A P P L I C AT I O N N O T E

Four Common Electronic Load Applications

Demonstrate DC Load Fundamentals
Introduction
Electronic loads began as a specialized product designed specifically to test
power supplies. DC electronic loads characterize a power supply’s responses These four tips are an
introduction on how to
to various load conditions. Electronic loads use FET switches and non-reactive
test with electronic loads
power electronics that minimize ringing and managing less than ideal behavior. and illustrate the flexibility
Today, they are known as general purpose instruments capable of testing most and usefulness of a DC
sources of DC power including DC-DC converters, LED drivers, batteries, solar electronic load.
cells, generators, and fuel cells. • Tip 1. Battery Testing
Using Constant Current
Mode
• Tip 2. Testing Power
Supply Transient Response
Tip 1. Battery Testing Using Constant Current Mode • Tip 3. Testing a Power
The current priority mode is the most common setting for an electronic load. A Supply’s Ability to Limit
Current
simple example is drawing a constant current from a battery to determine its total
• Tip 4. Testing DC-DC
energy storage. As current draws from a battery, its voltage drops. Understanding Converters
the relationship between the voltage and the remaining energy allows devices
to predict their remaining run time. Each battery chemistry has a unique voltage
profile as the current flows from the battery.

It is important to stop pulling current when a battery reaches its low voltage limit.
Continuing to draw current below the low current threshold damages the battery.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 1

 Specifications for a 18650A Li-ion battery at 25 °C
Capacity nominal 1C 2500 mAh
Minimum capacity n/s
Charge voltage 4.2 V
Charging 0.5C CC-CV, Std. 1250 mA, 4.2 V
Nominal voltage 3.6 V
Discharging 2.5 V cut off (low limit)
Standard rate 0.2C/h 500 mA
Max rate 20000 mA

Table 1. Table of specifications for a 18650A Li-ion battery at 25 °C

To illustrate battery testing using constant current mode, we will use an industrial Li-ion
18650 battery. Battery capacity (C) is measurable in mAh. The capacity is also necessary
to determine the charging and discharging current. The charging current is limited to 0.5 C
or 0.5 * 2500 mAh = 1250 mA. The charging process starts with a constant current (CC) of
1250 mA and needs to stop before the battery voltage reaches 4.2 V.

Discharging is similar a constant current is drawn until the 2.5 V cutoff is achieved. The
amount of current drawn can vary from 0 to 20 A, but high currents reduce the number
of times it charges and discharges — limiting the life of the battery. Also discharging the
battery below the cutoff voltage reduces the life of the battery. Run time is determined
using the discharge plots, see Figure 2.

A battery can support a 1 C discharge for an hour, or five hours at a (1 C)/(5 h) = 0.2 C
discharge rate. Li-ion batteries typically have slightly more capacity at a 0.2 C discharge
rate. Finally, temperature affects both battery capacity and discharge voltages.
Temperatures above 25 °C are ideal but in lower temperatures capacity and voltage
drop. A multimeter monitoring the voltage is used to ensure the battery is not
discharging below the 2.5 V cutoff.

+ +

_
Multimeter
Battery DC Electronic Load
_ _

N6791A/N6792A

Figure 1. Setup to discharge a battery with an electronic load

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 2

Many battery tests use an electronic load including capacity retention, internal
impedance measurements, life-cycle performance, temperature test, and abuse testing.

A capacity test is the most common battery test as it directly affects a device’s run time.
Capacity tests are made using a variety of constant discharge rates or even a dynamic
current that simulates a device pulling current at different rates. Many devices save
energy by using very little power in an idle or sleep state but then pull large currents in
their active state.

To determine the run time of a device, a profile of how a battery responds to various
discharge rates is helpful. Figure 2 shows several constant discharge rates; 1.5 C, 1 C, .2 C.

