pH: Principles and Measurement
S Karastogianni, S Girousi, and S Sotiropoulos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Definition and Basics
pH Basics and Notional Definition
The acidity and alkalinity of aqueous media, where most
reactions in nature occur, depend (according to the Arrhenius
definition of acids and bases) on the concentration of the hydro-
nium (H3Oþ) and hydroxyl (OH) ions. The former is quanti-
fied by the more general concept of pH, initially proposed by the
Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen in 1909 and
revised in 1924 to adjust definitions in relation to the electro-
chemical cells used for its measurement. The pH is notionally
defined for any medium as the decimal logarithm of the recip-
rocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aHþ , in that medium:
 
1
pH ¼  log 10 aHþ ¼ log 10 [1]
aHþ
It is only for very dilute solutions that the pH can be directly
related to proton concentration:
pH ¼  log 10 cHþ
This approximation holds for pure water where, due to its
self-dissociation constant being Kw ¼ 1014 at 25  C, proton
and hydroxyl concentrations are as low as 107. Thus, pure
water at 25  C has a pH value very close to 7; therefore, a value
of pH ¼ 7 defines a ‘neutral’ medium where the proton and its
hydroxyl counterion are present in equal concentrations.
Media with pH < 7 are characterized as acidic, whereas those
with pH > 7 as alkaline. The common pH range is between
0 and 14 since cases with Hþ or OH concentrations higher
than 1 M are not often encountered. It should be stressed that a
standard pH reference value has been set by IUPAC with
respect to which primary and operational standard solutions
are further defined; this is the value of pH ¼ 4.21 for a
0.05 mol kg1 potassium hydrogen phthalate aqueous
solution.
Operational pH Definition
The notional definition of pH according to hydrogen ion
activity (eqn [1]) is based on the fact that pH is accurately
determined by pH-sensitive ion-selective electrodes, which,
strictly speaking, respond to activity rather to concentration
changes. Ideally, the electrode potential, E, of a pH-sensitive
electrode follows the Nernst equation, which, for the hydrogen
ion, can be written as
0 RT 0 2:303RT
E¼E þ ln ðaHþ Þ ¼ E  pH
F F
where E is the measured potential, E0 is a formal electrode
potential (i.e., the constant value of the electrode potential
for aHþ ¼1 and the specific electrode/solution conditions for
each case), R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin,
Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00538-9
and F is the Faraday constant. It follows that the potential of
such a pH-sensitive electrode is a linear function of the pH
when the latter is defined in terms of activity.
According to the international standard ISO 31-8, the
standard methodology for pH measurements involves the con-
struction of a liquid junction-free galvanic cell where the
pH-sensitive electrode is the hydrogen electrode (Pt/H2/Hþ:
H2 gas bubbled at 1 atm through a Hþ-containing solution in
contact with a high surface area Pt electrode) and the reference
electrode is a Ag/AgCl in a KCl solution. The following nota-
tion refers to such a cell:
AgjAgCljconcentrated solution of KCl,
test solutionjH2 ðg, 1 atmÞjPt
where vertical lines denote the interface between two different
phases. The cell is filled with a standard solution of known pH/
hydrogen ion activity, pHs, and its electromotive force (emf),
ES, is measured. Then, the test solution is replaced by the
[2] sample solution of unknown pHx and the new emf of the
cell, EX, is measured. It follows (applying eqn [3] twice and
taking into account that the same reference electrode is used)
that the pH of the unknown solution is a linear function of the
difference between the two measured emf values:
pHX ¼ pHs þ ðES  EX Þ=ð2:303RT=F Þ [4]
Equation [4] describes the operational definition of pH.
The pH values of the standard solutions (of both primary
and secondary/operational standards), used in the operational
definition of the pH of unknown solutions, are estimated by
direct measurements of the emf of cells similar to the one
described earlier, following the methodology adopted by
IUPAC Recommendations 2002.
