs deal with their competitive pres-
sures within an international context. Attested examples show TM, as
a process of developing talent, accentuates the importance of devel-
oping the most valuable source of competitive advantage—people.
Networking has come out as one of the ways in which TM prac-
tices create value for both employers and high-potential employees.
Networking in TM can be seen as a means to contribute to the incen-
tivizing of highly talented employees, supporting in their morale boost
and long-term retention for successful project completion by interna-
tional businesses. This is not only a means of acquiring knowledge and
skills but also to enhance the know-how to use their human capital to
fulfil their personal ambitions. There are implications for further stud-
ies in this regard. There is need to develop research that examines
how networking in TM can be used as a means of sharing knowledge
and developing organizational capital. The fact that TM as a social
practice within organizations has virtues that transform employees
into high-potential, emerging leaders, future leaders, and key
employees makes this group of individuals construct their sense of
significance, contributions, and authenticity as valued members within
and outside their firms. Power embedded in social practices has
potential to transform individuals into subjects who secure their sense
of meaning and reality through its exercise (Knights & Willmott,
1989). Networking can potentially result in positive work-related out-
comes and career outcomes such as promotion or secondment for an
international assignment.
ORCID
Chitalu Kabwe https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6231-9565
Chukwuneke Okorie https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8078-1323
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Dr Chitalu Kabwe (cbkabwe@yahoo.com) completed her PhD at
the University of Central Lancashire in the United Kingdom, she
also has an MBA from Strathclyde Graduate School in Glasgow,
UK and an MA in HRM from the University of the West of
England in Bristol, UK. She is a Fellow of the Higher Education
Academy and a Chartered Member of the Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development. Her research interest is in the area
of Talent Management, Critical Management Studies, Interna-
tional HRM, Human Sustainability, and Leadership Development.
She has taught HRM courses at four levels: Doctoral, Graduate
(Executive MBA, MBA, and MSc in HRM), and Undergraduate.
Previous appointments include; Associate Lecturer of Human
Resources Management at the University of Central Lancashire;
Senior Lecturer in Management at Huddersfield Business School,
and Lecturer in Human Resource Studies at Plymouth Business
School where she was also the Program Leader for the MSc in
Management and currently serving as a Visiting Specialist.
KABWE AND OKORIE 13

Dr Chukwuneke Okorie currently lectures International Logistics

How to cite this article: Kabwe C, Okorie C. The efficacy of
within the International Shipping, Logistics, and Operations Group
talent management in international business: The case of
of the Plymouth Business School. He is a member of the Charted
European multinationals. Thunderbird Int. Bus. Rev. 2019;1–16.
Institute of Logistics & Transport (CILT). Dr Okorie completed his
https://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22090
Doctorate (PhD) in Maritime Transport and Logistics at the Uni-
versity of Huddersfield. His PhD project specifically focused on
value-adding services as a competitive strategy, comparing ports
in developing and developed economies. He also holds a Master
of Science (MSc) in Logistics and Supply Chain Management, as
well as a Bachelor of Technology (B. Tech) in Maritime Manage-
ment Technology. Areas of his research interest include off-shore
logistics, port logistics and strategy, shipping and value-adding
services, and international business. He lectures in the areas of
International Logistics Management, Supply Chain Management,
International Shipping Management, and Maritime Management.
14 KABWE AND OKORIE

APPENDIX
The meaning of talent management
How do you define talent in your organization?
How do you understand the meaning of talent management used in your organization? /How do you define talent management in your
organization?
Do employees within your organization share the same understanding of this definition of talent management?

TABLE A1 Interview questions

Identified themes and theoretical

bases themes explored
Understanding the meaning of TM
(definitions)
The role/significance of TM in
international operations
Understanding TM as a (potential)
way of developing human
capital and distinctive
competencies
Main questions asked
1. How do you understand the meaning of TM used in
your organization? /how do you define TM in your
organization?
2. Do employees within your organization share the
same understanding of this definition of TM?
1. What role does TM play in your international
operations?
2. In what ways do TM practices add value to your
international operations?
1. To what extent do you perceive TM practices and
activities to be a means of developing employees
human capital?
2. How effectively do TM and development programs
enable employees to develop the knowledge, skills
and competences necessary to deal with challenges
in an international context?
3. From your experience, to what extent is TM
effective in developing necessary competences for
your international business?
Data analysis—emerging themes
Terminological ambiguity (broad definitions leaving
employees frustrated, narrow definitions not
delivering)
No shared understanding of the use of terminology
between management and talented employees
Factors that determine who is considered to be
talented across different industries and countries
TM as a means of identifying future leaders
TM as a means of developing human capital
TM as a means of enhancing individual and
organizational performance
TM as a means of retaining high-potential individuals
for organization's sustainability
TM is meaningless without investment in human
capital
TM as a means of creating human capital for an
organization
TM as continuous development and investment for
organization's future needs for high potential
employees
TM networking practice as morale boosting
TM as means of fostering high-potentials'
commitment

