Stability of Noble Gases

1. Group 18 elements (Noble Gases) exist as mono-atom in

nature.
2. They are inert in nature and do not react with any other
elements (or themselves) to form any chemical
compounds.
3. In other words, they are chemically very stable (or
chemically very non-reactive).
Duplet and Octet Electron Arrangement

1. The charge on the nucleus and the number of electrons in

the valence shell determine the chemical properties of an
atom.
2. The stability of noble gas is due to the arrangement of their
electrons.
3. The diagram above shows the first four elements of Noble
Gas. We can see that the outer most shell (valence shell)
of Helium has 2 electrons. We call this duplet electron
arrangement.
 4. The maximum number of electrons can be filled in the first
shell is 2 electrons, which means 2 electrons in the first
shell is considered FULL.
5. The valence shell all other Group 18 elements (including
Xenon and Radon which is not shown in the diagram) has
8 electrons, and we call this octet electron arrangement.
6. When the electron arrangement of an atom is duplet or
octet, the energy of the electrons is very low, and it is very
difficult (even though it is not impossible) to add or remove
electrons from the atom.
7. This explains why noble gases are reluctant to react with
all other elements.

The Octet Rule

1. Atoms of other main group elements which are not octet

tend to react with other atoms in various ways to achieve
the octet.
2. The tendency of an atom to achieve an octet arrangement
of electrons in the outermost shell is called the octet rule.
3. If the outermost shell is the first shell, then the maximum
number of electrons is two, and the most stable electron
arrangement will be duplet.
4. A configuration of two electrons in the first shell, with no
other shells occupied by electrons, is as stable as the octet
electron arrangement and therefore is also said to obey the
octet rule.
How Atoms Achieve Duplet or Octet Electron
Arrangement?

1. Atoms can achieve duplet or octet electron arrangement in

3 ways:
1. throw away the excess electron(s)
2. receiving electron(s) from other atom if they are lack
of electron(s)
3. sharing electron
4.

(A sodium atom throws away an electron to achieve octet

electron arrangement)

(A fluorine atom receives one electron to achieve octet

electron arrangement)
 (Two fluorine atoms share one pair of electrons to achieve
octet electron arrangement)
1. 2 types of chemical bonds are commonly formed between
atoms, namely
a. Ionic Bond
b. Covalent Bond
The Ionic Bond

(Ionic Bond)
2. By releasing or receiving electron(s), the atoms will
become ions and consequently form ionic bond between
the ions.
3. Ionic bonds are always formed between metal and non-
metal. For example, sodium (metal) react with chlorine
(non-metal) will form an ionic bond between sodium ion
and chloride ion.
4. The compounds formed are called the ionic compounds.
5. Some time, an ionic bond is also called electrovalent bond.

The Covalent Bond

(Covalent Bond)
6. By sharing electron(s), the atoms will form covalent bond
between the atom and the molecule formed is called the
covalent molecule.
7. Covalent bond is always formed between non-metal with
another non-metal.

Formation of Ion
1. An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying positive or
negative charge. Example Ca2+, O2-, SO42- etc.
2. If a particle has equal numbers of protons (+) and electrons
(-), the particle charge is zero, and the particle is said to be
neutral.
3. In a chemical reaction, electron(s) can be transferred from
atom to another atom.
4. If electron(s) is removed from an atom, the number of
protons will be more than number of electrons. In this case,
the atom will has excess positive charge and hence form a
positive ion (cation).

1.

1. (An atom losses electron to form positive ion)

5. If an atom gains electrons, there is an excess negative

charge in the atom, so a negative ion is formed.

 


6. In other words,
1. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation)
and is usually a metal.
2. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion
(anion) and is usually a non-metallic element.

(An atom gain electron to form negative ion)

Difference Between an Atom and an Ion That Have

Same Electrons Arrangement
Difference Between Fluoride Ion and Neon Atom

1. After forming an ion, the electron arrangement of the ion is

similar to the noble gases.
2. For example, the electron arrangement of fluoride ion is
2.8 which is similar to a Neon atom, 2.8.
3. Fluoride ion and the neon atom have similar electron
arrangement.
4. Fluoride ion carries charge whereas neon atom is neutral.
(The electrons arrangement of a fluoride ion is the same as a neon atom. However,
they are so much different chemically)
Formation of Positive Ion
1. Usually, the atom of metals consists of 1, 2 or 3 valence
electrons.
2. In order to achieve octet electrons arrangement, the atoms
will release the valence electrons.
3. After releasing the valence electrons, the protons in the
nucleus will outnumber the electrons. As a result, positive
ions formed.
Example: Formation of Ion with +1 Charge

(A sodium atom release one electron to form a sodium ion with +1 charge)

Example: Formation of Ion with +2 Charge

 (A magnesium atom release one electron to form a sodium ion with +2 charge)