Buffer Solutions
A (pH) buffer solution refers to an aqueous solution contain-
ing a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or vice
versa. The most outstanding characteristic of a buffer solution
is its ability to keep its pH almost constant with the addition of
a small amount of strong acid or base. This is the reason that
buffer solutions are applicable in a variety of chemical pro-
cedures where the prevention of changes in the pH of a solu-
tion is needed. Many living organisms grow in a relatively
small pH range, and in order to keep the pH constant, they
utilize a buffer solution (e.g., blood). This remarkable property
of buffer solutions is attributed to the presence of equilibrium
[3]
between the acid HA and its conjugate base A:
HA ⇄ Hþ þ A - [5]
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, the addition of a
small amount of strong acid to this equilibrium mixture will
333
334 pH: Principles and Measurement
Table 1 Standard buffer solutions at 25  C
Buffer solution composition
Potassium tetraoxalate (0.05 m)
Potassium hydrogen tartrate (saturated)
Potassium hydrogen phthalate (0.05 m)
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.025 m) þ disodium
hydrogen phosphate (0.025 m)
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (0.08695 m) þ disodium
hydrogen phosphate (0.03043 m)
Borax (0.01 m)
Calcium hydroxide (saturated)
Source: Bates, R. G. (1964). Determination of pH: theory and practice (1st ed.), p. 123.
London: Wiley; Westcott, C. C. (1978). pH measurements, p. 81. Michigan: Academic
Press.
force the equilibrium to shift to the left side of reaction [5]. In
this way, the concentration of the hydrogen ion increases by
less than the amount expected for the quantity of strong acid
added. On the other hand, if a portion of strong alkali is added
to the mixture, the hydrogen ion concentration decreases by
less than the amount expected for the quantity of alkali added,
since more protons are produced as reaction [5] is shifted
to the right.
Table 1 gives the characteristics of seven standard buffer
solutions that cover the usually encountered pH range
(between  2 and 12).
Measurement
pH Meters
pH is a measurable parameter and the electronic device that is
used for measuring the pH of a liquid (or in special cases of
semisolid compounds) is called a pH meter. The most impor-
tant component of a typical pH meter is its special measuring
probe (a glass electrode or, for special applications, an ion-
selective field-effect transistor (ISFET)), which is connected to
an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH read-
ing. All pH meters are calibrated against buffer solutions of
known hydrogen ion activity. The use of a set of buffer solu-
tions (operational pH standards) has been proposed by
IUPAC.
A crude estimate of pH in laboratories can also be per-
formed by pH indicators and sometimes in connection with
holographic pH sensors, which allow the measurement of pH
colorimetrically.
Glass Electrode
Construction and principle
.The most widely used pH meter is based on the glass electrode,
which belongs to the large family of ion-selective electrodes,
that is, electrodes that contain a material sensitive to changes
with respect to the concentration of ions in the test solution,
in such a way that the potential drop between the electrode
and the outer surface of the material depends on this
concentration. Glass electrodes are the main components
of potentiometric sensors and are used in the determination
pH of univalent cations. The glass electrode used in pH
value
measurements has a glass bulb membrane with a typical
1.68 three-component composition of 72% SiO2–22% Na2O–6%
3.56 CaO (or 80% SiO2–10% Li2O–10% CaO for highly alkaline
4.01 media).
6.87 The interaction of the protons in solution with the surface
of the glass membrane is based on the ion exchange property
7.41 of the latter since, when its main silica component comes in
contact with water, it is hydrated and dissociates to Si–O– and
9.18
this in turn can be partially protonated:
12.45
Si  O þ H3 Oþ ⇆ Si  O  H þ H2 O [6]
The name of the glass electrode may be misleading to the
nonspecialist operator in that two misconceptions may sus-
tain: that a pH meter contains a single electrode and that the
electrode material is made of glass. Both of these are obviously
not true: glass is an ion conductor and not an electronic one
(hence, it is not an electrode material) and a potential differ-
ence can only be measured between two points (hence, there
are two electrodes in a pH meter). In reality, the voltage
between the two sides of the glass membrane is measured
with the help of two electrodes immersed in the solutions on
either side of the membrane. In Figure 1, where (a) a simple
glass electrode coupled with a reference electrode and (b) a
combined system of them are shown.