18650 Discharge
4.5
4 500 mA
2500 mA
Voltage (V)

3.5 3750 mA
3
2.5
2
1 136 271 361 451 586 721 856 991 1171 1306 1441 1576
Time (seconds)

Figure 2. 18650 battery discharged at several rates

Li-on batteries undergo excessive internal stress when the charge is above 4.0 V. Figure 2
shows the battery voltage drops quickly as the battery return to a relaxed state. The voltage
drop remains linear until 3.2 to 3.1 V. At lower voltages, the battery voltage drops very
quickly. The battery capacity is calculated as the current discharges; 500 mA multiplied by
the run time, 4.5 h or 2250 mAh. Measured battery capacities are lower than the specified
capacity as they are measurable over a smaller operating range of 4.1 to 2.6 V.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 3

 Configuration
1 Configure load for current priority “FUNC CURR,(@1)”
Steady-state current sets to .5 A for
2 “CURR 0.5,(@1)”
the .2 C test
Range is set to the 4 A low range to
3 accurately measure the current of “CURR:RANG 4,(@1)”
the battery
4 Under voltage, inhibit is set to off “VOLT:INH:VON:MODE OFF,(@1)”
5 Enable short is deselected (default) “OUTP:SHOR OFF,(@1)”
Advance Source Settings
Set both the positive and negative “CURR:SLEW 5,(@1)”
6
slew rates to MAX “CURR:SLEW:NEG INF,(@1)”
7 Select remote 4-wire sensing “VOLT:SENS:SOUR EXT,(@1)”

Table 2. Configuring the load module at Channel 1 to pull a constant current

Tip 2. Testing Power Supply Transient Response

Most power supplies are designed to supply a constant voltage using a voltage
regulation circuit. If a load suddenly draws a large amount of current the regulation
circuit is unable to output a steady voltage. A worse case test scenario is outputting the
maximum voltage and a transient that requires full current.

As an example, Keysight’s transient response test is performed at the power supply’s

maximum output voltage. The output current starts at 50% of maximum, before
increasing to the maximum level, and then returning to 50%. See Figure 3 the drastic
change in current causes two voltage transients.

Max current
50% Current
Time
V
Max voltage
Transients
Time

Figure 3. Maximum current drawing from a power supply suddenly changes causing
transients in voltage

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 4

Transient response time is the amount of time it takes a power supply to recover from a
notable change in the load. Once the power supply output voltage is within the limits of
the settling band, it is considered recovered, see Figure 4.

As an example, the Keysight E36312A specifies less than 50 µs to recover within the
15 mV settling band. This follows a load change from 50% to 100%, and from 100% to
50% of the full load.

Voltage

Transient response time

Settling band
Time

Settling band Transient response time

Figure 4. Transient response time displays as the time required for a power supply to
recover within the settling bands Measuring Response Time

Response time is challenging to measure with load resistors and switches. Often, power
resistors have some inductance that reacts with the transients from the power supply.
Using a DC electronic load avoids introducing additional distortion.

The two most common methods to setup the electronic load are in the resistant
mode or constant current mode. In resistance mode, a calculation is made to select
a resistance that draws current at 50%. The second resistance sinks the maximum
current. The current priority mode is straightforward as the desired currents are directly
input to the load.

As an example, the E36312A power supply with 6 V and 5 A is setup for the test.
The two currents required are 2.5 A (50%) and 5 A (max). An N6792A load module is
configured for current priority as shown in Table 2.

With the load configured for current priority — the next step is to create the transient.
The Keysight N6700 Series has several built-in waveforms that simplify setting up a
dynamic output by describing just a few points.

A stepped waveform generates a single transient as the current changes levels. The
pulse waveform causes two transients as the current rises and then falls. A pulse
waveform is setup for this test; see Figure 5.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 5

Figure 5. A pulse waveform is selected to create the dynamic current

Table 3 shows the SCPI programming commands along with the Keysight N6705C front
panel instructions. With the waveform defined, you can start it at any time by using the
arb run command, or with the run/stop key on the N6705C front panel.

The waveform is easily viewed and captured with an oscilloscope set to level trigger with
a single-shot acquisition. Once the arb runs, the transients are captured as shown in
Figure 6. The oscilloscope input is AC coupled, with bandwidth limiting and 50 mV/div.
The sweep is set to 20 µs/div with some delay to center the waveform.

Markers locate where the transient is within the 15 mV setting band to view the time the
waveform crosses. In both transients, the power supply recovery is much faster than its
specified 50 µs specification.