Example: Formation of Ion with +3 Charge

(An aluminium atom release one electron to form a sodium ion with +3 charge)
Formation of Negative Ion
1. Negative ions are formed among atoms of non-metal
elements except group-18 elements.
2. Non-metal elements usually located in group 15, 16 and 17
in the periodic table and have 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons.
3. To achieve octet arrangement of electrons, their atoms will
receive 3, 2 or 1 electron.
4. As a result, the electrons will out number the protons and
hence negative ions formed.
Formation of Negative Ions of -1 Charge

(A fluorine atom receives one electron to form a fluoride ion with -1 charge)
Formation of Negative Ions of -2 Charge

(An oxygen atom receives two electrons to form a oxide ion with -2 charge)

Ionic Bonding
1. Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons
to another atom to form ions. 
2. Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or
gained electrons.
3. The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation)
and is usually a metal.
4. The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion)
and is usually a non-metallic element.
5. Ions of opposite charge will attract one another by strong
electrostatic force, thus creating an ionic bond.
6. The ionic bond is also known as electrovalence bond.
Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 1 Metals
and Group 17 Elements

1. The figure above shows the illustration of the formation of

the ionic bond between a sodium atom (group 1 metal) and
a chlorine atom (group 17 element).
2. The electron arrangement of the sodium atom is 2.8.1,
which is not octet and hence not stable.
3. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the sodium atom
donates/release one electron and form sodium ion.
4. The electron arrangement of the chlorine atom is 2.8.7,
which is also not octet and hence not stable, too.
5. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the chlorine atom
receives one electron from the sodium atom and form a
chloride ion.
6. The sodium ion and the chloride ion carry opposite
charges, hence they attract each other and form an ionic
bond between each other.
Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 2 Metals
and Group 17 Elements

1. The figure above shows the illustration of the formation of

the ionic bond between two potassium atoms (group 1
metal) and an oxygen atom (group 16 element).
2. The electron arrangement of the potassium atom is
2.8.8.1, which is not octet and hence not stable.
3. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the potassium
atom donates/release one electron and form potassium
ion.
4. The electron arrangement of oxygen atom is 2.6, which is
also not octet and hence not stable, too.
5. To achieve the octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen
atom receives two electrons from potassium atoms and
form an oxide ion.
6. The potassium ions and the oxide ion carry opposite
charges, hence they attract each other and form two ionic
bond between the ions.
Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 2 Metals
and Group 16 Elements

1. The figure above shows the illustration of the formation of

the ionic bond between a calcium atom (group 2 metal)
and an oxygen atom (group 16 element).
2. The electron arrangement of the calcium atom is 2.8.8.2,
which is not octet and hence not stable.
3. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the potassium
atom donates/release two electrons and form calcium ion.
4. The electron arrangement of oxygen atom is 2.6, which is
also not octet and hence not stable, too.
5. To achieve the octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen
atom receives two electrons from the calcium atom and
form an oxide ion.
6. The calcium ion and the oxide ion carry opposite charges,
hence they attract each other and form an ionic bond
between each other.
Predicting the Formula of Ionic Compound
1. We can predict the charge of the ions formed from an
element base on the group of the element.
2. From the charge, we can then write the formula of the ionic
compound formed.
3. In short, we can predict the formula of an ionic compound if
we know the group (in the periodic table) of the elements in
the compound.
4. The table below shows the formula of the ionic compounds
formed by the elements from different group in a periodic
table.
Elements Formula of Ionic Examples
Compound
Atoms of Metal, Atoms of Non-
M Metal, N

Group 1 Group 15 M3 N Na3N

Group 1 Group 16 M2 N K2O

Group 1 Group 17 MN LiCl

Group 2 Group 15 M3 N 2 Ca3N2

Group 2 Group 16 MN MgO

Group 2 Group 17 MN2 BaBr2

Group 13 Group 15 MN AlN

Group 13 Group 16 M2 N 3 Al2O3

Group 13 Group 17 MN3 AlI3

Covalent Bonding

1. Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to

form molecules. This type of bond usually formed between
two non-metallic elements.
2. In the formation of covalent bonds, atoms of non-metals
will combine with each other to donate one, two or three
electrons for sharing.
3. The compound formed through the formation of covalent
bonds is called the covalent compounds.
Examples of Covalent Compound

Covalent Formula Covalent Formula

Compound Compound

Chlorine Cl2 Phosphorus P4

Hydrogen H2 Sulfur dioxide SO2

Oxygen O2 Carbon dioxide CO2

N2 Tetrachloro- CCl4
Nitrogen
methane
Examples of Formation of Covalent Compounds

Formation of Fluorine Molecule

1. The electrons arrangement of a fluorine atom is 2.7

2. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, 2 fluorine atoms
share 1 pair of electrons between each other.
3. As a result, a covalent bond formed between the 2 atoms.
Formation of Oxygen Molecule

1. The electrons arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6

2. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, 2 fluorine atoms
share 2 pair of electrons between each other.
3. As a result, 2 covalent bonds formed between the 2 atoms.
Formation of Carbon Dioxide Molecule