The glass electrode is made of a plain glass or plastic tube
with the pH-sensitive specialty glass membrane (0.1 mm
thick) blown from its melt and sealed at the end of the tube.
The latter contains an internal standard acidity solution (typi-
cally 0.1 N HCl, sometimes with the addition of a AgCl satu-
rated solution too) and an internal reference electrode, REin
(typically a Ag/AgCl salt-covered wire electrode). The glass
membrane is in contact with the test/sample solution, and in
the plain configuration of Figure 1(a), the second external
reference electrode, REext (again a Ag/AgCl electrode), is also
immersed in the test solution. Alternatively, the external elec-
trode can be placed in an external tube, concentric to the glass
electrode tube and containing a KCl solution, which is in
contact with the test/sample solution via a porous ceramic
frit (Figure 1(b)); in that case, the system is termed as a
combination pH electrode. Hence, a pH meter consists of an
electrochemical cell that, in the case of a combinatorial system,
can be denoted as
Ag=AgCl ðREin Þj0:1 N HCljglass membranejsample
solution ðHþ s ÞjjKCl solutionjAg=AgCl ðREext Þ
with vertical lines signifying the interface between two different
phases and the double vertical line an electrolytic junction. The
measured potential, E, between the two cell terminals can then
be written as
E ¼ Ein  DEm  DElj  Eext [7]
where Ein and Eext are the potentials of the reference electrodes,
DEm the potential drop between the two sides of the glass
membrane, and DElj the liquid junction potential drop at the
electrolytic junction. Since Ein, Eext, and DElj are expected to be
constant, eqn [7] becomes

Ein Eext
E Ein
Ag/AgCl Ag/AgCl
internal RE external RE
KCl solution
0.1 N HCl
internal solution
([H+]in)
ΔEm ΔElj Porous diaphragm
pH-sensitive glass
Sample solution ([H+]s)
(a)
Figure 1 Schematic representation of a pH meter comprised of (a) a glass electrode coupled with a separate reference electrode and (b) a
combined system.
E ¼ Econst  DEm
The DEm potential drop is due to the development of dif-
ferent surface concentrations of chemisorbed Hþ at opposite
glass surfaces, as a result of the establishment of different
equilibriums for reaction [6], due to different bulk solution
concentrations in the internal and sample solutions.
This potential drop may be given by the Nernst equation for
the potential of a concentration cell:
RT ½Hþ in
DEm ¼ 2:303 log
F ½Hþ s
Taking into account that [Hþ]in is a constant and known
quantity and that for the sample solution it holds pHs ¼  log
[Hþ]s, eqn [9] becomes
0 RT
E ¼ Econst  2:303 pHs
F of the meter in a catheter is often needed. The first of these
indicating that the pH is a linear function of the measured
potential.
The specific form of the equation (y ¼ a þ bx) is behind the
need for a two-point calibration of glass pH meters, using two
buffer solutions of known pH values (typically around 4
and 7). It should be noted that, since the pH of standard
buffers is reported with two decimal places accuracy, pH read-
ings should also be rounded to two decimals.
As the resistance of such a cell (primarily due to the glass
membrane) is very high (in the 107–109 Ω range), the corre-
sponding pH meter cannot be equipped with a common
voltmeter, but instead, a high impedance device is needed.
The commercialization and widespread use of pH meters was
only possible when cheap, miniaturized electronics, based on
field-effect transistors, became available and were employed in
the demanding electronic part of the device.
The most serious practical limitation of the common glass
electrode is its inability to work at pH values above  11 as a
result of the ‘alkaline error,’ that is, the interference from alkali
metals such as Naþ and Kþ usually present in alkaline media
and competing with Hþ for silica sites due to their similar size.
pH: Principles and Measurement 335
E
Eext
Ag/AgCl
internal RE Ag/AgCl
external RE
KCl solution
0.1 N HCl
internal solution
Porous diaphragm
([H+]in) ΔElj
Sample solution ([H+]s)
ΔEm
pH-sensitive glass
(b)
[8] Specialty glasses, rich in Li, partially alleviate this problem.
