1

Chapter One

Air Standard Cycles

Introduction
Heat engine is defined as a system that operates in a cycle and producing
useful work from the addition of heat energy. A foundation must be built to
compare the performance and to develop the actual internal combustion engines
by introducing the concept of Air standard cycles.

Air standard cycles

To construct the standard cycle the following assumptions are to be considered:
1. Working fluid is air obeying the characteristic gas equation.
2. Air properties are constant and have the values at the standard atmosphere;
M = 29 kg/kmol, R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
3. No chemical changes are involved throughout the cycle.
4. Source and sink of heat energy are both independent and external to the air.
5. All processes are to be reversible.

Otto standard cycle

 2

The engine volumetric compression ratio is obtained from engine dimensions

according to the relation;

v1 VC  VS
rV  
v2 VC

According to basic definition of thermal efficiency;

w net
 th 
q add
q add  q rej q rej C v T 4  T1 
  1  1
q add q add C v T 3 T2 

therefore, the efficiency will be;

T4  T1
 th  1 
T3  T2

then, the thermal efficiency of Otto standard cycle is;

 1 
 Otto   1   
 1 
r
 V 

Diesel standard cycle

the cycle thermal efficiency is given by;

q rej Cv T4  T1 
 th  1  1
q add C p T3  T2 

then, Diesel standard cycle efficiency will be;

T  T 
  Diesel   1  4 1

 T  T 
3 2
 3

re-arrange and simplify yields;


  1   rC  1  


 Diesel   1     1    
  rV    rC  1 
 

Dual ( Mixed ) standard cycle

cycle thermal efficiency can be found by;

qrej
 th  1 
qadd
Cv T5  T1  Cv T5  T1 
 1  1
Cv T3  T2   C p T4  T3  Cv T3  T2    T4  T3 

therefore, standard efficiency will be;

 dual   1 
T5  T1 
T3  T2    T4  T3 
or;


 1   rP rC  1 
 dual   1    1  
   
 rV   rP  1   rP rC  1 
 

Mean effective pressure

It is defined as follows:

The constant net pressure acting on the piston throughout the working stroke of the
engine producing the same work output as that of the cycle.

W
pm  kN/m2
VS
 4

Comparison of Otto, Diesel and dual cycles

The following possibilities are the most frequently considered;

same compression ratio and heat added

qrej
 th  1 
q sup
hence;

 Otto    dual    Diesel 

same maximum pressure and heat added

therefore;

 Diesel    dual    Otto 

 5

same maximum pressure and temperature

 Otto    dual    Diesel 

same compression ratio and heat rejected

 Otto    dual    Diesel 

Joule - Brayton cycle

This cycle represents the simplest possible gas turbine cycle in which
compression and expansion take place in rotating machinery.
 6

It should be noticed that all four processes are separately executed in steady
flow devices (open systems). The S.F.E.E. is applied on a unit mass basis as.
Since the cycle thermal efficiency is given by;

qrej C p T4  T1 
 th  1   1
qadd C p T3  T2 

hence the Brayton cycle efficiency will be;

T4  T1
  1
T3  T2
or;

 1 
 Brayton   1   
 1  
 r p 

There are one more criteria to judge the gas turbine engine performance
dealing with cycle irreversibility, which is the Work ratio that is defined as:

The ratio of the net work produced to the gross output work of the cycle.

and it is given by:

Net Work
WR 
Gross Work

wT  wC w C p T2  T1 
WR   1 C  1
wT wT C p T3  T4 

thus, the work ratio in Brayton cycle is given by;

T 
WR  1   1  rp 1 
 T3 

Stirling cycle

If it possible to add or reject heat keeping the temperature of the working

fluid constant, i.e., isothermally, then this cycle would have an efficiency
equivalent to Carnot efficiency. The cycle achieves this principle is the one known
as "Stirling cycle".
 7

Since the cycle thermal efficiency is given by;

qrej R T1 ln  p2 p1 
 th  1   1
qadd R T3 ln  p3 p4 

and hence;

 Stirling   1 
TL
TH

It is clear from last expression that Stirling cycle achieves the same efficiency as
that for Carnot cycle working between the same temperature limits.
 8

Chapter Two

Reciprocating Air Compressors

Introduction
The function of the compressor is to admit fluid from a low pressure region,
compress it, and deliver it to a high pressure region. The most efficient machine
is the one that accomplish this task with a minimum amount of input power.