Arbitrary Waveform Settings

8 Select the current arb type “ARB:FUNC:TYPE CURR,(@1)”

9 Shape sets to pulse “ARB:FUNC:SHAP PULS,(@1)”

I0 Current at the beginning of the

10 “ARB:CURR:PULS:STAR 2.5,(@1)”
pulse sets to 2.5 A

I1 Current at the top of the pulse sets

11 “ARB:CURR:PULS:TOP 5,(@1)”
to 5.0 A

12 t0 Pulse starts low for 0.25 s “ARB:CURR:PULS:STAR:TIM 0.25,(@1)”

13 t1 Pulse stays at the top for 0.5 s “ARB:CURR:PULS:TOP:TIM 0.5,(@1)”

14 t2 Pulse ends low for 0.25 s “ARB:CURR:PULS:END:TIM 0.25,(@1)”

15 Pulse frequency “ARB:CURR:PULS:FREQ 1,(@1)”

16 Return to DC after pulse “ARB:TERM:LAST OFF,(@1)”

17 Set the repeat count to one “ARB:COUN 1, (@1)”

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 6

 Arbitrary Waveform Settings

18 Activate the output “OUTPUT ON,(@1)”

Configure the trigger — from the front panel of the N6705C select trigger on run/stop key
Enable the arb function to respond to
19 “CURR:MODE ARB,(@1)”
triggers

20 Trigger occurs when the arb runs “TRIG:ARB:SOUR IMM”

Run the arb

Initiates the arb — similar to the
21 “INIT:TRAN (@1)”
N6705C run button

Table 3. Configuring the load module at channel 1 to pull dynamic current — the first seven
steps are identical to the steps in Tip 1

Figure 6. A single shot capture of the first transient

Tip 3. Testing a Power Supply’s Ability to Limit Current

All power supplies include a circuit to limit current to protect itself as well as the device it is
powering. When using an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) power supply, it is important
to understand how the power supply limits current to determine how well it performs.

Current limit measurements are made to determine the degree to which a constant
voltage power supply limits its maximum output current to a preset value. This preset
value is fixed or variable throughout a specified range.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 7

There are three types of current limiting design implementations:

1. Conventional current limiting power supplies

2. Power supplies with the ability to transition from constant voltage (CV) to constant
current (CC)

3. Foldback current limiting power supplies

Conventional current limiting power supplies and CV/CC mode power supplies are very
similar in function. These implementations vary only in the degree of regulation in the
constant current operating region (see Figure 7). You can adjust the CC operating point
for CV/CC power supplies.

A rounded crossover knee and sloping current limit characteristic denote a less precise
current regulation. In comparison, a sharp knee and vertical current limit characteristic
indicate better current regulation. The foldback current limiting power supply uses a
technique that enables both the output voltage and current to decrease simultaneously
for load resistances below the crossover value.

VOUT
ce
an
ist
es
rr
ve
so
os
Cr
=
AD
LO
R

Load
effect
band
k

CV/Current limit
bac
fold
ent
urr

CV/CC
/C
CV

IOUT
(50%)IMAX (100%)IMAX (105%)IMAX

Figure 7. Voltage vs. current shows three types of current limiting designs

Test Procedure to Test the Current Limiting Capability of a Power Supply

The power supply connects to a multimeter and an electronic load as shown in
Figure 8. The N6791A and N6792A electronic loads have a precision measurement
system built-in, eliminating the need for an external multimeter.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 8

 + +

_
Multimeter
Power Supply DUT DC Electronic Load
_ _

N6791A/N6792A

Figure 8. The test power supply connects to a multimeter and a DC load

The test begins with the power supply set to its highest voltage and the load set to high
resistance. High-resistance draws minimal current, and the power supply is in its normal
constant voltage mode.

During the test, the power supplies’ output voltage and current are recording. A
program begins decrementing the electronic load resistance in steps. The output
voltage remains constant as the current increases due to load. Once the output current
reaches the current limit, the voltage drops.

Figure 9 shows the drop known as the crossover region. The power supply no longer
maintains a constant voltage. As the resistance continues to decrease, the power
supply operates in its current limiting mode. A quality power supply with CV/CC has a
sharp transition to the constant current mode. As the resistance continues to increase,
the current should remain constant.