Other problems encountered include attack by high F levels,
noble metal deposition, protein deposition, and debris fouling
of the ceramic frit. Cleaning the surface of a fouled glass
electrode can be done by brief immersion in HF, but
nowadays, replaceable affordable glass membrane tips have
appeared in the market too.
ISFET pH Sensors
[9]
Construction and principle
There are certain applications for pH measurements where the
use of glass cannot be tolerated and miniaturization is also
essential. Among these, food testing and biomedical testing are
the most usual cases where breaking of the thin glass mem-
[10] brane of a glass electrode would be catastrophic and inclusion
requirements is fully met by nonglass pH electrodes, whereas
the second one can be partially met if, together with a minia-
ture pH-sensing device, a miniaturized reference electrode is
also used. The most typical nonglass electrodes (apart from the
Sb-based ones) are those based on ISFETs, which originated
from the metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs) that are widely used in modern electronics.
A MOSFET consists of a semiconductor (e.g., a p-type Si)
covered by a thin insulating layer of an oxide (e.g., SiO2) and
four metal terminals: the substrate (located at the free face of
the semiconductor), the source and drain (located between the
other face of the semiconductor and the oxide), and the gate
(located on top of the oxide layer (Figure 2(a))). The applica-
tion of an appropriate gate voltage VG changes the charge/
conductivity of the semiconductor channel between the drain
and the source. For example, for an enhancement-mode MOS-
FET (where the semiconductor is not heavily doped) and for a
p-type semiconductor, a positive VG bias above a certain
threshold value VT results in the mobile hole hþ intrinsic
carriers being pushed away from the oxide/semiconductor
interface into the bulk of the latter; this leaves behind a thin
336 pH: Principles and Measurement
– +
VG
– +
Gate
Metal oxide insulator
VD
n-channel
Source Drain
lD
p-type semiconductor
Substrate
(a)
Figure 2 Schematic representation of (a) a MOSFET device and (b) of a SiO2-based ISFET used for pH measurements.
electron-rich (n-type) channel between the gate and drain
terminals. If a positive bias, VD, between the drain and the
source is applied, then the electrons flow through the
n-channel giving rise to a drain current, ID. For a constant
value of VD, this drain current depends on the gate bias VG
(more accurately on expressions containing its difference from
the threshold potential, VG  VT).
In an ISFET used as a pH meter, the gate electrode terminal
is replaced by a reference electrode, and the sample solution is
between this electrode and the insulating oxide, which is pH-
sensitive (e.g., SiO2, Si3N4Ox, Al2O3, or Ta2O5), as depicted in
Figure 2(b). (For other ion-sensitive ISFETs, there is an addi-
tional ion-selective membrane on top of the oxide layer.)
In an ISFET pH meter, changes in the pH of the sample
solution alter the surface potential of the oxide layer (via ion
exchange reactions similar to [6]), which in turn modifies VT
and, as a result, the drain current ID. There are two modes of
operation: a constant VG voltage operation whereby ID is mon-
itored via a current follower circuit and a constant ID current
mode, whereby the changes in VG needed to maintain a con-
stant ID via a feedback circuit are recorded. In either case, the
measuring circuit need not be characterized by a very high
impedance, as is the case of the potentiometric glass electrode.
A practical implication of this is that the meters of a glass and
an ISFET electrode are not interchangeable in a straightforward
manner.
The voltage output of a pH ISFET (either after conversion to
VT values or as directly related to changes of VG, depending on
mode of operation) should theoretically follow a Nernstian
dependence on sample proton concentration. However, most
of the metal oxide materials used do not exhibit the Nernstian/
maximum sensitivity of 59 mV dec1 (e.g., SiO2 has a
30 mV dec1 value, Si3N4Ox has  55 mV dec1, and only
Ta2O5 approaches the theoretical value).