Cycle analysis
The following assumptions are to be considered in purpose to construct the
theoretical cycle representing the reciprocating compressor:

1. Clearance volume is neglected.

2. Working fluid is air behave as a perfect gas.
3. Cycle takes one crank shaft revolution.
4. Compression process is said to be reversible polytropic.
5. Fluid states at inlet and outlet remain constant with time.

The net work input to the cycle is given by the area of the p – V diagram.
Hence, the indicated work done per cycle equals the area abcd.

Arae abcd  Area fabe  Area ebco  Area fado

therefore;

W
n
 p2Vb  p1Va 
n 1
 9

If the rate of mass flow per unit time mºi is given, then the indicated power can
be determined as;

m i R T2  T 
n
Indicated power 
n 1

The delivery temperature is given by;

n 1 n
p 
T2  T1  2 
 p1 

but, from the characteristic gas equation;

p1Vi  m
 i R T1
hence;

 n 1

n  p 
p V    1

n
Indicated power   2
n  1 1 i  p1  
 

where Vºi is the volume induced per unit time.

Condition for the minimum work

The work done on the air is given by the area of the indicator diagram. Thus,
the only process influence this area is the compression curve a-b. Therefore, the
work input is a minimum when n equals unity, i.e. when compression is
isothermal.

p2
Indicated isothermal power  m
 i R T ln
p1
 10

Isothermal efficiency
The ratio of minimum isothermal work to the indicated work consumed during
compression

Wisoth
 isoth 
W

Effect of clearance volume

The clearance is necessary for the reciprocating compressor to give
mechanical freedom to the moving parts and allow the necessary space for valves
operation.

The clearance volume is eventually affecting the volume of air that introduced
at the intake pressure p1 and T1 in a way it reduces from Vs to Va – Vd .

Indicated power  Arae abcd  Area abef  Arae dcef

 n 1

 p2 
p 1 V a  V d     1
n
n
W  
n 1  p 
  1  

Volumetric efficiency

The volumetric efficiency is defined as;

The volume of air delivered measured at the free air pressure and temperature, divide by
the cylinder swept volume

Vf
V 
VS
 11

The volume of the air induced under standard condition is "Free Air
delivery". defined by;

The volume of the air delivered measured at the standard atmospheric condition in which
the compressor is situated

 1

V  p 
   1
n
V  1  C 2
VS  p1  
 

the value VC/VS is called "Clearance Ratio". The corrected free air delivery per
cycle will be;

T f pi
V f    Vi
Ti p f

as f represents the free air condition, and i represents the actual induction air
condition.

Multi – stage compression

As the pressure ratio is increased, the delivery temperature increases while

the volumetric efficiency decreases. Thus, the volumetric efficiency can be
improved by carrying out the compression in more than one stage.
 12

The multi-stage compression possess some mechanical advantages to the

reciprocating machine that to be listed hereunder;
1. Higher pressures are to be confined into smaller cylinders.
2. Less fluctuation in rotational speed of the machine.
3. Requires smaller flywheel due to smother energy distribution between cycles.