TABLE A2 Primary Rresearch Rrespondents

Respondents Sector/industry HQ/base of interviewee Number of employees

1 HR director Oil/energy industry United Kingdom—London 102,000, operating in over
100 countries
2 Vice-president HR Pharmaceutical Spain 40,000 with a presence in 50
countries
3 HR director Paper manufacturing Finland 24,983, operating in over 10
countries
4 Director talent development Financial services United Kingdom—London 65,000 operating in over 50
countries
5 Group organizational development Financial services—insurance United Kingdom—London 57,000
consultant
6 Senior business partnerglobal talent Pharmaceutical Denmark 26,575
development
7 Director communications and HR Financial services-insurance Switzerland—Zurich 11,560
8 Vice-president people development Financial services Sweden 6,000
9 Marketing and HR director Construction technology United Kingdom—London 800
10 Corporate executive development Financial services—investment banking Sweden—Stockholm 23,000
11 Vice-president organization Motor-manufacturing Italy 200,701
development
(Continues)
KABWE AND OKORIE 15

TABLE A2 (Continued)

Respondents Sector/industry HQ/base of interviewee Number of employees

12 Vice-president HRD Engineering Germany 3,939
13 Director learning and development Beverage Germany 3,000
14 Talent development director Engineering consultancy United Kingdom—London 9,000
15 HR director Extractive metals Finland 1,300
16 Vice president employer branding Energy Germany 93,000
Director talent development
17 Vice president learning and talent Professional services United Kingdom 10,000
development
Director—learning and talent
development

TABLE A3 Definitions of TM from the sample organizations

Definition Sector Main themes

1 TM is what we do with our talent, how we develop it, Financial services Process of developing people
how we deploy people and how we help people (leadership focus)
reach their maximum potential within our
organization
2 It's bringing people with exceptional abilities into the Engineering sector Process of acquisition, engagement and development
organization… process of development of the of people with exceptional abilities
individual, and that's keeping them and creating the (key functions)
talent pipeline
3 TM is defined as having a process which allows you to Financial services Supply and demand of the right people
have the right people with the right skills at the right (leadership focus)
moment
4 TM is everything that is needed to detect those people Pharmaceutical Leadership development
who could be the future directors, presidents or just (key people who run the company)
key people who run the company
5 TM is the management of our people and the Financial services Developing people for business growth
development of their skills and experience and
strengths and maximizing that for business growth
6 TM is a structured and actively managed process to Beverage sector Development of people with high potential
identify, select, develop and deploy superior
performers
7 TM is like risk management, it's about making sure that Financial services Risk management—supply and demand
we have the right people in the right positions for
the future
8 TM is the process of helping talented people develop Car manufacturing Developing people for business growth
themselves and helping the company to take profit
from the talent the people have
9 TM is the overall term for everything we do to further Financial services Process of developing people
develop people and their potential
10 TM refers to the training and development support Energy sector Development opportunities for those capable of
given to those capable of developing a professional developing a professional career
career
11 TM is defined as a process of linking business and Pharmaceutical Strategic management tool, meeting demand of labor
organizational strategy in order to check whether
they have the right structure, right organization and
right people
12 TM is making sure that we as a company have the right Engineering sector Recruitment, selection and development of employees
people at the right spot at the right time, for all in key positions / functions
those functions that are absolutely critical for the
company's development and success
(Continues)
16 KABWE AND OKORIE

TABLE A3 (Continued)

Definition Sector Main themes

13 No formal definition but it is seen as being Paper manufacturing Competence development (leadership focus)
synonymous with competence development
14 TM is the acquisition, engagement and integration into Construction technology Performance management,
the organization of people with exceptional abilities. Employee development
It involves performance management and (key functions)
development