1. The electrons arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6 and

the electrons arrangement of a hydrogen atom is 1.
2. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom
share 2 pair of electrons with 2 hydrogen atoms.
3. The hydrogen atoms achieve duplet electrons arrangement
after sharing electron with the oxygen atom.
4. As a result, covalent bonds formed between the oxygen
atom and the hydrogen atoms.
Number of Bond
1. There are 3 types of covalent bond:
a. Single covalent bond – sharing of one pair of
electrons
b. Double covalent bond – sharing of two pairs of
electrons
c. Triple covalent bond – sharing of three pairs of
electrons
Example

Number of electrons Example and type of covalent bond

1 pair type of covalent bond: Single Bond

2 pair type of covalent bond: Double Bond

3 pair type of covalent bond: Triple Bond

Formation of Single Bond (Hydrogen Molecule)

Formation of Double Bond (Oxygen Molecule)

Formation of Triple Bond (Nitrogen Molecule)
Predicting the Molecular Formula of
Covalent Compounds
1. Like the formula of ionic compounds, the formula of most
covalent compounds can be predicted by referring to the
group in periodic table of the elements in the compound.
2. We can predict the formula of a covalent compound by
referring to the valency of the elements in the compound, if
we know which group in periodic table the element is
located.
3. The valency of an atom is the number of electrons receive
of release to achieve octet electrons arrangement.
4. For example, the electron arrangement of an oxygen atom
is 2.6. To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen
atom need to receive 2 electrons. Therefore, the valency of
oxygen is 2.
5. Table below shows the group of the elements, the valency
of the elements and the predicted formula of covalent
compounds formed among the elements.
Formula of the covalent
Element that combine
compound

Element X Element Y
Valency Valency
from from

Group 15 3 Group 15 3 XY

Group 15 3 Group 16 2 X2Y3

Group 15 3 Group 17 1 XY3

Group 16 2 Group 16 2 XY

Group 16 2 Group 17 1 XY2

Group 17 1 Group 17 1 XY
Ionic Compounds
Structure Ionic Compound

1. In an ionic compound, the alternate positive and negative

ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an orderly way as
shown in the image to the right.
2. The ions can form a giant ionic lattice structure with ionic
bond between the ions.
3. The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction
(electrostatic force) between the positive and negative ions
next to each other in the lattice.
 (Giant Lattice Structure)

(Strong Electrostatic Force formed between the positive and negative ions)

Properties of Ionic Compounds

1. The strong bonding force makes ionic compounds has high

melting and boiling points.
2. All ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
3. They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are
broken along planes of ions which shear away.
4. Many, ionic compounds (but not all) are soluble in water.
5. The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the
ions are not free to move to carry an electric current.
6. However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in
water, the liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion
particles are now free.
Covalent Compounds
Simple Molecule

Covalent compounds can be divided into 2 types:

1. Simple molecular compound

2. Macromolecular compound
Simple Molecules

1. Most covalent compounds are made up of independent

molecular units, as shown in figure above.
2. The attraction force between molecules is the weak Van
der Waals’ force.
Properties of Simple Covalent Molecular
Substances – Small Molecules!
 1. The intermolecular force between the simple covalent
molecules is very weak. Therefore, covalent compounds
have low melting and boiling point.
2. They are also poor conductors of electricity because there
are no free electrons or ions in any state to carry electric
charge.
3. Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a
solution.
Macromolecular Compounds
1. The macromolecular compounds have giant, covalent
molecules with extremely large molecular lattices.
2. They have very high melting and boiling points.
3. They don’t conduct electricity — not even when molten
(except for graphite).
4. They’re usually insoluble in water.
5. Examples of such macromolecules are diamond, silica and
graphite.
Diamond and Silica(Sand)

(3 dimensional structure macromolecular compound – Diamond)

 1. A diamond crystal or a grain of sand is just one giant
molecule. Such molecules, because they are so rigid and
strong, have very high melting points.
2. Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds in a very rigid
giant covalent structure, which makes diamond the hardest
natural substance. This makes diamonds ideal as cutting
tools.
3. All those strong covalent bonds give diamond a very high
melting point.
4. It doesn’t conduct electricity because it has no free
electrons.
5. Diamond is an allotrope of carbon. Allotropes are different
forms of the same element in the same physical state
Graphite

(3 dimensional layer structure: graphite)

1. Carbon also occurs in the form of graphite. The carbon

atoms form joined hexagonal rings forming layers 1 atom
thick.
2. Graphite is black and opaque.
3. Each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds,
creating sheets of carbon atoms which are free to slide
 over each other. This makes graphite slippery, so it’s useful
as a lubricant.
4. The layers are held together so loosely that they can be
rubbed off onto paper to leave a black mark — that’s how
pencils work.
5. Graphite has a high melting point — the covalent bonds
need lots of energy before they break.
6. Only three out of each carbon’s four outer electrons are
used in bonds, so there are lots of spare electrons. This
means graphite conducts electricity — it’s used for
electrodes.