ideal intermediate pressure

The actual amount of saving in work in multi-stage compression depends

essentially on the choice of the intermediate pressure. If a two-stage compression
is considered, the total work input to the machine will be;

 n 1
  n 1

n  p   n  p 
  1
n n
W m R T  im
 1  m R T  2
n  1 i 1  p1   n  1 i im  pim  
   

now, assume a complete intercooling such that the inlet temperature at the start
of each stage is equal to the initial temperature T1. If the values of p1, T1 and p2
are fixed, then the optimum value of the pressure pim which makes the work a
minimum can be obtained by equating the derivative dW/dpim to zero, which
yields;

pim p
 2
p1 pim

hence;
 n 1

n  p 
  1
n
Wmin  2 m R T  im
n  1 i 1  p1  
 

it can be extended to be valid for any number of stages Z taking the following
general formula;

 n 1

  p D 
 1
Zn
n
W min Z m i R T 1 
n 1  p 
  S 


From above discussion it is to conclude that the condition for minimum work
input to a multi-stage compressor is that the pressure ratio and inlet induction
temperature for all stages must be the same.
 13

Energy balance for a two-stage compressor

The steady flow energy equation can be applied to the two-stage compressor
system as that shown below, neglecting the change in kinetic and potential
energies.

Low-pressure stage

 C p T1  Tim 
QL  WL  m

Intercooler

 C p Tim  T1 
Qim  m

High-pressure stage

 C p T1  T2 
QH  WH  m

Steady flow analysis

The compressor can be treated as an open system since there is a mass

crossing its boundaries during the compression.
 14

therefore, per kg of air;

work input 
n
 p v  p1 v1 
n 1 2 2
but from the characteristic gas equation;
p v  RT
hence;

R T2  T1 
n
work input 
n 1
 15

Chapter Three

Properties of
Two-Phase Substance

Introduction

Most working fluids are considered as pure substance whose properties are
controlled by a certain relationship. The mixture of two phases of same substance
is still a pure substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is
maintained fixed. All pure substances may appear in one of the following
principal phases;

 Solid phase.
 Liquid phase.
 Vapour or gaseous phase.

Atoms arrangement in a-Solid, b-Liquid and c-Vapour phase

Phase change processes

 16

Behaviour of pure substances

There are many practical situations where two phases coexist in equilibrium.
Attention is focused here on the vapour and liquid phases and their mixture. The
dashed line represents the behavior of normal substance other than water.

Saturation temperature and saturation pressure

It was clear from above discussion that the temperature at which water starts
boiling depends on the pressure; therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the
boiling temperature.
 17

Saturation temperature

It is the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase at a given pressure. This
temperature is denoted by, TS .

Saturation pressure

It is the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase at a given temperature. This
pressure is denoted by, pS .

Property diagrams for phase change

Subcooled (compressed) liquid

A liquid that it is not about to vaporize and its temperature is below the saturation
temperature at a given pressure.

Saturated liquid

A liquid that it is about to vaporize and its temperature is equal to the saturation
temperature at a given pressure.

Saturated (Dry) vapour

A vapour that it is about to condense and its temperature is equal to the saturation
temperature at a given pressure.

Wet vapour

A mixture of both saturated liquid and saturated vapour coexists in equilibrium and has a
temperature equivalent to the saturation temperature at a given pressure.

Superheated vapour

A vapour that it is not about to condense and its temperature is higher than the
saturation temperature at a given pressure.

Degree of superheat

It is the difference between the actual vapour temperature and the saturation
temperature at a given pressure.

Latent heat of vaporization

It is the amount of energy needed to convert a unit mass of liquid into dry vapour
completely; and its value depends on the saturation temperature and pressure.
 18

Property tables
Properties of saturated liquid

The properties of saturated liquid are usually arranged either with respect to
the saturation temperature tS or with respect to saturation pressure pS. These
properties are denoted by subscript " f .

Properties of saturated vapour

The properties of saturated vapour are arranged in the same table that used
for saturate liquid. These properties are denoted by subscript " g .
 19

Properties of wet vapour

During the vaporization process where the pressure and temperature are not
independent, the substance exists as part liquid and part vapour.

mg
x
mg  m f

hence, the average properties of the saturated mixture is given by;

v  v f  x v fg
u  u f  x u fg
h  h f  x h fg
s  s f  x s fg

Properties of superheated vapour

In superheat region where only the vapour phase is dominated, temperature

and pressure are no longer dependent properties and they can conveniently be
used as the two independent properties in the table.