VOUT

RL = Open circuit
C
R

RL = Load resistance
R>

C
R
L =
L

RC = Crossover resistance
R

RC
R L< RL = Short circuit

ILIMIT IOUT = ICOMPLIANCE

Figure 9. Graph illustrates how increasing resistance effects a power supply

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 9

 Configuration table

1 Select resistance priority “FUNC RES,(@1)”

The range is set to the low-resistance range to

2 “RES:RANG 3,(@1)”
handle 3 ohms and less

3 String variable reset is used to lower the resistance "RES " & resSet & ", (@1)"

4 Under voltage inhibit is disabled "VOLT:INH:VON:MODE OFF,(@1)"

5 Enable short is deselected (default) "OUTP:SHOR OFF,(@1)"

Advance Source Settings

6 Set both the positive and negative slew rates to MAX "RES:SLEW INF,(@1)"

7 "RES:SLEW:NEG INF,(@1)"

8 Select 4-wire remote sensing for voltage “VOLT:SENS:SOUR EXT,(@1)”

Apply the load to the power supply "OUTPUT ON, (@1)"

Table 4. Configuring the load module on Channel 1 to decrease resistance

Results
The test power supply has its current limit set at 2 A. The electronic load provides a three-
ohm resistance — both voltage and current are measurable. Resistance is reduced by
0.1 ohms and the power supply is allowed to settle before the next set of measurements.

The process continues until the resistance reaches 0.1 ohms. See Figure 10 for the
voltage-current measurements. The test power supply gives you a very sharp transition
from constant voltage mode to the constant current model. An abrupt transition is a sign of
a high-quality power supply.

CV to CC
3.5

2.5

2
Voltage

1.5

0.5

0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Current

Figure 10. Plot depicts voltage versus current with a current limit of 2 A

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 10

Tip 4. Testing DC-DC Converters
DC-DC converters are very popular in modern electronics and serve three primary uses:

1. Creating electrical isolation

2. Shifting voltage levels; to produce a higher or lower output voltage

3. Allowing a wide range of input voltages

Electronics in automobiles use a nominal 12 VDC and are designed to run off 9 VDC — from
a low battery or up to 14 VDC generated by a running engine. A DC-DC converter is used to
accept voltages from 9 to 14 VDC on the input and output a consistent 12 VDC.

Another interesting use is in emergency vehicles which have integrated computers

and electronics. Nineteen volts DC can power several types of laptops, monitors, and
routers. A DC-DC converter is used to shift the standard 12 VDC to 19 VDC. Using the
19 VDC eliminates the need for an inverter to create 115 VAC household power and AC
to DC power supplies for each device. DC-DC converters are very efficient, efficiencies
over 96% are common.

A DC-DC converter input draws constant power when it has a steady load. To consume
a constant amount of power the converter pulls less current as the voltage increases.
Figure 11 is a graph of constant power. Over a broad voltage range, it is easy to see the
relationship between voltage and currents is a curve.

V 70
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
I
Figure 11. A constant power curve over an extensive range of voltage and current

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 11

V 20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 I

Figure 12. A single current limit only protects the DC-DC converter at a single voltage (green line)

A DC-DC converter has a limited voltage-to-current range relative to the curve shown
in Figure 11. A data sheet for a 19 V / 6 A converter has an input voltage range of 9 V
to 18 V. To test the entire range of the converter’s input, a DC power supply capable of
producing 9V / 13 A and 18 V / 6.5 A is necessary.

Protecting the Converter

Protecting the converter against overvoltage and overcurrent requires more than a single
limit. Figure 12 features a single current limit of 13 A. The 13 A current limit protects
the converter only when it is operating at 9 V. At higher voltages, the converter receives
too much power before tripping the current limit. Constant power (CP) protection works
in situations where a single current limit does not make sense. Figure 13 illustrates
a constant power limit. Advance power supplies and electronic loads have built-in
constant power protection.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 12

 V
25

20

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 I

Figure 13. Illustration of a power limit (green) slightly larger than the operating power (red)

Another issue with the standard current protection is with the current limit the power
supply transitioning to a constant current mode. In the constant current mode, the
power supply’s output voltage is allowed to fall and could drop below the operating
voltage of the converter. A low voltage causes the converter to go into an unregulated
state which requires resetting the converter.

Overcurrent protection (OCP) prevents the power supply from supplying a low voltage.
Instead of transitioning to the constant current mode, OCP shuts off the power supply
output.

The load also protects the converter by only drawing current when the converter is
operating at its expected 19 V. An under-voltage inhibit function turns the load off until
the voltage is above the 19 V limit. Once the converter is supplying the correct voltage;
the load will again draw current.

Testing the Power Converter

The Keysight N6700C modular mainframe is ideal for this test as both a power supply
module and a DC electronic load module can be added to the mainframe. The power
supply module is programmable for different voltages to simulate the voltages of an
automotive while the load is configurable to sink constant power. The load is set to
85 W to represent the power required by a computer and several peripherals.