The reduced sensitivity is perhaps the only drawback of
ISFET pH meters (the other is their higher cost) with respect
to the glass electrode. However, their nonfragile property
(especially if a miniaturized reference electrode is also embed-
ded in an all-plastic body), their fast response time, and their
ability to operate at extreme pH values make them the only
viable solution for many applications.
– +
VG
– +
Sample solution Reference electrode
SiO2 metal oxide insulator
VD
n-channel
Source Drain
lD
Si (p-type semiconductor)
(b)
pH Indicators
pH indicators are halochromic compounds, weak acids or
bases, that occur as natural dyes and indicate the concentration
of Hþ (H3Oþ) ions in a solution through color changes. They
exist in the form of dissolved dyes, which are added directly to
the solution or dye-infused paper strips, which are dipped into
the solutions and then removed for comparison against a colo-
r–pH key. The general idea of pH indicator functionality is that
the nondissociated form of the indicator has a different color
than the ionic form of the indicator. It must be stressed that the
color of the indicator changes over a range of hydrogen ion
concentrations, which is called the color change interval. The
corresponding pH interval (for an acid indicator) is between
pKa þ 1 and pKa  1, where Ka is the indicator’s acid dissocia-
tion constant. Equation [11] describes the dissociation of an
acidic pH indicator HAind:
HA ind þ H2 O ⇆ H3 Oþ þ A ind  [11]
In eqn [11], HAind represents the acid form and A ind the
conjugate base of the indicator. It must be stressed that
the ratio of these determines the color of the solution and
connects the color to the pH value. The weak protolyte pH
indicators have a pH that can be calculated from the
Henderson–Hasselbalch equation:
A
pH ¼ pKa þ log ind
[12]
HA ind
From eqn [12], it can be deduced that in the case where
pH ¼ pKa, both acid and conjugate forms are present in a 1:1
ratio. When pH is above the pKa value, the concentration of the
conjugate base is greater than the concentration of the acid,
and the color associated with the conjugate base dominates. In
the opposite case, where pH is below the pKa value, the con-
verse is true. More precise measurements are possible if the
color is measured by spectrophotometry. pH indicators work
efficiently at their designated pH range, and they are usually
destroyed at the extreme ends of the pH scale due to undesired
side reactions. In Table 2, some common indicators are
summarized.
 pH: Principles and Measurement 337

Table 2 Common pH indicators Living Systems

Indicator pH range Acid Base pH is extremely important for living systems through its role in
biochemical reactions. The pH of various parts and fluids of an
Thymol blue 1.2–2.8 Red Yellow organism is regulated by the acid–base homeostasis. For exam-
Pentamethoxy red 1.2–2.3 Red-violet Colorless ple, human blood should have a pH value in the 7.36–7.42
Methyl yellow 2.9–4.0 Red Yellow
range, mainly controlled by the bicarbonate/carbonic acid
Methyl orange 3.1–4.4 Red Orange
buffer. A pH change as low as 0.2 pH units can result in
Bromophenol blue 3.0–4.6 Yellow Blue-violet
Tetrabromophenol blue 3.0–4.6 Yellow Blue death (via acute acidosis or alkalosis).
Alizarin sodium sulfonate 3.7–5.2 Yellow Violet Certain definite pH values are needed for the activation of
Bromocresol green 4.0–5.6 Yellow Blue many enzymes in the body and the trigger of associated reac-
Methyl red 4.4–6.2 Red Yellow tions. The parts and fluids of the human body have pH values
Bromocresol purple 5.2–6.8 Yellow Purple that span the entire pH range, starting from gastric acid
Chlorophenol red 5.4–6.8 Yellow Red (pH ¼ 1.0), to human skin (pH ¼ 5.5), urine (pH ¼ 6.0), and
Bromophenol blue 6.2–7.6 Yellow Blue blood (pH ¼ 7.4), to pancreatic fluid (pH ¼ 8.1).