Property diagrams

The variations of properties during phase change processes are best studied
and understood with the help of property diagrams. However, diagrams do not
entirely take the place of tables as values taken out of these diagrams are less
accurate than those red out of the property tables.
 20

Chapter Four

Processes for
Two-Phase Substance

Introduction

The fact that vapour is compressible and has the ability to exchange heat and
work with the surrounding helps to apply the non-flow energy equation. The
general form of this equation is:
Q  W  U 2  U1

Steam is taken as an example of a vapour undergoing a particular reversible

process.

Particular processes in closed system

It is important to understand the way in which a substance changes phase

and properties throughout any thermodynamic process. Actual processes in
practice are to be approximated to one of the following standard processes in
course of analyze and evaluate system energy exchange

Constant volume process

In this process the steam is contained in a rigid vessel, hence the system
boundaries are immovable.

and, therefore;

w0

thus, the energy equation will be;

q  u 2  u1
 21

Constant pressure process

In this process the steam is contained in a moving boundary device. The

boundary must move against some constant external resistance as heat being
exchanged. Therefore, the work done by system on the surrounding is given by:

w  p v2  v1 

hence the heat exchanged is constant pressure process is given by;

q  h2  h1

Constant temperature process (Isothermal)

When a fluid in a cylinder behind a piston expands from high pressure to a

low pressure, there is a tendency for temperature to fall. In the isothermal
process heat must be added continuously in order to keep the temperature at its
initial value.

the heat supplied can be determined by;

q  T s2  s1 

and;

w  T s2  s1   u 2  u1 
 22

Adiabatic process
The process is said to be adiabatic if no heat transfer encountered
throughout. Such processes take place when perfect thermal insulation is used
over system boundaries or when process is carried out rapidly. These processes
might be reversible or irreversible.

as q = T s = 0, but T ≠ 0, hence s = 0, then for adiabatic process:

s 2  s1

q0

w  u1  u 2

Polytropic process

Sometimes the change in state is accompanied with changing all the

properties of the working substance simultaneously. Such cases are usually
approximate to a reversible law that relating these properties in a form of;

p vn  C

The index n is a constant often referred to as "Polytropic index". The work done
in this kind of processes can be obtained by;
 23

p1 v1  p 2 v2
w
n 1

 p v  p2 v2 
q  u 2  u1    1 1 
 n 1 

Nonsteady flow processes

There are many cases in practice when the rate of mass entering the system
is not the same as the rate that leaving the system. These kinds of flow are
referred to as "Nonsteady flow processes".

For the energy stored, let m  be the initial mass within the system and u  is
the initial internal energy; also the final mass within the system at end of process
be m  and u  is the final internal energy. Therefore;

 c12   c22 
Q   m1  h1   gZ1   W   m2  h2   gZ 2   m u   m u 
  
 2   2 

This last equation is the so called "Nonsteady Flow Energy Equation". From
mass continuity applied to a nonsteady flow system;

m  m
1 2  m  m

Steady flow processes

Devices that encountered a mass flow crossing their boundaries, i.e. open
systems; have the same rate of mass travelling from part to part in order not to
disturb system performance. These systems are regarded as "Steady flow
systems".

1 m
m 2 m


then the new form with respect to unit mass of fluid flow is given by;

 c2   c2 
q   h1  1  gZ1   w   h2  2  gZ 2 
 2   2 
 24

This equation is referred to as the "Steady Flow Energy Equation". The mass
flow rate can be given at any section with the equation;

V Ac
m  
v v

Some application of the steady flow energy equation is summarised hereunder;

Boiler and Condenser

Nozzle and Diffuser

Turbine and Compressor

Mixing chambers

Throttling

Throttling valves are any kind of flow restricting devices that cause a
significant pressure drop for the fluid.

h1  h2
 25

Measurement of dryness fraction

The essential need for the dryness fraction to define exactly the state of steam
within the wet region requires a device to be used for the measurement of this
property which is known as the "Calorimeter".