A calculation of efficiency occurs at each voltage. The efficiency of the converter is the
output power divided by input power. The power supply produces and measures the

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 13

input power while the load measures the output power. Having the power supply and
load in the same instrument makes it easy to synchronize measurements and make
efficiency measurements.

Power supply configuration

1 Output 9 to 18 V using a string variable voltSet "VOLT " & voltSet & ",(@3)"

2 Set a 10 A current limit "CURR 10,(@3)"

3 Use overcurrent protection to disable the output “CURR:PROT:STAT ON,(@3)”

4 Select 4-wire remote sensing for voltage "VOLT:SENS:SOUR EXT,(@3)"

5 Apply power to the converter “OUTPUT ON,(@3)”

Table 5. Configuring the power supply module at Channel 3 to drive the inverter

Load configuration

1 Select power priority “FUNC POW,(@1)”

Set the range to the high-power to manage more

2 “POW:RANG 100,(@1)”
than 20 W

3 Configure the load to consume 85 W “POW 85,(@1)”

“VOLT:INH:VON 19,(@1)”
4 Under voltage inhibit is set to 19 V and enabled
“VOLT:INH:VON:MODE LIVE,(@1)”

5 Enable short is deselected (default) “OUTP:SHOR OFF,(@1)”

Advance Source Settings

“POW:SLEW INF,(@1)”
6 Set both the positive and negative slew rates to MAX
“POW:SLEW:NEG INF,(@1)”

7 Select 4-wire remote sensing for voltage “VOLT:SENS:SOUR EXT,(@1)”

8 Apply the load to the converter “OUTPUT ON, (@1)”

Table 6. Configuring the load module at channel 1 for constant 85 W power

Results
To begin the test, 18 V is applied to the converter along with an 85 W load. Voltage
and current measurements calculate at the converter’s input and output. Efficiency
is calculated using the voltage and current measurements. Next, after lowering the
converts input voltage 500 mV, a three-second pause allows the converter to settle.
Once settled, all voltages and currents are measured and recorded. A program continues
to reduce the voltage and make the measurements until the input voltage reaches the
9 V lower limit. Figure 14 shows the input voltages and currents. Efficiency results range
from 97% to 98%.

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 14

The under voltage inhibit mode is particularly useful for the test. If less than 9 V is used
to power the converter, it will go into an unregulated state, and it will not produce 19 V.
The under voltage inhibit removes the load making it easy for the converter to recover
once a valid voltage is applied.

Input: Voltage - Current

85 W Output
20
18
16
14
Voltage

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Current
Figure 14. Input voltage and current graphed for an 85 W inverter

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 15

Learn More — Electronic Loads
DC electronic loads are becoming more popular in test systems as more electronic
devices convert or store energy. Keysight’s new N6790 series DC electronic loads
mount inside the N6700C modular DC power supply. Now a single instrument on the
bench or in a system can sink and source power. The N6790 series load provides
a current mode, voltage mode, resistant mode, and a power mode. A built-in high-
performance measurement system eliminates the need for an external multimeter.

Designed for More Applications

Our new 100 W N6791A and 200 W N6792A electronic loads give you four different
operating modes:

• Current mode – Power supplies, batteries, and fuel cells tests

• Resistance mode – Variable resistor to load power supplies and batteries
• Voltage mode – Testing current sources, LED drivers, and solar panels
• Power mode – DC-DC converter testing

Plus, the N6790 series loads perform both dynamic and static tests.

Bench
The N6705C 600W modular power supply offers four slots for modules, a large
display, view settings, and measurements for all channels simultaneously. Setups are
easy with configuration panels for each module.

ATE system
Choose from three 1 U high mainframes N6700C 400 W, N6701C 600 W, or N6702C
1200 W — all mainframes give you four slots for modules. Create dynamic power
waveforms and load profiles easily with several built-in arbitrary waveforms definable
with just a few points.

Download the N6700 Modular Power System Family - Data Sheet 5992-1857EN

Download N6700 Series Specifications Guide - N6700-90001.pdf

Learn more at: www.keysight.com

For more information on Keysight Technologies’ products, applications or services,
please contact your local Keysight office. The complete list is available at:
www.keysight.com/find/contactus

Find us at www.keysight.com Page 16

This information is subject to change without notice. © Keysight Technologies, 2019, Published in USA, October 15, 2019, 5992-3776EN