p-Nitrophenol 5.0–7.0 Colorless Yellow
Azolitmin 5.0–8.0 Red Blue
Neutral red 6.8–8.0 Red Yellow
Cresol red 7.2–8.8 Yellow Red
a-Naphtholphthalein 7.3–8.7 Rose Green
Food and pH
Thymol blue 8.0–9.6 Yellow Blue pH is also very important for foodstuff in many perspectives. It
Phenolphthalein 8.0–10.0 Colorless Red is a factor of major importance in water absorption,
Thymolphthalein 9.4–10.6 Colorless Blue
emulsification, and gelation of different protein sources. It
Nile blue 10.1–11.1 Blue Red
affects significantly the physical and chemical properties of
Alizarin yellow 10.0–12.0 Yellow Lilac
food ingredients such as proteins, sugars, and amino acids, to
Source: Bates, R. G. (1964). Determination of pH: theory and practice (1st ed.), mention a few.
pp. 138–139. London: John Wiley & Sons. The vast majority of foodstuffs, apart from egg whites and
soda crackers, have a pH value <7. Alkaline foods (pH > 7) are
limited, though the pH of some staple foods lies in the range of
4.5–7.0. Generally, foods that are products of plant origin have
a pH that is lower than those of animal origin. On the basis of
their pH, foods can be classified as high-acid (pH ¼3.7), acidic
Applications (pH ¼3.7–4.6), medium-acid (pH ¼4.6–5.3), or low-acid
(pH ¼ over 5.3). The pH of some food is listed in Table 3.
The measurement of pH is important for many applications in pH gives also information about food stability and preser-
medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, environ- vation. It can be used to retard microbial spoilage that could
mental science, oceanography, civil engineering, chemical happen in the presence of some pathogens such as bacteria,
engineering, water treatment and water purification, food molds, and yeasts. Microorganisms usually show their best
science, and nutrition. growth rate in the pH range of 6.5–7.5. Furthermore, the
growing capability of molds and yeasts lies in a much broader
pH range than that of microorganisms such as bacteria. In
consideration of the fact that almost all of the pathogenic
pH in Nature
agents and most of deterioration bacteria cannot grow at
The role of pH in nature is closely related to that of water, and pH < 4.5, foods are divided into two categories, which are
as such, it is extremely important for living organisms and the low-acid or acidic. The low-acid foods with pH > 4.5 are less
environment. The pH of natural water and soils controls the stable. Their stabilization by heat treatment demands a heat
form of life sustained in these environments. The pH of sterilization to remove all pathogens and corruption, including
the various parts of plants and living organisms defines their bacterial spores. Food acids, at pH < 4.5, are relatively stable.
function, whereas that of foodstuffs their taste and function Their stabilization by heat treatment needs less severe proce-
once in the food chain. dures, such as pasteurization, in order to eliminate mold, yeast,
Examples of the environmental importance of pH are acid and some acidophilic bacteria.
rain (a result of industrial pollution, with detrimental effects The reduction of pH of food products is usually necessary
on life and buildings) and ocean acidification as a result of and can be carried out using two methods. One of them is
increased carbon dioxide emissions (detrimental to living acidification, which is a direct method, and its aim is to lower
organisms in aquatic environments). Typical examples of bio- the pH by adding organic acids, such as acetic acid or vinegar
logical processes involving pH changes include the production and citric acid or lemon. The second method, which is an
of carboxylic acids, such as lactic acid by muscle activity, the indirect method, utilizes microorganisms for fermentation.
protonation of phosphate derivatives such as ATP, and the Fermentation is a food preservation procedure that uses
function of the oxygen-transport enzyme hemoglobin. Finally, selected nonpathogenic microorganisms producing acid or
an example of pH-related properties of foodstuff is the acidity alcohol to alter food organoleptic and/or antibacterial
of some juice fruits due to the presence of citric acid. characteristics.
338 pH: Principles and Measurement

Table 3 pH values of some foodstuffs Further Reading

Foodstuff pH Bates RG (1973) Determination of pH: theory and practice, 2nd ed. London: John Wiley
& Sons.
Apple, eating 3.30–4.00 Bergveld Em IrP (2003) ISFET, theory and practice. In: Proceedings of IEEE sensor
Bananas 4.50–5.20 conference, pp. 1–26. Toronto: IEEE.