Separating calorimeter

This calorimeter is really a mechanical rather than thermodynamic device. Its

principle of action relies on the fact that the density of suspended saturated water
in the wet steam is higher than that of dry steam accompany the sample.

Throttling calorimeter

If steam which is initially wet is throttled through sufficiently large pressure

drop, it will become superheated. Then pressure and temperature readings are
sufficient to define the state of the steam.

Combined calorimeter

A throttling calorimeter when connected in series with a separating

calorimeter makes the sample to partially dry out by separating before it goes into
the throttling calorimeter which in this case will handle a more dry steam.
 26

Chapter Five

Psychrometrics

Introduction

Mixtures of gases are actually very easy to deal with since no two-phase
analysis is encountered. Several gas-vapour mixtures are involved in engineering,
but, our concern will be the air-water vapour mixture that represents the most
common mixture dealt with in air-conditioning and psychrometry.

Gas and vapour mixtures

When a liquid is introduced into an evacuated vessel of greater volume than

the liquid, some of it will evaporate and the vapour pressure increases. This
pressure is the saturation vapour pressure at the given temperature as the vessel
is filled with saturated liquid and saturated vapour.

Even if there is a gas prior to the introduction of liquid, it will have a negligible
effect on the final equilibrium between the liquid and its vapour. The vapour will
exert the saturation pressure at that temperature and it is the partial pressure of
the vapour in the mixture.

Characteristics of atmospheric air

Air is essentially a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and small amounts of some
other common gases. However, the atmospheric air normally contains some water
vapour that referred to as "Moisture". In air conditioning it is essential to define
the followings.

Dry air
The air consists of a mixture of gases with no water vapour in it.
Humid air
The air consists of a mixture of gases including some water vapour.
Saturated air
The humid air that can hold no further moisture within.

Humidity ratio
The mass of water vapour present in unit mass of dry air.
 27

It is given by;

 pV 
  0.622   
 p  pV 

where p is usually the barometric pressure. Dry air contains no moisture and
thus its humidity ratio is zero.

Relative humidity
The ratio of actual partial pressure of water vapour in humid mixture to the saturation
pressure of water vapour at the same temperature.

Thus it is given by;

pV

pS

Heat content

which is commonly referred to as enthalpy. Constant specific heat of 1.005

kJ/kgoC is usually adopted for air such that;

ha  1.005 t

where t is temperature in oC. The enthalpy of water vapour is usually taken

equal to the saturated vapour at the same temperature;
hV  hg t 

thus the total enthalpy of the humid air is given by;

h  ha   hg

where hv ≈ hg.

It should be noted that the temperature mentioned previously is the normal

atmospheric air temperature which is known as the "Dry bulb temperature".

Dew point temperature

Dew is normally formed when moisture is condensed on the cold surfaces.

From this, the "Dew point temperature, tdp" is to be defined as;

The temperature at which moisture condensation begins when the humid air is cooled at
constant pressure.
 28

In other words, it is the saturation temperature of water corresponding to the

vapour pressure;

t dp  t S  pV 

Wet bulb temperature

a more practical approach is by using a thermometer whose bulb is covered

with a cotton wick dipped into water. This leads to a definition of the followings;

Wet bulb temperature

The temperature measured by wetted wick thermometer.

Wet bulb depression

The difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures.

Psychrometric chart
The state of humid air at a specified pressure is completely defined by two
independent intensive properties. The rest of properties can be easily calculated
from the previous relations. However, there is a clear motivation to do these
calculations once and to present the results in form of easily readable charts.
Such charts are called the "Psychrometric chart", and they are frequently used
in air-conditioning applications.
29