Beans, vegetarian, tomato sauce, canned 5.32 Boron WF and Boulpaep EL (2005) Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular
Bread, white 5.00–6.20 approach. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders.
Bread, Boston, brown 6.53 Buck RP, Rondinini S, Covington AK, et al. (2002) Measurement of pH. Definition,
standards, and procedures (IUPAC Recommendations 2002). Pure and Applied
Bread, whole wheat 5.47–5.85
Chemistry 74(11): 2169–2200.
Cabbage 5.20–6.80 Covington AK, Bates RG, and Durst RA (1985) Definition of pH scales, standard
Carrots 5.88–6.40 reference values, measurement of pH and related terminology. Pure and Applied
Cauliflower 5.60 Chemistry 57(3): 531–542.
Cheese, Camembert 7.44 Janata J and Janata J (2009) Principles of chemical sensors. In: Modern analytical
Cheese, Cheddar 5.90 chemistry, 2nd ed. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, NY: Springer Science &
Cheese, Cottage 4.75–5.02 Business Media.
Cheese, Parmesan 5.20–5.30 Mendham J, Denney RC, Barnes JD, and Thomas MJK (2000a) Determination of pH.
Cherries, California 4.01–4.54 In: Vogel’s quantitative chemical analysis, 6th ed. New York: Prentice Hall.
Mendham J, Denney RC, Barnes JD, and Thomas MJK (2000b) The glass electrode.
Chicken 5.8–6.4
In: Vogel’s quantitative chemical analysis, 6th ed. New York: Prentice Hall.
Cornflakes 4.90–5.38 Myers RJ (2010) One-hundred years of pH. Journal of Chemical Education 87: 30–32.
Eggs, new-laid, whole 6.58 Prichard E and Lawn R (2003) Practical laboratory skills training guides. In: Prichard E
White 7.96 (ed.) Valid analytical measurement series, vol. 175. London: Royal Society of
Yolk 6.10 Chemistry.
Fish 6.5–6.8 Westcott CC (1978) pH measurements. Michigan: Academic Press.
Garlic 5.80
Grapes 2.80–3.80
Grapefruit 3.00–3.75
Honey 3.70–4.70
Relevant Websites
Ketchup 3.89–3.92
Lemon juice 2.00–2.60 http://www.fda.gov/Food/default.htm – U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Milk, cow 6.40–6.80 http://gr.mt.com/eur/en/home/supportive_content/specific_overviews/Measurement.
Milk, goat’s 6.48 html – Mettler-Toledo International Inc.
Milk, peptonized 7.10 http://www.nico2000.net/Book/Beginners_Guide.pdf – Nico2000 Ltd.
Mushrooms 6.00–6.70 http://pac.iupac.org/publications/pac/74/11/2169/ – International Union of Pure and
Mustard 3.55–6.00 Applied Chemistry.
http://www.radiometer-analytical.com/pdf/ph_theory.pdf – Radiometer Analytical Inc.
Olives, black 6.00–7.00
Onions 5.30–5.80
Oranges, Florida 3.69–4.34
Peaches 3.30–4.05
Peanut butter 6.28
Pears 3.50–4.60
Peas, chick 6.48–6.80
Peppers 4.65–5.93
Pineapple 3.20–4.00
Potatoes 5.40–5.90
Rice (cooked) 6.00–6.80
Salmon, fresh, boiled 5.85–6.50
Sardines 5.70–6.60
Soy Sauce 4.40–5.40
Soybean milk 7.00
Spaghetti, cooked 5.97–6.40
Spinach 5.50–6.80
Strawberries 3.00–3.90
Tea 7.20
Tomatoes 4.30–4.90

Source: US Food and Drug Administration; http://www.fda.gov/Food/default.htm.

See also: Acids: Natural Acids and Acidulants; Acids: Properties and
Determination; Biosensors; Fatty Acids: Determination and
Requirements; Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids; Nucleic Acids.